[1] There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
say a person "_overlays_" or "_overlies_" a child, and the question
came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray
(see Letter in _The Times_, 12th of May 1908) "to lie," an
intransitive verb, becomes transitive when combined with a
preposition, e.g. a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; "to
lay" is the causal derivative of "to lie," and is followed by two
objects, e.g. to lay the table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on
the table; similarly, to overlay a surface with varnish, or to
overlay a child with a blanket, or with the nurse's or mother's
body. The instrument can be left unexpressed, and a person can be
said to overlay a child, i.e. with her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus,
while "overlie" covers the case where the woman herself lies over
the child, "overlay" is the more general word.
CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic aluminium iron
phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization. The ferrous oxide is in part
replaced by manganous oxide and lime, and in the closely allied and
isomorphous species eosphorite manganese predominates over iron. The
general formula for the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO2 + H2O.
Childrenite is found only as small brilliant crystals of a
yellowish-brown colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general
appearance. They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form
of double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply striated
parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5; specific gravity
3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the zoologist and mineralogist J.G.
Children (1777-1852), secretary of the Royal Society, was detected in
1823 on specimens obtained some years previously during the cutting of a
canal near Tavistock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few
copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.
Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles very nearly
the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite, it has a distinct
cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in compact masses as well as
in crystals. The colour is sometimes yellowish-white, but usually
rose-pink, and on this account the mineral was named from [Greek:
eosphoros], dawn-bearer. Hardness 5; specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was
discovered in 1878 in a pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut,
where it is associated with other rare manganese phosphates. (L. J. S.)
CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special system of tribunals for
dealing with juvenile offenders, first suggested in the United States.
The germ of such institutions was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when
a plan was introduced at Boston of hearing charges against children
separately, and apart from the ordinary business of the lesser
tribunals. No great progress was made in the development of the idea in
Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of the
utility or need for a separate court so long as the children were kept
strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured by a separate
session. But the system of "probation," by which children were handed
over to the kindly care and guardianship of an appointed officer, and
thus escaped legal repression, was created about the same time in Boston
and produced excellent results. The probation officer is present at the
judge's side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the
offender, whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary to
bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts in due
course influenced other countries, and especially the British colony of
South Australia, where a State Children's Department was created at
Adelaide in 1895, and three years later a juvenile court was opened
there for the trial of persons under eighteen and was conducted with
great success, though the system of probation officers was not
introduced. A juvenile court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on
the South Australian model.
The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very rapidly. In the
United States Illinois was the first state to call a distinct children's
court into existence, and Judge Richard Tuthill was the pioneer at
Chicago, where the court was established in 1899. Many states followed
suit, including New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas,
Colorado, Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the Society for
the Protection of Children, there is a separate children's court with
rooms attached, where the children for detention wait till they are
brought in for trial. Brooklyn has also a children's court. In
Pennsylvania, where the juvenile court was at first opposed as
unconstitutional, the difficulty was met by first bringing the child
before the magistrate in the police court, a course which (though
followed by his transferring the case to the special court) perpetuated
the very evils the children's court was intended to avoid; the work of
probation was, however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female
officers. The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an
especially appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to
some extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation
of being the most complete and perfect in the United States. It works
with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer probation officers
under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver, Colorado, attained
remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey, whose magnetic personality,
wonderful comprehension of boy nature, and extraordinary influence over
them achieved great results. The court meets once a fortnight, when
fresh cases are tried and boys already on probation report themselves,
often to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear before
the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a sealed
letter, and according to its purport receives praise or blame, or he may
be committed to the Detention House. An efficient court was also
constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with a judge especially chosen to
preside, probation being for fixed periods, varying from three months to
three years, and children being brought back to the court for parole or
discharge, or, if necessary, committal to the house of one of the
philanthropic societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was followed,
and it was found that numbers of children came to the court for help and
guidance, looking upon the judge for the time being as their friend and
counsellor. Probation in this instance offered peculiar difficulties on
account of the colour question, two-thirds of the children having negro
blood and a white boy being always preferred for a vacant situation.
Throughout, the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been
to bring each individual into "human touch" with kindly helpful workers
striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to follow the
straight path. It was the result always of the effort of private persons
and not due to government initiative, indeed the advocates and champions
of the system only established it by overcoming strong opposition from
the authorities.
Progress in the same direction has been made in England. The home office
had recommended London police magistrates to keep children's cases
separate from those of adults; the same practice or something analogous
obtained in many county boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol,
Bolton, Bradford, Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the
Children Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act
enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges, &c.,
against children or young persons should, unless the child or young
person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different building or
room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or
on different days or at different times. Furthermore, provision must be
made for preventing persons apparently under the age of sixteen years
whilst being conveyed to or from court, or whilst waiting before or
after their attendance in court, from associating with adults, unless
such adults are charged jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons
other than members and officers of the court, the parties to the case,
their solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave of the
court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted. The main
object of the whole system is to keep the child, the embryotic offender
who has probably erred from ignorance or the pressure of circumstances
or misfortune, altogether free from the taint or contagion that attaches
to criminal proceedings. The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is
injurious to the youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench,
whether as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
legal processes.
The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from its
association with the system of personal guardianship and close
supervision exercised by the probation officers, official and voluntary.
Where the intervention of the newly constituted tribunal can not only
save the child from evil association when first arrested, but can rescue
him without condemnation and committal to prison, its functions may be
relied upon to diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much
depends upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm, sympathetic,
tactful and able to gain the confidence of those brought before him, he
may do great good, by dealing with each individual and not merely with
his offence, realizing that the court does not exist to condemn but to
strengthen and give a fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a
branch of the existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, the
beneficial results are not so noticeable. (A. G.)
CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in recent years
become an important branch of folklore research in England, and has
contributed not a little towards elucidating many unrecorded facts in
early history. These games may be broadly divided into two
kinds--dramatic games, and games of skill and chance. These differ
materially in their object. Games of skill and chance are played for the
purpose of winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided between
boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly of a contest
character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys' dramatic games have
preserved some interesting beliefs and customs, but the tendency in
these games, such as "prisoner's base," has been to drop the words and
tune and to preserve only that part (action) which tends best for
exercise and use in school playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have
not developed on these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of
their early characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune
and action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs not
now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking place between
men and women and between people of different villages. The tunes are
simple, and the same tune is frequently used for different games. The
actions are illustrative of the ideas to be expressed. The players
represent various objects--animals, villages and people. The singing
game is therefore not a game in the usual sense of the word. There is no
element of "gambling" or playing "to win" in it--no one is richer or
poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play together.
It is really a "play," and has survived because it has handed down some
instances of custom and belief which were deeply rooted and which made a
strong appeal to the imagination of our ancestors. The singing games
represent in dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances
common to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
events which served to bind the people together and to give them a
common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were dramatic
in character, singing and action forming a part of them, and their
performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. They are probably
survivals of what we might call folk drama. In these times it was held
imperative to perform religious ceremonies periodically; at sowing and
harvesting to ensure good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions
of marriage, birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare
of the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance, song and
feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected with some
belief which rendered ceremony necessary.
At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for their
basis, but in process of time they became purely secular and were
performed at certain seasons only, because it was the custom to do so.
They then became recognized as beautiful or pleasing things in the life
of the people, and so continued, altering somewhat in ideas but
retaining their old dramatic forms. They were danced by old and young at
festivals and holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been held.
Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, "line" and
"circle." These represent two of the early forms of dramatic action. The
"line" form (two lines of players standing opposite each other having a
space of ground between them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents
two different and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest.
This method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The "circle"
form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, represents those
occasions when all the people of one place were engaged in celebrating
events in which all were interested. Thus games celebrating sowing and
harvest, and those associated with love and marriage, are played in this
form. Both these methods allow of development. The circle varies from
examples where all perform the same actions and say the same words to
that where two or more players have principal parts, the others only
singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the singing has
disappeared. The form or method of play and the actions constitute the
oldest remaining parts of the game (the words being subject to
alterations and loss through ignorance of their meaning), and it is to
this form or method, the actions and the accompaniment of song, that
they owe their survival, appealing as they do to the strong dramatic
instinct of children and of uncultured folk.
It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known singing
games. In "line" form, a fighting game is "We are the Rovers." The words
tell us of two opposing parties fighting for their land; both sides
alternately deride one another and end by fighting until one side is
victorious. Two other "line" games, "Nuts in May" and "Here come three
dukes a-riding," are also games of contest, but not for territory. These
show an early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
capture, and are played in "line" form because of the element of contest
contained in the custom. Another form, the "arch," is also used to
indicate contest.
Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest and
marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and sanction by
assembled friends. "Oats and beans and barley" and "Sally Water" are
typical of this form. The large majority of circle games deal with love
or marriage and domestic life. The customs surviving in these games deal
with tribal life and take us back to "foundation sacrifice," "well
worship," "sacredness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs.
Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore
Society, and particularly in the following works:--A.B. Gomme's
_Traditional Games of Great Britain_ (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898);
Gomme's _Children's Singing Games_ (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein's
_Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (Duckworth, 1906); Maclagan,
_Games of Argyllshire_, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's _Games of
American Children_ (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In Mrs Gomme's
_Traditional Games_, several versions of each game, together with a
short account of the suggested origin and of the custom or belief
indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. 458-531) a memoir
of the history of games is given, and the customs and beliefs which
originated them, reviewing the whole subject from the anthropological
point of view, and showing the place which games occupy among the
evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein's comparative study of
nursery rhymes suggested origins are given for many of these, and an
attempt made to localize certain of the customs and events. In several
of the publications of the Folk-lore Society local collections of
games are given, all of which may be studied with advantage. Stubbes
and other early writers give many instances of boys' games in their
days, many of which still exist. Tylor and other writers on
anthropology, in dealing with savage custom, confirm the views here
expressed. For nursery rhymes see Halliwell, _Nursery Rhymes_ (1845),
and Chambers's _Popular Rhymes_ (first printed 1841, reprinted in
1870). The recently collected _Morris Dances_ by Mr Cecil Sharp should
also be consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently
dealing with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while
others indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each
line dancing in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and
thus conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more
ordinary game. (A. B. G.*)
CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher, was born in
Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829. He was educated in the
public schools, and after a brief term of service in the navy, he became
in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he
established an independent book-shop, and two years later organized the
publishing house of Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel,
he purchased the _Public Ledger_, at that time a little known newspaper;
he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it one of the
most influential journals in the country. He died at Philadelphia on the
3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely known for his public spirit and
philanthropy. In addition to numerous private benefactions in
educational and charitable fields, he erected memorial windows to
William Cowper and George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to
Milton in St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt at
Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon
(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to Richard A. Proctor. He
gave Woodland Cemetery to the Typographical Society of Philadelphia for
a printers' burial-ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a
home for Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
His _Recollections_ were published at Philadelphia in 1890.
CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua _chiri_, cold, or
_tchili_, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the narrow
western slope of the continent between Peru and its southern extremity.
(For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends from the northern boundary of the
province of Tacna, about 17 deg. 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme
southern point of the Fuegian archipelago in 55 deg. 58' 40'' S., with an
extreme meridian length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably
exceeding that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3-1/2 deg. and an
eastward trend south of 50 deg. S. of nearly 8 deg. Its mainland width
ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the islands of the
southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 sq. m., though the
Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 sq. m. Chile is thus a
ribbon-like strip of territory between the Andes and the Pacific,
comparatively regular north of the 42nd parallel, but with an extremely
ragged outline south of that line. It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by
Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary
lines are described under ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1879-81 with
Peru and Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department of the
Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department of Tarapaca, were
formally ceded to Chile, and the northern frontier was removed to the
river Camarones, which enters the Pacific at 19 deg. 12' S. Under the
treaty of Ancon (20th October 1883) Chile was to retain possession of the
provinces of Tacna and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of
Moquegua for a period of ten years, and then submit "to popular vote
whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession of
the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and Arica, which became
the province of Tacna under Chilean administration, removed the frontier
still farther north, to the river Sama, which separates that province
from the remaining part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting
from the mouth of that river, in 17 deg. 57' S., the disputed boundary
follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in the
Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water parting to the
Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.
_Physiography._--For purposes of general topographical description
Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region south
of lat. 41 deg. S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it breaks
down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the sea this
plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat topped hills
closely following the coast line. The surface is made up of extensive
plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline salts, broken by
ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes,
and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of the main cordillera
enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region is rainless, barren
and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation except in some
small river valleys where irrigation is possible, and on the slopes of
some of the snow-covered peaks where the water from the melting snows
nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation before it disappears in the
thirsty sands. It is very rich in mineral and saline deposits,
however. The eastern parts of this region lie within the higher ranges
of the Andes and include a large district awarded to Chile in 1899
(see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA). This arid, bleak area is apparently a
continuation southward of the great Bolivian _altaplanicie_, and is
known as the Puna de Atacama. Its average elevation is estimated at
11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to
south, and extensive lava beds cover a considerable part of its
surface. Large shallow saline lakes are also characteristic features
of this region. From 28 deg. S. the spurs from the cordillera toward the
coast are more sharply defined and enclose deeper valleys, where the
cultivation of the soil becomes possible, at first through irrigation
and then with the aid of light periodical rains. The slopes of the
Andes are precipitous, the general surface is rough, and in the north
the higher ground and coast are still barren. Beginning with the
province of Aconcagua the coast elevations crystallize into a range of
mountains, the Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south
to the province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by
the mountain range of Chiloe and the islands of the western coast,
which are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
called the "Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most
thickly-populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region,
is well watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate
rainfall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great
productiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed.
It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
tracts, as in Nuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the
enclosing mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is
heavier, the plain is well covered with forest. South of 41 deg. S. the
country is mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are
only a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve the
general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian archipelago,
the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cordillera Maritima.
The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout this region, especially
in the latitude of Chiloe, gives rise to a large number of rivers and
lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the form of
snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at a comparatively low level
which in places discharge into the inlets and bays of the sea. The
extreme southern part of this region extends eastward to the Atlantic
entrance to the Straits of Magellan, and includes the greater part of
the large island of Tierra del Fuego with all the islands lying south
and west of it. There are some comparatively level stretches of
country immediately north of the Straits, partly forested and partly
grassy plains, where sheep farming has been established with some
degree of success, but the greater part of this extreme southern
territory is mountainous, cold, wet and inhospitable. The perpetual
snow-line here descends to 3500 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the
forest growth does not rise above an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.
Mountains.
It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 sq.
m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. The desert regions
of the north include comparatively large areas of plains and gently
sloping surfaces, traversed by ranges of barren hills. The remainder
of the republic, probably more than three-fifths of its surface, is
extremely mountainous. The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs
and lateral ranges, cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the
republic, and the Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its
western side from about lat. 33 deg. to the southern extremity of Chiloe,
or below lat. 43 deg. This maritime range is traversed by several river
valleys, some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle
a slope as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great
mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau. The
Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th
parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and Cerro
Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing the
province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known as the
Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia the main
chain, which has served as the boundary line between Argentina and
Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal one continuing
almost due north along the eastern side of the great Bolivian
_alta-planicie_, and the other forming its western rim, where it is
known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend of the
coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera Occidental. The
western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with short spurs
enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, and a
considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently active,
noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating point of the
Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of 23,097 ft.
In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation of
these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined. The
highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Maca (lat. 45 deg.
S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47 deg. S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. and
the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast range of
central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating point in
the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central Chile and the
northern desert region there is a highly mountainous district where
distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic from the Andes
to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great beauty and
fertility. The most famous of these is the "Vale of Quillota" between
Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes between Tacna and Valdivia
are crossed by 24 passes, the majority of them at elevations exceeding
10,000 ft. The best-known of these is the Uspallata pass between
Santiago and the Argentine city of Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above
sea-level. The passes of central and southern Chile are used only in
the summer season, but those of northern Chile are open throughout the
whole year.
The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake shocks
have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of the
coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert FitzRoy
(1805-1865) of H.M.S. "Beagle" found putrid mussel-shells still
adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island of Santa
Maria, 30 m. from Concepcion, and Charles Darwin declares, in
describing that disaster, that "there can be no doubt that the land
round the bay of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet." These
upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at
elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows
that these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast,
have been in operation through long periods of time and that the
greater part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the
sea in this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct
characteristics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible,
called a _temblor_, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a
violent horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at
frequent intervals, called a _terremoto_, which is caused by a
fracture or displacement of the earth's strata at some particular
point, and often results in considerable damage. When the earthquake
occurs on the coast, or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves
are sometimes formed, which cause even greater damage than the
earthquake itself. Arica has been three times destroyed by tidal
waves, and other small towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered
similar disasters. Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and
Concepcion and Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great
earthquake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually limited
to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may be felt at
long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this respect Chile
may be divided into at least four great earthquake areas, two in the
desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and the fourth
extending from Concepcion to Chiloe. A study of Chilean earthquake
phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division of southern
Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.
Coast.
The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of islands
extending from Chiloe S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which shows
that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain, a
continuation southward of the Cordillera Maritima. Three groups of
these islands, called the Chiloe, Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes,
lie N. of the Taytao peninsula (lat. 45 deg. 50' to 46 deg. 55' S.), and
with the mainland to the E. form the province of Chiloe. The largest of
these is the island of Chiloe, which is inhabited. Some of the smaller
islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive
rainfall of these latitudes and the violent westerly storms render
them highly unfavourable for human occupation. Some of the smallest
islands are barren rocks, but the majority of them are covered with
forests. These archipelagoes are separated from the mainland in the
north by the gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m.
wide, which appear to be a submerged part of the great central valley
of Chile, and farther south by the narrower Moraleda channel, which
terminates southward in a confusing network of passages between the
mainland and the islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts
of the Chilean mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of
this group, where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island,
which indents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the
basin of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp
wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between the
two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called the Tres
Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the mainland, with
which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui, over which the
natives and early missionaries were accustomed to carry their boats
between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Penas. A short ship canal
here would give an uninterrupted and protected inside passage from
Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of Magellan, a distance of
over 760 m. A southern incurving projection of the outer shore-line of
this peninsula is known as Tres Montes peninsula, the most southern
point of which is a cape of the same name. Below the Taytao peninsula
is the broad open Gulf of Penas, which carries the coast-line eastward
fully 100 m. and is noticeably free from islands. The northern
entrance to Messier Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt,
Sarmiento and Smyth's Channels, which form a comparatively safe and
remarkably picturesque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m.
in length, separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland.
These channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands
which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
(lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campana, Little Wellington,
Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington archipelago), Madre
de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover, Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell
and the Queen Adelaide group of small barren rocks and islands lying
immediately north of the Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan.
The large number of English names on this coast is due to the fact
that the earliest detailed survey of this region was made by English
naval officers; the charts prepared from their surveys are still in
use and form the basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands
is inhabited, although some of them are of large size, the largest
(Great Wellington) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been
determined, since the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention
to these territories and led to their careful exploration at the
points in dispute, that Skyring Water, in lat. 53 deg. S., opens westward
into the Gulf of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba
(or Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south of the
Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, Dawson,
Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with innumerable
smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and filling the
channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this inhospitable
region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of the globe, may be
found in the _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's
Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years 1826 and 1836_ (3
vols., 1839).
The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to
Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56 deg. 25' S., is the Diego
Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern possession of
the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez and Easter
islands, the former in about 27 deg. S., 105 deg. W., and the latter, the
easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27 deg. 6' S., 109 deg. 17' W.
Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between the 33rd and
34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez group, and
rising apparently from the same submerged plateau about 500 m. farther
north of the latter are the rocky islets of San Ambrosio and San
Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of Chiloe there are few islands
in close proximity to the coast. The more important of these are La
Mocha, off the southern coast of Arauco, in lat. 38 deg. 20' S., which is
8 m. long and rises to an elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa
Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion, which partially encloses the
Bay of Arauco and is well cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the
port of Talcahuano in the entrance to Concepcion bay. There are a few
barren islands on the desert coast, the largest of which are between
Coquimbo and Caldera. Since the removal of their guano deposits they
have become practically worthless, except where they serve to shelter
anchorages.
Harbours.
The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations
in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point
of land, or small island. The landings are generally dangerous because
of the surf, and the anchorages are unsafe from storms on the
unprotected side. Among the most frequented of these are Valparaiso,
Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and Arica. There are some small harbours
for coasting vessels of light draught along the coast of central
Chile, usually at the partially obstructed mouths of the larger
rivers, as San Antonio near the mouth of the Maipo, Constitucion at
the mouth of the Maule, and Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but
there is no harbour of importance until Conception (or Talcahuano) Bay
is reached. There are three harbours on this bay, El Tome, Penco and
Talcahuano (q.v.), the last being the largest and best-protected port
on the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river
discharges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that of
El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below the
city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast of
Chiloe, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port of
Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for vessels of
light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloe the large gulfs
of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected from the severe
westerly storms of these latitudes, but they are little used because
the approach through the Chacao channel is tortuous and only 2 to 3 m.
wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m. wide and 150 m. long, are
beset with small rocky islands. At the north end of the first is the
Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked bay, on which stands Puerto
Montt, the southern terminus of the Chilean central railway. The large
Gulf of Penas, south of Taytao peninsula, is open to the westerly
storms of the Pacific, but it affords entrance to several natural
harbours. Among these are the Gulfs of Tres Montes and San Estevan,
and Tarn Bay at the entrance to Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of
the Chilean coast contain numerous bays and inlets affording safe
harbours, but the mainland and islands are uninhabited and the climate
inhospitable. Behind Rennell Island in lat. 52 deg. S., however, is a
succession of navigable estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the
Argentine frontier. The central part of this group of estuaries is
called Worsley Sound, and the last and farthest inland of its arms is
Last Hope Inlet (Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean
agricultural colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about
360 m. in length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them
is situated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the
republic.
Rivers.
Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in
the Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses are
necessarily short, and only a few have navigable channels, the
aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all rivers in the
desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching the coast.
Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence of a
time when climatological conditions on this coast were different. The
principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms the provisional
boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, Copiapo, Huasco,
Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the largest, having its sources
on the slopes of the Cordillera south of the Minho volcano, between
21 deg. and 21 deg. 30' S. lat., and flowing south on an elevated plateau
to Chiuchiu, and thence west and north in a great curve to Quillaga,
whence its dry channel turns westward again and reaches the Pacific in
lat. 21 deg. 28' S., a few miles south of the small port of Huanillos. Its
total length is estimated at 250 m. The upper courses of the river are
at a considerable elevation above the sea and receive a large volume
of water from the Cordilleras. The water of its upper course and
tributaries is sweet, and is conducted across the desert in pipes to
some of the coast towns, but in its lower course, as in all the rivers
of this region, it becomes brackish. The Copiapo, which once
discharged into the sea, is now practically exhausted in irrigating a
small fertile valley in which stands the city of that name. The
Copiapo and Huasco have comparatively short courses, but they receive
a considerable volume of water from the higher sierras. The latter is
also used to irrigate a small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the
province of Coquimbo--the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa--exist
under less arid conditions, and like those of the province of
Aconcagua--the Ligua and Aconcagua--are used to irrigate a much larger
area of cultivated territory. The central agricultural provinces are
traversed by several important rivers, all of them rising on the
western slopes of the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower
coast range to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate
the great central valley of Chile. These are the Maipo (Maypo or
Maipu), Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten,
Valdivia or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the
first three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are
open only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their
mouths. The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220
m., 100 of which are navigable. These rivers have been of great
service in the agricultural development of this part of Chile,
affording means of transportation where railways and highways were
entirely lacking. Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers,
whose economic value has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which
flows through Santiago and enters the Maipo from the north; the
turbulent Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro,
which waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
Maule from the north; the Nuble, which rises in the higher Andes north
of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province of
Nuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which rises
in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about lat.
35 deg. 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the Cautin,
which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a tortuous
course westward nearly across that province forms the principal
confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions of Chiloe
(mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of important
rivers which have been only partially explored. They have their
sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side of the line of
highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of the same name
in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through the Cordilleras
into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of Reloncavi at the
northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower course is impeded in
such a manner as to form three small lakes, called Superior, Inferior
and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary of the Puelo, the Manso,
has its sources in Lake Mascardi and other lakes and streams
south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in Argentina, and flows
south-west through the Cordilleras to unite with the Puelo a few miles
west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi Inlet also receives the
outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through a short tortuous stream
called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and river form the boundary line
between the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloe, and traverse a densely
wooded country in a north-westerly direction from the Andes to the
north-eastern shore of the Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the
Yelcho is the next important river to traverse this region. It drains
a large area of Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio
Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen, its principal source being a large lake of
the same name. It flows south-west through the Andes, and then
north-west through Lake Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine
colony of the 16th of October, settled principally by Welshmen from
Chubut, is located on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in
about lat. 43 deg. S. The Palena is another river of the same character,
having its source in a large frontier lake called General Paz and
flowing for some distance through Argentine territory before crossing
into Chile. It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo
Pico, and enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of
the 44th parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an
extensive Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and
discharging into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena
island from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in about
lat. 45 deg. 20' S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific. Both
of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The Las Heras
discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large estuary
called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland about 75 m.
and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the Gulf of Penas.
Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within this great
estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, called
Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The course of
the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, the
short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros San Valentin
and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker Inlet also
receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean lake, San
Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend from lat. 49 deg. 10'
to 48 deg. 20' S.; its north-west arm drains into the Tero, or La Pascua,
river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply cut passage through
the Andes, and the divide between its southern extremity (Laguna Tar)
and Lake Viedma, which discharges through the Santa Cruz river into
the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the hypothesis that this was
once a strait between the two oceans. After a short north-westerly
course the Toro discharges into Baker Inlet in lat. 48 deg. 15' S., long.
73 deg. 24' W. South of the Toro there are no large rivers on this coast,
but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply into the mountains and bring
away the drainage of their snow-capped, storm-swept elevations. A
peculiar network of fjords and connecting channels terminating inland
in a peculiarly shaped body of water with long, widely branching arms,
called Worsley Sound, Obstruction Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an
extensive area between the 51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly
to the Argentine frontier. It has the characteristics of a tidewater
river and drains an extensive region. The sources of the Argentine
river Coile are to be found among the lakes and streams of this same
region, within Chilean territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern
Chile, from the Taytao peninsula (about 46 deg. 50' S. lat.) to Tierra
del Fuego, is the large number of glaciers formed on the western and
southern slopes of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which
discharge direct into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger
lakes of the Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation
of these icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge
direct into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found
elsewhere in the same latitudes.
Lakes.
The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are found
chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the only
lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper saline plateaus
between the 23rd and 28th parallels. They are fed from the melting
snows and periodical storms of the higher Andes, and most of them are
completely dry part of the year. Their waters are saturated with
saline compounds, which in some cases have considerable commercial
value. In central Chile above the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small
and have no special geographical interest, with the exception perhaps
of the Laguna del Maule, in 36 deg. 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37
deg. 20', which lie in the Andes near the Argentine frontier and are
sources of the two rivers of the same names. Below the Bio-Bio river
there is a line of large picturesque lakes extending from the province
of Cautin, south through that of Llanquihue, corresponding in
character and position to the dry lacustrine depressions extending
northward in the same valley. They lie on the eastern side near the
Cordilleras, and serve the purpose of great reservoirs for the
excessive precipitation of rain and snow on their western slopes. With
one exception they all drain westward into the Pacific through short
and partly navigable rivers, and some of the lakes are also utilized
for steamship navigation. These lakes are Villarica on the southern
frontier of Cautin, Rinihue and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue,
Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of
the number are Lakes Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an
estimated area of 200 sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos
los Santos is situated well within the Andean foothills north-east of
Puerto Montt and at an elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that
of the other lakes, Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The
great Andean lakes of General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos
Aires (in lat. 46 deg. 30' S.), Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47 deg. 15' S.)
and San Martin (49 deg. S.), lie partly within Chilean territory. In the
extreme south are Lagoa Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52 deg.
30' S., and two large inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called
Otway Water and Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.
_Geology._--Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions which
differ from each other in their geological structure. Along the coast
lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous
and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are formed chiefly of
folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks of later date. The
great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, but only
approximately, along the boundary between the two zones. Towards the
north the coastal zone disappears beneath the sea and the Andean zone
reaches to the shore. The ancient rocks which form the most
characteristic feature of the former do indeed occur upon the coast of
Peru, but in the north of Chile they are found only in isolated masses
standing close to the shore or, as at Mejillones, projecting into the
sea. South of Antofagasta the old rocks form a nearly continuous band
along the coast, extending as far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and
occupying the greater part of the islands of southern Chile.
Lithologically they are crystalline schists, together with granite,
diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks. They are known to be
pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic or Archaean is
uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid unconformably by
Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north both the Cretaceous and
Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in extent, but towards the
south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part Cretaceous, form a
band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds include both marine and
terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly of Miocene and Pliocene
age. The whole of the north part of Tierra del Fuego is occupied by
plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.
The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of Bolivia
and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds,
together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions. The Mesozoic
beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run in the
direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation
rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias is known
only at La Ternera near Copiapo, where coal-seams with Rhaetic plants
have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series, from the Lias to
the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented without a break of
more than local importance. The deposits are marine, consisting mainly
of sandstone and limestone, together with tuffs and conglomerates of
porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic rocks form a characteristic
feature of the southern Andes, and were at one time supposed to be
metamorphic; but they are certainly volcanic, and as they contain
marine fossils they must have been laid down beneath the sea. They are
not confined to any one horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the
Jurassic and occasionally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They
form, in fact, a special facies which may frequently be traced
laterally into the more normal marine deposit of the same age. The
fauna of the Mesozoic beds is very rich, and includes forms which are
found in northern Europe, others which occur in central Europe, and
others again which are characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It
lends no support to Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part
of the chain is covered by the products of the great volcanoes which
still form the highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The
rocks are liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The
recent lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are
olivine-bearing hypersthene-andesite and basalt.[1]
_Climate_.--The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical
heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego and the
southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region also introduce
vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent by the rainless
plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall of the south. In
general terms it may be said that the extremes of temperature are not
so great as in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere,
because of the greater expanse of water in comparison with the land
areas, the summers being cooler and the winters warmer. The cold
antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps northward along the coast and
greatly modifies the heat of the arid, tropical plateaus. The climate
of northern and central Chile is profoundly affected by the high
mountain barrier on the eastern frontier and by the broad treeless
pampas of Argentina, which raise the easterly moisture-laden winds
from the Atlantic to so high an elevation that they sweep across Chile
without leaving a drop of rain. At very rare intervals light rains
fall in the desert regions north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by
the prevailing coast winds. With this exception these regions are the
most arid on the face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun
during the day and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered
heights and a cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly
falls and the rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided
into a short rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At
Copiapo, in 27 deg. 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual
temperature is 60 deg. and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in
29 deg. 56' S., the temperature is 59.2 deg. and the rainfall 11/2 in. At
Santiago, in 33 deg. 27' S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature
is 54 deg. and the annual rainfall 161/2 in., though the latter varies
considerably. The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21.
At Talca, in 35 deg. 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual
temperature is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the
rainfall has increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region
makes irrigation necessary, and vegetation has something of a
subtropical appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37 deg.
The climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes a
radical change--the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a long
rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well as the
western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers become
torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great part of the
year. At Valdivia, in 39 deg. 49' S. and near the sea-level, the mean
annual temperature is 52.9 deg. and the annual rainfall 108 to 115 in.,
with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological conditions
are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north end of the island of
Chiloe, in 41 deg. 46' S., where the mean annual temperature is 50.7 deg.
and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable character of the climate at
this point is shown by the limited range between its summer and winter
temperatures, the mean for January being 56.5 deg. and the mean for July
45.9 deg. The almost continual cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal
cause, not only of the low summer temperatures, but also of the
comparatively high winter temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and
snow does not lie long. The climate is considered to be healthful
notwithstanding the excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the
Chonos Archipelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely
approximating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year
through, though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and
Valdivia. The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above
sea-level between lat. 41 deg. and 43 deg., descends to 3500 (to 4000)
ft. in Tierra del Fuego, affording another indication of the low maximum
temperatures ruling during the summer. At the extreme south, where
Chilean territory extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the
Straits of Magellan, a new climatic influence is encountered in the
warm equatorial current flowing down the east coast of South America,
which gives to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that
of the western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these
latitudes, also exert a modifying influence on these eastern
districts, sheltering them from the cold westerly storms and giving
them a drier climate. This accounts for the surprising meteorological
data obtained from Punta Arenas, in 53 deg. 10' S., where the mean annual
temperature is 43.2 deg. and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other
observations reduce this annual precipitation to less than 16 in.
According to observations made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition
(1901-1903), at Orange Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55 deg. 31' S., long.
68 deg. 05' W., which is more exposed to the westerly storms, the mean
temperature for 11 months was 41.98 deg. and the total precipitation
(rain and snow) 53.1 in. The mean maximum temperature was 49.24 deg.,
and the mean minimum 35.83 deg. The observations showed 284 days with
rain or snow, of which 70 were with snow.
_Flora_.--The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora
necessitates its division into at least three general zones--the
desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of
the south. The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of
the coast, between Tacna and Copiapo, but with a coarse scanty
vegetation near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes
where moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the
sand. In the valleys of the Copiapo and Huasco rivers a meagre
vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is
produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry
river channels below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing
southward into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid
conditions may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras
afford a larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent
are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent growth
near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be
found the "algarrobo" (_Prosopis siliquastrum_) and "chanar"
(_Gourliea chilensis_), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is
a species of _Skytanthus_. Near the sierras where irrigation is
possible, fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and
fig, that the product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to
the indigenous flora of this region John Ball[2] says: "The species
which grow here are the more or less modified representatives of
plants which at some former period existed under very different
conditions of life." Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a
dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (_Cereus quisco_).
The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields
fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better
covered with a thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the
streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse
ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua.
To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than this,
however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile. This
zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps a
little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical
aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the
_peumo_ (_Cryptocarya peumus_), whose dense evergreen foliage is
everywhere conspicuous. The _quillay_ (_Quillaja saponaria_) is
another characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark
possesses saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm
(_Jubaea spectabilis_) was to be found throughout this part of Chile,
but it has been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap,
from which a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees
is the _pehuen_ or Chilean pine (_Araucaria imbricata_), which often
grows to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its
fruit. Three indigenous species of the beech--the _roble_ (_Fagus
obliqua_), _coyhue_ (_F. Dombeyi_), and _rauli_ (_F. procera_)--are
widely diffused and highly prized for their wood, especially the
first, which is misleadingly called _roble_ (oak). Most of the woods
used in construction and manufactures are found between the Bio-Bio
river and the Taytao peninsula, among which are the _alerce_
(_Fitzroya patagonica_), _cipres_ or Chiloe cypress (_Libocedrus
tetragona_), the Chilean cypress (_L. Chilensis_), _lingue_ (_Persea
lingue_), laurel (_Laurus aromatica_), _avellano_ (_Guevina
avellana_), _luma_ (_Myrtus luma_), _espino_ (_Acacia cavenia_) and
many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech (_F. sylvatica_),
walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the central
zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain slopes,
but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception of
small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are
universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these
forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part, of
the evergreen beech (_Fagus betuloides_), the deciduous antarctic
beech (_F. antarctica_),[3] and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_),
intermingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of
shrubs and plants, among which are _Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus
rigida, Myrtus memmolaria_, two or three species of _Berberis_, wild
currant (_Ribes antarctica_), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns,
reed-like grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of
the Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level
of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region is a
small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which is a
staple article of food among the Fuegians--probably the only instance
where a fungus is the bread of a people.
It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern Chile,
as it is found growing wild in Chiloe and neighbouring islands and on
the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous to these
latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited with a
species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of its best
qualities. Maize and quinoa (_Chenopodium quinoa_) were known in Chile
before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not certain that they are
indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper plant are also indigenous,
and the former is said to have been cultivated by the natives. Among
the many economic plants which have been introduced into Chile and
have become important additions to her resources, the more prominent
are wheat, barley, hemp and alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), together with
the staple European fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine,
grape, fig, olive and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced
into the southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine
productions on the southern coast, a species of kelp, _Macrocystis
pyrifera_, merits special mention because of its extraordinary length,
its habit of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent
seas, and its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine
animals. Captain FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.