[1] See A. Pissis, "Sur la constitution geologique de la chaine des
Andes entre le 16 deg. et le 55 deg. degre de latitude sud," _Ann. des
mines_, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mem.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.;
R.A. Philippi, _Die tertiaeren und quartaeren Versteinerungen Chiles_
(Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous
fossils), and _Los Fosiles secondarios de Chile_ (Santiago, 1899);
Karl Burckhardt, "Profils geologiques transversaux de la Cordillere
argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," _Anales Mus. La
Plata_, 1900, and "Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Jura- und
Kreide-formation der Cordillere," _Palaeontographica_, vol. 1.
(1903-1904) pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on
South American geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in
_Neues Jahrb, fuer Min._ Beil.-band viii. et seq.
[2] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_, p. 134.
[3] Also classified as _Nothofagus_ (Mirb.).
[4] A. Gallenga, _South America_ (London, 1880), p. 181.
[5] The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold,
and 108,844,693 pesos currency.
CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew out of political
dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M. Balmaceda, and his
congress (see CHILE: _History_), and began in January 1891. On the 6th,
at Valparaiso, the political leaders of the Congressional party went on
board the ironclad "Blanco Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that
vessel hoisted a broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet.
Preparations had long been made for the naval _pronunciamento_, and in
the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause of the
"dictator" Balmaceda. But amongst these were two new and fast torpedo
gunboats, "Almirante Condell" and "Almirante Lynch," and in European
dockyards (incomplete) lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the
"Arturo Prat," and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the
Balmacedists the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January). The rank and
file of the army remained faithful to the executive, and thus in the
early part of the war the "Gobernistas," speaking broadly, possessed an
army without a fleet, the congress a fleet without an army. Balmaceda
hoped to create a navy; the congress took steps to recruit an army by
taking its sympathizers on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on
the 16th of January, by the "Blanco" at the Valparaiso batteries, and
landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of government
troops at various places during January and February. The dictator's
principal forces were stationed in and about Iquique, Coquirabo,
Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepcion. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo
were necessarily isolated from the rest and from each other, and
military operations began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter,
with a naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good their
footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in two or three
actions, they brought off many recruits and a quantity of munitions of
war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua, and on the 15th of February the
Balmacedist commander, Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the
expectation of receiving reinforcements from Tacna, was completely
defeated on the old battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along
the railway, called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at
Haura on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the
Congressional fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at
once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were moved by
sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel Estanislao Del
Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo Almonte, fought on the
7th of March, was desperately contested, but Del Canto was superior in
numbers, and Robles was himself killed and his army dispersed. After
this the other Balmacedist troops in the north gave up the struggle.
Some were driven into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a
laborious retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it
twice crossed the main chain of the Andes.
The Congressional _Junta de Gobierno_ now established in Iquique
prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole country
was in the hands of the "rebels" from the Peruvian border to the
outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La Serena. The _Junta_ now
began the formation of a properly organized army for the next campaign,
which, it was believed universally on both sides, would be directed
against Coquimbo. But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from
Europe would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the
_torpederas_ "Condell" and "Lynch" had already weakened the
Congressional squadron severely by sinking the "Blanco Encalada" in
Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could no longer
aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces, but was compelled
to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow. Where this blow was to fall
was not decided up to the last moment, but the instrument which was to
deliver it was prepared with all the care possible under the
circumstances. Del Canto was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian
officer, Emil Koerner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three
brigades of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Koerner
superintended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to
the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took every
precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure success. Del
Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a thoroughly capable leader
who had distinguished himself at Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as
well as in the present war. The men were enthusiastic, and the officers
unusually numerous. The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the
train and auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the
infantry were armed with the (Maennlicher) magazine rifle, which now made
its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other
breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's infantry.
Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared his forces as
best he was able, and his _torpederas_ constantly harried the
Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto and Koerner had done
their work as well as time permitted, and early in August the troops
prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo, but for Valparaiso itself.
The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros, N. of
Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries, was
occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was surprised, but acted
promptly. The first battle was fought on the Aconcagua at Concon on the
21st. The eager infantry of the Congressional army forced the passage of
the river and stormed the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36
guns. The killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and
nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves in the
rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of 1000 killed and
wounded. The victors pressed on towards Valparaiso, but were soon
brought up by the strong fortified position of the Balmacedist general
Barbosa at Vina del Mar, whither Balmaceda hurried up all available
troops from Valparaiso and Santiago, and even from Concepcion. Del Canto
and Koerner now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were
brought up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the
army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland. The flank
march was conducted with great skill, little opposition was encountered,
and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east of Valparaiso. Here,
on the 28th, took place the decisive battle of La Placilla. Concon had
been perhaps little more than the destruction of an isolated corps; the
second battle was a fair trial of strength, for Barbosa was well
prepared, and had under his command the greater part of the existing
forces of the dictator. But the splendid fighting qualities of the
Congressional troops and the superior generalship of their leaders
prevailed in the end over every obstacle. The government army was
practically annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his
second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional army lost over
1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same evening and Santiago soon
afterwards. There was no further fighting, for so great was the effect
of the battles of Concon and La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops
surrendered without firing a shot.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., _The Chilian
Revolution of 1891_ (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1893);
_The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891_ (Intelligence Department, War
Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, _Taktische Beispiele aus den
Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Buergerkrieg in Chile_ (Berlin, 1901);
_Revista militar de Chile_ (February-March 1892); Hugo Kunz, _Der
Buergerkrieg in Chile_ (Vienna, 1892); _Militaer Wochenblatt_ (5th
supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_
(London, 1902); _Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute_ (1894) (for La
Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of 1892.
CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1879-1882). The proximate cause of this war was the
seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the effects of the Chilean
Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then part of the Bolivian province of
Atacama. The first act of hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to
protect Chilean interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel
Sotomayor, landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised militia
was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time Chilean warships
occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor, after his victory at
Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia had declared war on the 1st
of March, but Peru not till the 5th of April: this delay gave the
Chileans time to occupy every port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the
Chilean admiral was able to proceed at once to the blockade of the
southern ports of Peru, and in particular Iquique, where there took
place the first naval action of the war. On the 21st of April the
Chilean sloop "Esmeralda" and the gunboat "Covadonga"--both small and
weak ships--engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads "Huascar" and
"Independencia"; after a hot fight the "Huascar" under Miguel Grau sank
the "Esmeralda" under Arturo Piat, who was killed, but Carlos Condell in
the "Covadonga" manoeuvred the "Independencia" aground and shelled her
into a complete wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and
concentrated all their efforts on the destruction of the "Huascar,"
while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood of Tacna
and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta.
On the 8th of October 1879 the "Huascar" was brought to action off
Angamos by the "Blanco Encalada," and the "Almirante Cochrane." Grau was
outmatched as hopelessly and made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique.
Early in the action a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower,
killing Grau and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the
flag captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
"Huascar" finally surrendered she had but one gun left in action, her
fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew were killed and wounded,
and the steering-gear had been shot away. The Peruvian navy had now
ceased to exist. The Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active
operations were soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans on the
other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the neighbourhood of
Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was embarked for Pisagua on the
26th of October. The expeditionary force landed, in the face of
considerable opposition, on the 2nd of November, and captured Pisagua.
From Pisagua the Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to
their reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected they
moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San Francisco near
Dolores station (19th November). In the end the Chileans were
victorious, but their only material gain was the possession of Iquique
and the retreat of the allies, who fell back inland towards Tarapaca.
The tardy pursuit of the Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapaca on the
27th. In this the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly
recovering themselves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight,
in which more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made no use of
their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans in complete
possession of the Tarapaca region. With this the campaign of 1879 ended.
Chile had taken possession of the Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian
province of Tarapaca, and had destroyed the hostile navy.
The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the province
of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica. The
invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were landed
at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful preparations were
made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880 the advanced
corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied on the 20th.
Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took up an unusually
strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles. But the great
numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them to turn the
flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and after a
severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd), In April the army
began its advance southward from Moquegua to Tacna, while the Chilean
warships engaged in a series of minor naval operations in and about
the bay of Callao. Arica was also watched, and the blockade was
extended north of Lima. The land campaign had ere this culminated in
the battle of Tacna (May 26th), in which the Chileans attacked at
first in several disconnected bodies, and suffered severely until all
their forces came on the field. Then a combined advance carried all
before it. The allies engaged under General Narciso Campero, the new
president of Bolivia, lost nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans,
commanded by Manuel Baquedano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The
defeated army was completely dissolved, and it only remained for the
Chileans to march on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated
with its long-range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was
made, and before nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands
of the Chileans. Their second campaign had given them entire
possession of another strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they
had shown themselves greatly superior, both in courage and leadership,
to their opponents. While the army prepared for the next campaign, the
Chilean navy was active; the blockade became more stringent and
several fights took place, in one of which the "Covadonga" was sunk;
an expeditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
places on the coast and inland.
The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared for
its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General Baquedano
was in command. The leading troops disembarked at Pisco on the 18th of
November 1880, and the whole army was ready to move against the
defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences consisted of two
distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the latter being about
4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence was attacked by
Baquedano on the 13th of January 1881. Reconnaissances proved that the
Peruvian lines could not be turned, and the battle was a pure frontal
attack. The defenders had 22,000 men in the lines, the Chileans
engaged about 24,000. The battle of Chorrillos ended in the complete
defeat of the Peruvians, less than a quarter of whose army rallied
behind the Miraflores defences. The Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two
days later took place the battle of Miraflores (January 15th). Here
the defences were very strong, and the action began with a daring
counter-attack by some Peruvians. Neither party had intended to fight
a battle, for negotiations were in progress, but the action quickly
became general. Its result was, as before, the complete dissolution of
the defending army. Lima, incapable of defence, was occupied by the
invaders on the 17th, and on the 18th Callao surrendered. The
resistance of the Peruvians was so far broken that Chile left only a
small army of occupation to deal with the remnants of their army. The
last engagement took place at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the
Peruvians won an unimportant success.
See T.B.M. Mason, _The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881_ (U.S.
Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain Chateauminois
(transl.), _Memoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili sur la guerre
Chilo-Peruvienne_ (1882); Barros Arana, _Hist. de la guerre du
Pacifique_ (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_
(London, 1902); Anon., _Precis de la guerre du Pacifique_ (Paris,
1886); Clements R. Markham, _The War between Peru and Chile_.
CHILIASM (from Gr. [Greek: Chiliasmos, Chilioi], a thousand), the belief
that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand years, the
doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.).
CHILLAN, a city and the capital of the province of Nuble, in the
southern part of central Chile, 35 deg. 56' S., 71 deg. 37' W., 246 m. by
rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by rail) N.E. of
Concepcion. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official estimate) 36,382.
Chillan is one of the most active commercial cities of central Chile,
and is surrounded by a rich agricultural and grazing country. Chillan
was founded by Ruiz de Gamboa in 1594. Its present site was chosen in
1836. The original site, known as Chillan Viejo, forms a suburb of the
new city. The hot sulphur springs of Chillan, which were discovered in
1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks of the "Volcan
Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The highest temperature of the
water issuing from these springs is a little over 135 deg. The principal
volcanoes of the Chillan group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo.
After a repose of about two centuries the Nevado de Chillan broke out in
eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The eruption ceased
in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.
CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab, situated on the
left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W. of Lahore. It is
memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th of January 1849, between
a British force commanded by Lord Gough and the Sikh army under Sher
Singh. The loss of the Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the
British in killed and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An obelisk
erected at Chillianwalla by the British government preserves the names
of those who fell.
CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Livingston county, Missouri,
U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, on the Grand river, about
80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes);
(1910) 6265. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Wabash, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various
manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity, and much
live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped from Chillicothe.
Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the town was laid out in 1837 on
land granted directly by the Federal government; it was incorporated in
1855.
CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Ross county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio & Erie Canal, about 50 m.
S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288; (1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were
negroes, and 910 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is
served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops
here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are several
ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a plain about 30
ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and
has a large trade in grain and coal, and in manufactures. The value of
the city's factory products increased from $1,615,959 in 1900 to
$3,146,890 in 1905, or 94.7%. Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was
first incorporated in 1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the
North-West Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of
Ohio. Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in
turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal divisions
of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites; the village near
what is now Oldtown in Greene county was destroyed by George Rogers
Clark in 1780; that in Miami county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed
by Clark in 1782; and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe
was destroyed in 1787 by Kentuckians.
See Henry Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_ (Columbus, 1891).
CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644), English divine and controversialist,
was born at Oxford in October 1602. In June 1618 he became a scholar of
Trinity College, Oxford, and was made a fellow of his college in June
1628. He had some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in
mathematics, and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage
of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated the
propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits made the
universities their special point of attack. One of them, "John Fisher,"
who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded in making a convert of young
Chillingworth, and prevailed upon him to go to the Jesuit college at
Douai. Influenced, however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of
London, he resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the
two churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned to
Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length declared for
Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not publish, a confutation of
the motives which had led him over to Rome. This paper was lost; the
other, on the same subject, was probably written on some other occasion
at the request of his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His
theological sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered
to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great seal. He
was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine Articles. As he
informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All Souls, in a letter, he was
fully resolved on two points--that to say that the Fourth Commandment is
a law of God appertaining to Christians is false and unlawful, and that
the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a
high degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore, he
felt would be to "subscribe his own damnation." At this time his
principal work was far towards completion. It was undertaken in defence
of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of Queen's College in Oxford, who had
for some time been carrying on a controversy with a Jesuit known as
Edward Knott, but whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had
replied in 1633 to Knott's _Charity Mistaken_ (1630), and Knott
retaliated with _Mercy and Truth_. This work Chillingworth engaged to
answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias the
public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show that
Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not only
Catholicism but Christianity.
Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous about
Chillingworth's reply to Knott, and at his request, as "the young man
had given cause why a more watchful eye should be held over him and his
writings," it was examined by the vice-chancellor of Oxford and two
professors of divinity, and published with their approbation in 1637,
with the title _The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation_.
The main argument is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in
spiritual matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to
interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new view about
subscription to the articles. "For the Church of England," he there
says, "I am persuaded that the constant doctrine of it is so pure and
orthodox, that whosoever believes it, and lives according to it,
undoubtedly he shall be saved, and that there is no error in it which
may necessitate or warrant any man to disturb the peace or renounce the
communion of it. This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription."
His scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following year
(1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of Sarum, with the
prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire annexed to it. In the great
civil struggle he used his pen against the Scots, and was in the king's
army at the siege of Gloucester, inventing certain engines for
assaulting the town. Shortly afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton,
general of the king's troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid
up with illness at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the
parliamentary forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to go to
London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester, and died there
in January 1644. His last days were harassed by the diatribes of the
Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.
Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of smaller
anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous _Additional Discourses_
(1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In politics he
was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and tyrannous
violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might be avoided
in terms of the instruction, "when they persecute you in one city,
flee into another." His writings long enjoyed a high popularity. The
_Religion of Protestants_ is characterized by much fairness and
acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a discipline of
"perspicuity and the way of right reasoning." The charge of
Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as Tillotson
thought, "for no other cause but his worthy and successful attempts to
make the Christian religion reasonable." His creed, and the whole gist
of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence, "I am fully
assured that God does not, and therefore that men ought not to,
require any more of any man than this, to believe the Scripture to be
God's word, and to endeavour to find the true sense of it, and to live
according to it."
A _Life_ by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of
Chillingworth's _Works_.
CHILOE (from _Chile_ and _hue_, "part of Chile"), a province of southern
Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean coast forming
part of the province. The province, area 8593 sq. m., pop. (1895)
77,750, is composed of three groups of islands, Chiloe, Guaitecas and
Chonos, and extends from the narrow strait of Chacao in 41 deg. 40' S. to
the peninsula of Taytao, about 45 deg. 45' S. The population is composed
mainly of Indians, distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and
mestizos. The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the
northern end of the island of Chiloe, on the sheltered bay of San
Carlos, once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric; pop.
(1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital, on the eastern
shore of Chiloe, and the oldest town of the island (founded 1566), once
the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca on an island of the Guaitecas
group.
The island of Chiloe, which lies immediately south of the province of
Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation, the
coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chiloe and
the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast range
and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado (average
width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloe has an
extreme length north to south of about 118 m., and an average width of
35 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are several lakes
on the island--Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest,--and one small
river, the Pudeto, in the northern part of the island, is celebrated
as the scene of the last engagement in the war for independence, the
Spanish retaining possession of Chiloe until 1826.
CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece,
flourished about the beginning of the 6th century B.C. In 560 (or 556)
he acted as ephor, an office which he is even said to have founded. The
tradition was that he died of joy on hearing that his son had gained a
prize at the Olympic games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man
was prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.
A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in F.W.
Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i.; see Herodotus i. 69;
Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.
CHILPERIC, the name of two Frankish kings.
CHILPERIC I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Immediately
after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured to take possession
of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure amassed in the royal town of
Berny and entered Paris. His brothers, however, compelled him to divide
the kingdom with them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras,
Cambrai, Therouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share,
but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented. When
his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also wished to make a
brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated his first wife, Audovera,
and had taken as his concubine a serving-woman called Fredegond. He
accordingly dismissed Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister,
Galswintha. But he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning
Galswintha was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards
Chilperic married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and Sigebert.
In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at the very moment when he
had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic retrieved his position, took from
Austrasia Tours and Poitiers and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered
discord in the kingdom of the east during the minority of Childebert II.
One day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of Chelles,
Chilperic was stabbed to death.
Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian sovereigns. He was
exceedingly anxious to extend the royal authority. He levied numerous
imposts, and his fiscal measures provoked a great sedition at Limoges in
579. He wished to bring about the subjection of the church, and to this
end sold bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon his
subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He pretended to some
literary culture, and was the author of some halting verse. He even
added letters to the Latin alphabet, and wished to have the MSS.
rewritten with the new characters. The wresting of Tours from Austrasia
and the seizure of ecclesiastical property provoked the bitter hatred of
Gregory of Tours, by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the
Herod of his time.
See Seresia, _L'Eglise et l'Etat sous les rois francs au VIe siecle_
(Ghent, 1888).
CHILPERIC II. (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He became king of
Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed his name from Daniel to
Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor
of the palace. Charles Martel, however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted
Chilperic as king of Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set
him over the whole kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards.
(C. PF.)
CHILTERN HILLS, or THE CHILTERNS, a range of chalk hills in England,
extending through part of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire.
Running from S.W. to N.E., they form a well-marked escarpment
north-westward, while the south-eastern slope is long. The name of
Chilterns is applied to the hills between the Thames in the
neighbourhood of Goring and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea
between Dunstable and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being
about 55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk
system, continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire, and
themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge. The greatest
elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre from Watlington to
Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft. are frequent. Westward towards
the Thames gap the elevation falls away but little, but eastward the
East Anglian ridge does not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues
the northward escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways converging on
London, which lies in the basin of which these hills form part of the
northern rim. The most remarkable passes are those near Tring, Wendover
and Prince's Risborough, the floors of which are occupied by the gravels
of former rivers. The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of
beech, and there is still a local supply of this wood for the
manufacture of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of
Wycombe.
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parliamentary law
declared that a member of the House of Commons, once duly chosen, could
not _resign_ his seat. This rule was a relic of the days when the local
gentry had to be compelled to serve in parliament. The only method,
therefore, of avoiding the rule came to be by accepting an office of
profit from the crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member
accepting an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his
seat, but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in
question had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit held by
members of the House of Commons in the first half of the 18th century
are to be found the names of several crown stewardships, which
apparently were not regarded as places of profit under the crown within
the meaning of the act of 1707, for no seats were vacated by appointment
to them. The first instance of the acceptance of such a stewardship
vacating a seat was in 1740, when the house decided that Sir W.W. Wynn,
on inheriting from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the
stewardship of the lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had _ipso
facto_ vacated his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the
idea of utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships
(possibly suggested by Sir W.W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a
member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These nominal
stewardships were eight in number, but only two survived to be used in
this way in contemporary practice--those of the Chilterns and
Northstead; and when a member wished to vacate his seat, he was
accordingly spoken of as taking the Chiltern Hundreds.
1. _Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks._--The
Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type. They are
situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the bandits,
who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early period so
alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the Chiltern
Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inhabitants of the
neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date the necessity for
such an appointment disappeared, but the three hundreds of Stoke,
Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by the old name. The
appointment of steward was first used for parliamentary purposes in
1750, the appointment being made by the chancellor of the exchequer
(and at his discretion to grant or not), and the warrant bestowing on
the holder "all wages, fees, allowances and other privileges and
pre-eminences." Up to the 19th century there was a nominal salary of
20s. attached to the post. It was laid down in 1846 by the chancellor
of the exchequer that the Chilterns could not be granted to more than
one person in the same day, but this rule has not been strictly
adhered to, for on four occasions subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns
were granted twice on the same day. The Chilterns might be granted to
members whether they had taken the oath or not, or during a recess,
though in this case a new writ could not be issued until the House met
again. Each new warrant expressly revoked the grant to the last
holder, the new steward retaining it in his turn until another should
be appointed.
2. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred,
Berks._--This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes in
1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which it
disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts were
held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the duties
being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by public
auction in 1823 for L910, but in some manner the crown retained the
right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after that date.
3. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire._--This
manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until 1838. It
has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor courts.
There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived from the
office. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and
subsequently.
4. _Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire._--This manor appears
to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It was in lease
until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes in 1845 and
was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.
5. _Escheator of Munster._--Escheators were officers commissioned to
secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally
escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as
1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four, one
for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal. The
escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary purposes in
the Irish parliament from 1793 to 1800, and in the united parliament
(24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from 1801 to
1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished in 1838.
6. _Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex._--This manor
belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first used
for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally, until
1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of Norfolk.
7. _Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex._--This manor reverted to
the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was leased up
to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary purposes, in
1841 and 1843.
8. _Escheator of Ulster._--This appointment was used in the united
parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.
See parliamentary paper--_Report from the Select Committee on House of
Commons (Vacating of Seats)_ (1894). (T.A.I.)
CHILWA (incorrectly SHIRWA), a shallow lake in south-east Africa, S.S.E.
of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35 deg.20'E., and lying between 15 deg. and 15 deg.35'S. The
lake is undergoing a process of desiccation, and in some dry seasons (as
in 1879 and 1903) the "open water" is reduced to a number of large
pools. Formerly the lake seems to have found an outlet northwards to the
Lujenda branch of the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is
now separated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft. above
the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the largest rising 500
ft. above the water. The lake was discovered by David Livingstone in
1859 and was by him called Shirwa, from a mishearing of the native name.
CHIMAERA, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female monster resembling
a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle, and a dragon behind
(_Iliad_, vi. 179), with three heads corresponding. She devastated Caria
and Lycia until she was finally slain by Bellerophon (see H.A. Fischer,
_Bellerophon_, 1851). The origin of the myth was the volcanic nature of
the soil of Lycia (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 110; Servius on _Aeneid_, vi.
288), where works have been found containing representations of the
Chimaera in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is
usually represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle of the
back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (5th century). The word is now
used generally to denote a fantastic idea or fiction of the imagination.
CHIMAY, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of Hainaut,
Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904) 3383. It is more
commonly spoken of as being in the district _entre Sambre et Meuse_.
Owing to its proximity to the French frontier it has undergone many
sieges, the last of which was in 1640, when Turenne gave orders that it
should be reduced to such ruin that it could never stand another. The
town is chiefly famous for the castle and park that bear its name.
Originally a stronghold of the Croey family, it has passed through the
D'Arenbergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay. The
castle, which before Turenne's order to demolish it possessed seven
towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern chateau was built in the
Tudor style in the 18th century. This domain carried with it the right
to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut. Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr
Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor, married as her second husband the
prince de Chimay, and held her little court here down to her death in
1835. There is a memorial to her in the church, which also contains a
fine monument of Phillippe de Croey, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and was buried
here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand Place. Chimay is
situated on a stream called the White Water, which in its lower course
becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.
CHIME, (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation into two words,
_chimbe bell_, of _chymbal_ or _chymbel_, the old form of "cymbal," Lat.
_cymbalum_), a mechanical arrangement by which a set of bells in a
church or other tower, or in a clock, are struck so as to produce a
sequence of musical sounds or a tune. For the mechanism of such an
arrangement in a clock and in a set of bells, see the articles CLOCK and
BELL. The word is also applied to the tune thus played by the bells and
also to the harmonious "fall" of verse, and so, figuratively, to any
harmonious agreement of thought or action. (2) (From Mid. Eng. _chimb_,
a word meaning "edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic languages, cf.
Ger. _Kimme_), the bevelled rim formed by the projecting staves at the
ends of a cask.
CHIMERE (Lat. _chimera, chimaera_; O. Fr. _chamarre_, Mod. Fr.
_simarre_; Ital. _zimarra_; cf. Span. _zamarra_, a sheepskin coat;
possibly derived ultimately from Gr. [Greek: cheimerios], "wintry," i.e.
a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a garment worn as
part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops. It is a long
sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front, gathered in at
the back between the shoulders, and with slits for the arms. It is worn
over the rochet (q.v.), and its colour is either black or scarlet
(convocation robes). By a late abuse the sleeves of the rochet were,
from motives of convenience, sometimes attached to the chimere. The
origin of the chimere has been the subject of much debate; but the view
that it is a modification of the cope (q.v.) is now discarded, and it is
practically proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (_tabardum,
taberda_ or _collobium_), an upper garment worn in civil life by all
classes of people both in England and abroad. It has therefore a common
origin with certain academic robes (see ROBES, Sec. _Academic dress_).
The word "chimere," which first appears in England in the 14th century,
was sometimes applied not only to the tabard worn over the rochet, but
to the sleeved cassock worn under it. Thus Archbishop Scrope is
described as wearing when on his way to execution (1405) a blue chimere
with sleeves. But the word properly applies to the sleeveless tabard
which tended to supersede, from the 15th century onwards, the
inconvenient _cappa clausa_ (a long closed cloak with a slit in front
for the arms) as the out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These
chimeres, the colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may
possibly have denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of Durham
(1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are mentioned, including
two for riding (_pro equitatura_). The chimere was, moreover, a cold
weather garment. In summer its place was taken by the tippet.
In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put on
"the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimere. The robe has thus
become in the Church of England symbolical of the episcopal office, and
is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric containing this direction
was added to the Book of Common Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that
the development of the chimere into at least a choir vestment was
subsequent to the Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
consecration wore "a long scarlet chymere down to the foot" (_Acts and
Mon._, ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself and of scandal
to other extreme reformers; but that this was no more than the full
civil dress of a bishop is proved by the fact that Archbishop Parker at
his consecration wore surplice and tippet, and only put on the chimere,
when the service was over, to go away in. This civil quality of the
garment still survives alongside the other; the full dress of an
Anglican prelate at civil functions of importance (e.g. in parliament,
or at court) is still rochet and chimere.
The continental equivalent of the chimere is the _zimarra_ or
_simarre_, which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni,
Barbier de Montault) as a kind of _soutane_ (cassock), from which it
is distinguished by having a small cape and short, open arms
(_manches-fausses_) reaching to the middle of the upper arm and
decorated with buttons. In France and Germany it is fitted more or
less to the figure; in Italy it is wider and falls down straight in
front. Like the _soutane_, the _zimarra_ is not proper to any
particular rank of clergy, but in the case of bishops and prelates it
is ornamented with red buttons and bindings. It never has a train
(_cauda_). It is not universally worn, e.g. in Germany apparently only
by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the _zimarra_ with the _epitogium_
which Domenico Magri, in his _Hierolexicon_ (ed. 1677), calls the
uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the _soutane_ (_toga_)
instead of the _mantellum_ (_vestis suprema clericorum loco pallii_),
with a cross-reference to _Tabardum_, the "usual" upper garment
(_pallium usuale_); and this definition is repeated in the 8th edition
of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the middle of
the 18th century the _zimarra_ was still in common use as an
out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half of
the 19th century the _zimarra_, though still worn by certain civilians
(e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
by university professors. A black _zimarra_ lined with white, and
sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn by
the pope.
More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
significance, is the purple _mantelletum_ worn over the rochet by
bishops, and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in
presence of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary
suspension of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so
long as the pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia
cardinals and prelates wear the _mantelletum_, while the pope wears
the _zimarra_, and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the
pope's death is to expose his rochet by laying aside the
_mantelletum_, the other cardinals following his example, as a symbol
that during the vacancy of the papacy the pope's jurisdiction is
vested in the Sacred College. On the analogy of the _mantelletum_
certain Anglican prelates, American and colonial, have from time to
time appeared in purple chimeres; which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson
justly points out, is a most unhappy innovation, since it has no
historical justification, and its symbolism is rather unfortunate.
AUTHORITIES.--See the _Report_ of the sub-committee of Convocation on
the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31 (London, 1908);
the Rev. N.F. Robinson, "The black chimere of Anglican Prelates: a
plea for its retention and proper use," in _Transactions of the St
Paul's Ecclesiological Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 181-220 (London, 1898);
Herbert Druitt, _Costume on Brasses_ (London, 1906); G. Moroni,
_Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecclesiastica_ (Venice, 1861),
vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra": X. Barbier de Montault, _Traite pratique de
la construction, &c., des eglises_, ii. 538 (Paris, 1878). (W. A. P.)
CHIMESYAN (_Tsimshian_), a tribe of North American Indians, now some
3000 in number, living around the mouth of the Skeena river, British
Columbia, and on the islands near the coast. They are a powerfully built
people, who tattoo and wear labrets and rings in noses and ears. They
are skilful fishermen, and live in large communal houses. They are
divided into clans and distinct social orders.
CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, 70 m.
by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897) 10,756, mostly Sarts. It
occupies a strategical position at the west end of the valley between
the Alexander range and the Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of
commercial routes from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the
north-east, (2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail
since 1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864, stands on
high ground above the town, but is now in ruins. Chimkent is visited by
consumptive patients who wish to try the koumiss cure. It has cotton
mills and soap-works.
CHIMNEY (through the Fr. _cheminee_, from _caminata_, sc. _camera_, a
Lat. derivative of _caminus_, an oven or furnace), in architecture, that
portion of a building, rising above the roof, in which are the flues
conveying the smoke to the outer air. Originally the term included the
fireplace as well as the chimney shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and
Heddington, Essex, there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue
was carried through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only, and
was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from openings in
the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300) were treated
decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that the smoke issued at
the top, and later in the century that more than one flue was carried up
in the same shaft. There are a few examples of the clustered shaft in
stone, but as a rule they are contemporaneous with the general use of
brick. The brick chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at
Hampton Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
Gloucestershire.
In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft was
recognized as an important architectural feature, and was of
considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of the roofs.
In the chateau of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts are decorated with
angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the late Flamboyant style; and
at Chambord and Blois they are carved with pilasters and niches with
panelling above, carved with the salamander and other armorial devices.
In the Roman palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise their
real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character, the chimneys
at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of terminations, and as a
rule the smoke comes out on the sides and not through the top.
(R. P. S.)
_Factory Chimneys_.--Chimneys, besides removing the products of
combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the
cold air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at
the bottom to take its place. An ascending current is thus established
in the chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the
square root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity
also increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but
since the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand,
the amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase
indefinitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the
outside air is about 600 deg. F., but the rate of increase is very slow
after the difference has passed about 300 deg. F. In designing a chimney
the dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned
to the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second.
Increased velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft,
gives increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a
second is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not
in general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases,
especially when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of
objectionable vapours, they have been made double that height, or even
more. In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular
form offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given
height and sectional area requires less material to secure stability
than the octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand,
there is more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly
used, but many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced
concrete is also employed.
CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which in medieval
times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke, and at a later date
to the decorative framework, often carried up to the ceiling.
"Chimneypiece" or "mantelpiece" is now the general term for the jambs,
mantelshelf and external accessories of a fireplace. For many centuries
the chimneypiece was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a
room, but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
significance has grown less.
Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust, or
with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding its way up
to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known is that in
the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in the joints
carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first half of
the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the greater width
of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown across and
constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust of the arch
being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic work of the
14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased in order to allow
of the members of the family sitting on either side of the fire on the
hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber were employed to
carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so deeply recessed as
to become externally an important architectural feature, as at Haddon
Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is in the great hall of the
Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly 30 ft. wide, having two
intermediate supports to carry the hood; the stone flues are carried
up between the tracery of an immense window above. In the early
Renaissance style, the chimneypiece of the Palais de Justice at Bruges
is a magnificent example; the upper portion, carved in oak, extends
the whole width of the room, with statues of nearly life size of
Charles V. and others of the royal family of Spain. The most prolific
modern designer of chimneypieces was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765
published a large series, on which at a later date the Empire style in
France was based. In France the finest work of the early Renaissance
period is to be found in the chimneypieces, which are of infinite
variety of design.
The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the purer
Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely simple in
design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece, with
classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the chimney breast
being panelled like the rest of the room. In the latter part of the
century the classic architrave was abandoned in favour of a much
bolder and more effective moulding, as in the chimneypieces at Hampton
Court, and the shelf was omitted.
In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones classic
type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and XV. Figure
sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on each side,
which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the overmantel
developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait over the
chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the designs of the
brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century later they came
again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood enriched with
ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the carved wood
decoration of old times. (R. P. S.)
CHIMPANZEE (_Chimpanzi_), the vernacular name of the highest species of
the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives of the genus
_Anthropopithecus_. Chimpanzees, of which there appear to be at least
two species, range through the tropical forest-zone of Africa from the
west coast to Uganda. The typical _A. troglodytes_ has been long known
to European science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his
time, having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy
or _Homo sylvestris_, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby
chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History branch of the
British Museum alongside the volume in which it is described. It was
not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee received what is now
recognized as a scientific name, having been christened in that year
_Simia troglodytes_ by the naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his
classification it was included in the same genus as the orang-utan; and
it has recently been suggested that the name _Simia_ pertains of right
to the chimpanzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical
West African chimpanzee and the gorilla (q.v.) there is no difficulty in
drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have to deal with
the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some of which are so
gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine to which group
they really pertain. In height the adult male chimpanzee of the typical
form does not exceed 5 ft., and the colour of the hair is a full black,
while the skin, especially that of the face, is light-coloured; the ears
are remarkably large and prominent, and the hands reach only a short
distance below the knees. The head is rounded and short, without
prominent beetling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the
middle line of the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are
of no very great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very
marked difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility
are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown; while
in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.
In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is
Schweinfurth's chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes
schweinfurthi_), which inhabits the Niam-Niam country, and, although
evidently belonging to the same species as the typical race, exhibits
certain gorilla-like features. These traits are still more developed
in the bald chimpanzee (_A. tschego_) of Loango, the Gabun, and other
regions of French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse
covering of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races
is, however, the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (_A. kulu-kamba_) of du
Chaillu, which inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape "Mafuka,"
which lived in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came
from Loango, was apparently a member of this species, although it was
at one time regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla.
These gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a
female chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has
been described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are
particularly well marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be
still more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
prominence of the ears proclaim that both "Mafuka" and "Johanna" were
chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like feature in "Johanna" is,
however, the presence of large folds at the sides (_ala_) of the
nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee, but in the
gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees exhibit great
docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom survive for any
great length of time. They likewise display a much higher degree of
intelligence than any of the other man-like apes. (See PRIMATES.)
(R. L.*)
CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of the Chinese
empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese Empire includes
Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang (East Turkestan, Kulja,
Dzungaria, &c., _i.e._ all the Chinese dependencies lying between
Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south). Its most southern point
is in 18 deg. 50' N.; its most northern in 53 deg. 25' N.; its most western in
74 deg. E., and its most eastern in 135 deg. E. It lies, however, mainly between
20 deg. and 50 deg. N. and 80 deg. and 130 deg. E. It is considerably larger than the
whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained the
various estimates closely approximate, varying between 4,277,000 and
4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W., N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia,
along a frontier extending some 6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of
the Pacific known as the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the
China Sea, French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states. It
is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along the meridian
of Kashgar (76 deg. E.) has a breadth of but 250 m. It rapidly broadens and
for the greater part of its area is over 1800 m. across in a direct N.
and S. line. Its greatest length is from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to
the S.W. confines of Tibet, a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its
seaboard, about 5000 m. following the indentations of the coast, is
almost, wholly in China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also
the western shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.
China[1] proper or the Eighteen Provinces (_Shih-pa-sheng_) occupies the
south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N. by Mongolia, W. by
Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S. by Tongking and the gulf of that
name, S.E. by the South China Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow
Sea, Gulf of Chih-li and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000
sq. m.
This vast country is separated from the rest of continental Asia by
lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which determine the general
course--west to east--of its principal rivers. On the north and west the
Mongolian and Tibetan tablelands present towards China steep escarpments
across which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders of
Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China from Burma and
Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the transition from the Manchurian
plateau to the alluvial plain of northern China is not abrupt, but,
before the advent of railways, Manchuria afforded few and difficult
means of access to other regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the
rest of the world save by sea routes.