FOOTNOTES:

[1] A small Baptist college of the same name---established in 1855

on land given by S.A. Douglas--went out of existence in 1886.

[2] If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months

of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.

[3] The Divinity School has a graduate department and three

under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and

Norwegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the

University is the "Disciples' Divinity House" (1894), a theological

school of the Disciples of Christ.

[4] The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title of

the university on all its letterheads and official documents. Mr

Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title, nor

has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.

President Harper was selected by him to organize the university, and

it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees

should be "always" Baptists. President Harper more than once stated

most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor of

funds to the university "has ever (1902) by a single word or act

indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students

in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by

any officer of the university"; and certainly so far as the public

press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many

professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed

radical views in public.

CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp

law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair advantage

by petty tricks. A more common English form of the word is "chicanery."

"Chicane" is technically used also as a term in the game of bridge for

the points a player may score if he holds no trumps. The word is French,

derived either from _chaug[=a]n_, Persian for the stick used in the game

of "polo," still played on foot and called _chicane_ in Languedoc (the

military use of _chicaner_, to take advantage of slight variations in

ground, suits this derivation), or from _chic_, meaning little or petty,

from the Spanish _chico_, small, which appears in the phrase "_chic a

chic_," little by little.

CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop, founder of All Souls

College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire, in 1363

or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in 1443, in asking leave to retire from

the archbishopric, that he was in his eightieth year. He was the third

and youngest son of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still

extant town records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court,

and in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a

dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham Ferrers grammar

school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the mayoralty in turns. His

occupation does not appear; but his eldest son, William, is on the

earliest extant list (1373) of the Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th

of June 1405 Chicheley was admitted, in succession to his father, to a

burgage in Higham Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have

been of gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the

silly story (copied into the _Diet. Nat. Biog._ from a local historian,

J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked up by

William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy "eating his scanty meal

off his mother's lap," whatever that means. The story was unknown to

Arthur Duck, fellow of All Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It

is only the usual attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and

Gresham, to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded

appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford, as

Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July 1387, in the

earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly lists of those dining

in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position in the list, with eleven

fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows, below him, that this

entry does not mark his first appearance in the college, which had been

going on since 1375 at least, and was chartered in 1379. He must have

come from Winchester College in one of the earliest batches of scholars

from that college, the sole feeder of New College, not from St John

Baptist College, Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the _Dict.

Nat. Biog._ (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's _History of All Souls

College_) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's College was

not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in fact formally founded in

1382, and the school had been going on since 1373 (A.F. Leach, _History

of Winchester College_), while no such college as St John's College at

Winchester ever existed.

Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the year

1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks from about the

6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably for the purpose of his

ordination as a sub-deacon, which was performed by the bishop of Derry,

acting as suffragan to the bishop of London. He was then already

beneficed, receiving a royal ratification of his estate as parson of

Llanvarchell in the diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92

(_Cal. Pat. Rolls_). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for

1394/95, Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford and

gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal

ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was rapid. Already

on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a commission with several

knights and clerks to hear an appeal in a case of _John Molton, Esquire

v. John Shawe, citizen of London_, from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting

for the constable of England in a court of chivalry. Like other

ecclesiastical lawyers and civil servants of the day; he was paid with

ecclesiastical preferments. On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained

ratification of the parsonage of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on

the 30th of March by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his

brother Robert, who restored the church and increased its endowment. In

1397 he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop of

Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal court

till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the suit,

imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of the rolls, his

opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley was parson of

Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly in the college of

Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February 1401/2, now called

doctor of laws, he was pardoned for bringing in, and allowed to use, a

bull of the pope "providing" him to the chancellorship of Salisbury

cathedral, and canonries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton

in that diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon of

Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of London. On

the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided him to a prebend at

Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held prebends at Salisbury,

Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and Abergwyly, and the living of

Brington. On the 9th of January 1405 he found time to attend a court at

Higham Ferrers and be admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405

Chicheley began a diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope

Innocent VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the

papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do likewise.

Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent with Sir John Cheyne

to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and the marriage of Prince Henry

with the French princess Marie, which was frustrated by her becoming a

nun at Poissy next year. In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the

schism, and Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory

XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August 1407 Guy

Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was probably from one of

the Hampshire Meons; there was a John Mone of Havant admitted a

Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop of St David's, died, and on the 12th

of October 1407 Chicheley was by the pope provided to the bishopric of

St David's. Another bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his

benefices with the bishopric.

At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English envoys, were

received by Gregory XII. with special honour, and Bishop Repingdon of

Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the new batch of cardinals created on

the 18th of September 1408, most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted

him. These, together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a

general council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at

Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop of Bordeaux

and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa against both popes. In

January 1409 Chicheley was named with Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the

prior of Canterbury to represent the Southern Convocation at the

council, which opened on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of

April. Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and on the

26th of June a new pope elected instead of them. Chicheley and the other

envoys were received on their return as saviours of the world; though

the result was summed up by a contemporary as trischism instead of

schism, and the Church as giving three husbands instead of two.

Chicheley now became the subject of a leading case, the court of king's

bench deciding, after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that

he could not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that,

spite of the maxim _Papa potest omnia_, a papal bull could not supersede

the law of the land (_Year-book_ ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly he

had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410). As,

however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling him to

appoint his successors to the vacated preferments, including his nephew

William, though still an undergraduate and not in orders, to the

chancellorship of Salisbury, and a prebend at Lichfield, he did not go

empty away. In May 1410 he went again on an embassy to France; on the

11th of September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s

marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was again there

in November. In the interval Chicheley found time to visit his diocese

for the first time and be enthroned at St David's on the 11th of May

1411. He was with the English force under the earl of Arundel which

accompanied the duke of Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there

defeated the Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the

weakness of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with two

other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt to the king

to receive public thanks for their administration. That he was in high

favour with Henry V. is shown by his being sent with the earl of Warwick

to France in July 1413 to conclude peace. Immediately after the death of

archbishop Arundel he was nominated by the king to the archbishopric,

elected on the 4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of

April, and received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th of

July.

These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from the

charge, versified by Shakespeare (_Henry V._ act i. sc. 2) from Hall's

_Chronicle_, of having tempted Henry V. into the conquest of France for

the sake of diverting parliament from the disendowment of the Church.

There is no contemporary authority for the charge, which seems to appear

first in Redman's rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with

an eye to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the

parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed to have

been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before Chicheley was

archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he was not present in the

parliament at all. Moreover parliament was so far from pressing

disendowment that on the petition of the Commons it passed a savage act

against the heresies "commonly called Lollardry" which "aimed at the

destruction of the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards

felons and ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their

schools, conventicles, congregations and confederacies.

In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he had always

been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was present at the siege of

Rouen, and the king committed to him personally the negotiations for the

surrender of the city in January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine.

He crowned Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th

of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a persecutor

of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the position of

archbishop at the time without being so. So he presided at the trial of

John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of London, who after five years'

imprisonment at various times had made public abjuration before the late

archbishop, Arundel, but now was found in possession of a book in

English called _The Lanterne of Light_, which contained the heinous

heresy that the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the

illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that

archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist. As a

relapsed heretic, he was "left to the secular arm" by Chicheley. On the

1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly inquisition by

archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the 12th of February 1420

proceedings were begun before him against William Taylor, priest, who

had been for fourteen years excommunicated for heresy, and was now

degraded and burnt for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to

saints, but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October

1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached that any

religious _potest concumbere cum muliere_ and not mortally sin, was

sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions of a whole

batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records of convocation in

Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of persecutions for heresy, which

largely consisted in attacks on clerical endowments, with negotiations

with the ministers of the crown for the object of cutting down to the

lowest level the clerical contributions to the public revenues in

respect of their endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges

of his see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry

Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V. was alive, he

successfully protested against Beaufort's being made a cardinal and

legate _a latere_ to supersede the legatine jurisdiction of Canterbury.

But during the regency, after Henry VI.'s accession, Beaufort was

successful, and in 1426 became cardinal and legate. This brought

Chicheley into collision with Martin V. The struggle between them has

been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the

encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact

it was almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the rivalry

between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother, Cardinal Beaufort,

than one involving any principle. Chicheley, by appointing a jubilee to

be held at Canterbury in 1420, "after the manner of the Jubilee ordained

by the Popes," threatened to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome

to Canterbury. A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on

the 19th of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated "to

ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward, thereby

setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff,

to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted by God" (_Cal. Pap.

Reg._ vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the papal wrath by opposing the

system of papal provision which diverted patronage from English to

Italian hands, but the immediate occasion was to prevent the

introduction of the bulls making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been

careful enough to obtain "Papal provisions" for himself, his

pluralities, his bishopric and archbishopric.

But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,

papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but for his

educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or loan-fund for

poor scholars at New College, and another for the university of Oxford

at large. He founded no less than three colleges, two at Oxford, one at

Higham Ferrers, while there is reason to believe that he suggested and

inspired the foundation of Eton and of King's College. His first college

at Oxford, in perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now

holds its site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley

under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the model of

Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern and northern

Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and building was required by way

of endowment, as the young monks, who were sent there to study under a

provisor, were supported by the houses of the order to which they

belonged. The site was five acres, and the building is described in the

letters patent "as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour of the

most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates Street outside

the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed with the Cistercian abbeys

in 1539, and granted on the 11th of December 1546 to Christ Church,

Oxford, who sold it to Sir Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College.

The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design. On the 2nd of

May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of Lancaster, "hearing that

Chicheley inflamed by the pious fervour of devotion intended to enlarge

divine service and other works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in

consideration of his fruitful services, often crossing the seas,

yielding to no toils, dangers or expenses ... especially in the

conclusion of the present final peace with our dearest father the king

of France," granted for 300 marks (L200) licence to found, on three

acres at Higham Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four

clerks, of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... "and six

choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV. and his wife

Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of Merseye in Essex late

belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endowment. A papal bull having also

been obtained, on the 28th of August 1425, the archbishop, in the course

of a visitation of Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding

the college, dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas a Becket and St

Edward the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the

vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden. He

further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and

Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave some houses

in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was closely modelled on

Winchester College, with its warden and fellows, its grammar and song

schoolmasters, but a step in advance was made by the masters being made

fellows and so members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede

or almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had existed

before, and this was merely an additional endowment. The whole endowment

was in 1535 worth some L200 a year, about a fifth of that of Winchester

College. Unfortunately, All Souls being a later foundation, the college

at Higham Ferrers was not affiliated to it, and so fell with other

colleges not part of the universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was

surrendered to Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres

on condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the master L10

a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester and Eton, and

maintaining the almshouse. Both still exist, but the school has been

deprived of its house, and the Fitzwilliam family, who now own the

lands, still continue to pay only L10 a year.

All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it, dated 20th

of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be called "the Warden

and College of the souls of all the faithful departed," to study and

pray "for the soul of King Henry VI. and the souls of Henry V., Thomas,

duke of Clarence, and all the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and

other nobles and subjects of our father who during the time and in the

service of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the

kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed." For

this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's Inn, which

Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to obtain a royal grant

and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews, the king's secretary, like

Chicheley himself a scholar of Winchester and fellow of New College, was

named as first warden. A papal bull for the college was obtained on the

21st of June 1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of

May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation

charter was obtained, for which L1000 (L30,000 at least of our money)

was paid. It is commonly represented that the endowment was wholly

derived from alien priories bought by Chicheley from the crown. In

truth, not so large a proportion of the endowment of All Souls was

derived from this source as was that of New College. The only alien

priories granted were Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in

Northamptonshire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,

all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these did not

form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest, particularly the manor

of Edgware, which made the fortune of the college, was bought from

private owners. Early in 1443 the college was opened by Chicheley with

four bishops in state. The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April

1443, raised the number of the college to forty. Like the college

buildings, they are almost an exact copy of those of New College,

_mutatis mutandis_. The college is sometimes described as being

different from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray

for the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry than

the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and collegiate

churches, were to pray for their founders' and other specified souls.

Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation than its model. For while

at New College only twenty out of seventy fellows were to study law

instead of arts, philosophy and theology, at All Souls College sixteen

were to be "jurists" and only twenty-four "artists"; and while at New

College there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All

Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that there are

now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.

Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April 1443,

Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral on the north side

of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself erected in his lifetime.

There is what looks like an excellent contemporary portrait in one of

the windows of All Souls College, which is figured in the _Victoria

County History_ for Hampshire, ii. 262. (A. F. L.)

CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICHEN, an ancient ruined city of Yucatan, Mexico,

situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name is derived from that of the

Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan stock, which formerly inhabited the

city, and _chichen_, having reference probably to two wells or pools

which doubtless originally supplied the inhabitants with water and are

still in existence. The history of the city is unknown, though it is

regarded as probable that it preserved its independence long after the

Spaniards had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area

covered by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are

found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA: _Archaeology_.)

CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER, BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy

of Ireland, second son of Sir John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by

Gertrude, daughter of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at

Raleigh in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He

commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and is said to have

served under Drake in his expedition of 1595. Having seen further

service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at the end of 1598, and was

appointed by the earl of Essex to the governorship of Carrickfergus.

When Essex returned to England, Chichester rendered valuable service

under Mountjoy in the war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in

1601 Mountjoy recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as

the fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster. On the

15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy of Ireland. He

announced his policy in a proclamation wherein he abolished the

semi-feudal rights of the native Irish chieftains, substituting for them

fixed dues, while their tenants were to become dependent "wholly and

immediately upon his majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains

resented this summary interference with their ancient social

organization, and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised

measures against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled to

take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was moderate and

enlightened in his views on this matter, and it was through his

influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic policy was relaxed in

1607. Meantime his difficulties with the Irish tribal leaders remained

unsolved. But in 1607, by "the flight of the Earls" (see O'NEILL), he

was relieved of the presence of the two formidable Ulster chieftains,

the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell. Chichester's policy for dealing with

the situation thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls

among Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of Ulster

as actually carried out was much less favourable and just to the native

population than the lord-deputy desired. In 1613 Chichester was raised

to the peerage as Baron Chichester of Belfast, and in the following year

he went to England to give an account of the state of Ireland. On his

return to Ireland he again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy

against the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and

although he was to some extent successful, it was probably owing to his

opposition to this policy that he was recalled in November 1614. The

king, however, told him "You may rest assured that you do leave that

place with our very good grace and acceptation of your services"; and he

was given the post of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in

retirement for some years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in

the following year he became a member of the privy council. He died on

the 19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.

Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot and widow

of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no children, and his title

became extinct at his death. The heir to his estates was his brother Sir

Edward Chichester (d. 1648), governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was

created Baron Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of

Carrickfergus. This nobleman's eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who

distinguished himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the

rebellion of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was

succeeded in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th

earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage of Great

Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of Ireland) in

1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall in the peerage of

Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of Donegall is his descendant.

See S.R. Gardiner in _Dict. Nat. Biog_. and _History of England,

1603-1642_ (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, _History of Ireland,

1599-1603_ (Dublin, 1735). (R. J. M.)

CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester parliamentary

division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from London by the London,

Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain

at the foot of a spur of the South Downs, a mile from the head of

Chichester Harbour, an inlet of the English Channel. The cathedral

church of the Holy Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th

century, after the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in

1075. The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and

1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the 13th

century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first great builder, and

was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204). Norman work appears in the nave

(arcade and triforium), choir (arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much

very beautiful Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the

eastern part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having

double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century.

The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the possession of

a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful Perpendicular structure

with the top storey octagonal. The principal modern restorations are the

upper part of the north-west tower, which copies the Early English work

of that on the south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which

had been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but

collapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the

direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed with

scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady chapel at the

east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly restored; the

library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the cloisters are

Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's palace retains an

Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft. long within, 131 ft.

across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the nave with its double aisles.

The height of the spire is 277 ft.

At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands the market

cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate Perpendicular style,

built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the finest of its kind in the

United Kingdom. The hospital of St Mary was founded in the 12th century,

but the existing buildings are in a style transitional from Early

English to Decorated. Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other

ancient buildings are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of

which Roman materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of

the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the sculptor

Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly a Grey Friars'

chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate leading into the cathedral

close; and the Vicars College. The city retains a great part of its

ancient walls, which have a circuit of about a mile and a half, and, at

least in part, follow the line of Roman fortifications. The principal

modern buildings, besides churches and chapels, are the council house,

corn exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary

Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop Story. There

is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable agricultural

trade, with breweries and tanneries. A canal connects with Chichester

Harbour. The diocese includes the whole county of Sussex except a few

parishes, with very small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal

borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,

1538 acres.

The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum or Regni. Many

inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been found, and part of the

medieval walls contain a Roman cave. An interesting inscription from

this site is preserved at Goodwood. Situated on one Roman road in direct

connexion with London and another leading from east to west, Chichester

(_Cissaceaster_, _Cicestre_) remained of considerable importance under

the South Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here. Though

Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two burgages in Chichester

and a charter of Henry I. mentions the borough, the earliest extant

charter is that granted by Stephen, confirming to the burgesses their

customs and rights of the borough and gild merchant as they had them in

the time of his grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry

III. the fee farm rent was L38: 10s., but this was reduced by a charter

of 10 Edward II. to L36, the customs of wool, hides and skins being

reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that the Sussex county court

should be held at Chichester, and this was confirmed in the following

year. Confirmations of the previous charters were also granted by Edward

III., Richard II., Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the

mayor and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching

lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court of

record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters were

also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and Mary, and

Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under a mayor and aldermen.

Since 1295, when it first returned a member, Chichester has been

regularly represented in parliament. Throughout the middle ages

Chichester was a place of great commercial importance, Edward III.

establishing a wool staple here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I.

and Henry VII, Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for

corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest for fish

in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of October are still

held.

See _Victoria County History, Sussex_; Alexander Hay, _History of

Chichester_ (Chichester, 1804).

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee river, which it

joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It gives its name to the great

battle of Chickamauga in the American Civil War, fought on the 19-20th

of September 1863, between the Federal army of the Cumberland under

Major-General W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General

Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army in 1863 see

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre had brought the army

of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army

lay on the Tennessee at and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by

the enemy to manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in

the upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan of

operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of Chattanooga,

and the main body secretly crossed the river about Stevenson and

Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was mountainous, the roads few

and poor, and the Federals had to take full supplies of food, forage and

ammunition with them, but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops

were in good hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were

intensified by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment

the army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A. McD.

McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine, another under

Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's Cove. The presence of Federal

masses in Lookout Valley caused Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once,

and the object of the manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to

the want of good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to

great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at Dug Gap, on the

11th, against the flank guard of Bragg's army, and at the time McCook

was far away to the south, and Crittenden's corps, which had occupied

Chattanooga on the 9th, was also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but

Rosecrans, like every other commander under whom he served, placed

unbounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in

neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far to

disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had at last

collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga. But Bragg

had now received heavy reinforcements, and lay, concentrated for battle,

on the other side of the Creek.

[Illustration: CHICKAMAUGA]

The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of September) had

little influence on its course. Both armies lay in the plain, the two

lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention was to force his attack home

on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting him off from Chattanooga and

throwing him back into the mountain country whence he had come. On the

19th a serious action took place between the Confederate right and

Rosecrans' left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The

Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard upon

Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One of the divisions

detached from the centre for this purpose was by inadvertence taken out

of the first line, and before the gap could be filled the Confederate

central attack, led by Longstreet and Hood, the fighting generals of

Lee's army, and carried out by veteran troops from the Virginian

battlefields, cut the Federal army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated

on the Federal right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its

fate. Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of

his army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing in a

semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville, resisted

for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army. Rosecrans in

the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the rear near Chattanooga

itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent itself uselessly on the heroic

divisions under Thomas, who remained on the field till night and then

withdrew in good order to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st,

imposing respect upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had

re-established order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga,

whither Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign

see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a severity in

the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War. Of 70,000

Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and wounded, and the

Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000. The battlefield has been

converted into a national park, and was used during the Spanish American

War (1898) as a place of mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.

CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock, now

settled in the western part of Oklahoma. Their former range was northern

Mississippi and portions of Tennessee. According to their own tradition

and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the

Creeks and Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these

tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the

district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that name.

Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the first they were

hostile to the French colonists. With the English, on the other hand,

their relations were more satisfactory. In 1786 they made a treaty with

the United States; and in 1793 they assisted the whites in their

operations against the Creeks. In the early years of the 19th century

part of their territory was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion

of the tribe migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,

amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the 6,442,400

acres of which they were still possessed, and entered into a treaty with

the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe. In 1855, however, they

effected a separation of this union, with which they had soon grown

dissatisfied, and by payment to the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a

complete right to their present territory. In the Civil War they joined

the Confederates and suffered in consequence; but their rights were

restored by the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000

acres; and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an

independent government consisting of a governor, a senate, and a house

of representatives; but tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The

Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered 4826 in 1900, and with the

fully admitted "citizens," i.e. the freed slaves and adopted whites, the

whole nation amounted to some 10,000.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).

CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,

near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W. of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900)

3209; (1907) 7862, including 1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is

served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island &

Pacific and the Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a

very fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products are

Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock. The city has

various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed oil, lumber,

furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was founded in 1892 and was

chartered as a city in 1899.

CHICKEN-POX (Syn. _varicella_, a Low Latin diminutive of _variola_), a

specific contagious disease characterized by an eruption of vesicles in

the skin. The disease usually occurs in epidemics, and is one of

childhood, the patients being generally between two and six years old.

The incubation period is from ten to fifteen days; there are practically

no prodromal symptoms, the only indication being a slight amount of

fever for some twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its

appearance. A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either

on the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these develop

into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in another

thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the fourth day these

vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall off, leaving as a rule

no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first three days, so that at the

end of that time they can be seen in all stages of growth and decay. The

eruption is most marked on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and

limbs, and on the mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The

temperature begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a

certain slight amount may persist after the disappearance of all

symptoms. It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very

favourable course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare.

One attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one

individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light, and the

patient should be prevented from scratching the spots, which would lead

to ulceration and scarring. After the first few days there is no

necessity to confine the patient to bed. In the large majority of cases,

it is easy to distinguish the disease from smallpox, but in certain

patients it is very difficult. The chief points in the differential

diagnosis are as follows. (1) In chicken-pox the rash is distributed

chiefly on the trunk, and less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles

are oval, whereas in smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are

also more superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty

feeling of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full

growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules are usually

monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.

CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the

province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) 10,868.

Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered by the river Lirio, and

sheltered, on the north and south, by low hills covered with vines and

plantations. It faces the gulf of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild

climate and pleasant surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of

the richer Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many

visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana la Vieja,

the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S., the battlefield

of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas Graham (Lord Lynedoch)

defeated the French under Marshal Victor, on the 5th of March 1811.

CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on

the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Chicopee

river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167,

of whom 8139 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is

served by the Boston & Maine railway. The city, which has an area of

about 25 sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee

Falls, Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on

both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less than 3

m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The most important

products are cotton goods (two large factories having, together, about

200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially the Stevens rifles), tools,

rubber and elastic goods, sporting goods, swords, automobiles and

agricultural implements. Here, too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in

which some of the finest monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country

have been cast, including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The

bronze casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames

(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began the

manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value of the city's

factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase of 43.2% in five

years. There is a public library. The municipality owns and operates the

water-works system and the electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled

about 1638, was set off from Springfield as an independent township in

1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the home

of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian word meaning

"cedar-tree" or "birch-bark place."

CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, _Cichorium Intybus_ (natural

order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great Britain,

occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by road-sides. It has

a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy stem rising to a height

of 2 or 3 ft.--the leaves around the base being lobed and toothed, not

unlike those of the dandelion. The flower heads are of a bright blue

colour, few in number, and measure nearly an inch and a half across.

Chicory is cultivated much more extensively on the continent of

Europe--in Holland, Belgium, France and Germany--than in Great Britain;

and as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots

roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of, or

addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as salads; and

the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop which is greedily

consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is chiefly in its first

capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory is employed. A large

proportion of the chicory root used for this purpose is obtained from

Belgium and other neighbouring continental countries; but a considerable

quantity is cultivated in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the

preparation of chicory the older stout white roots are selected, and

after washing they are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In

this condition the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it

is roasted till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground

it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute of

its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory possess

any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their peculiar virtues to

coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for over a hundred years it has

been successfully used as a substitute for or recognized addition to

coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been

tried for the same purpose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable

and harmless. It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and

body. It is at least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium

especially its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.

The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a winter salad

known by the name of _Barbe de capucin_. When intended for winter use,

chicory is sown in May or June, commonly in drills, and the plants are

thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at first the leaves grow very strong,

they are cut off, perhaps in the middle of August, about an inch from

the ground, so as to promote the production of new leaves, and check the

formation of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants are

raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the roots are

also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely together in

boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when needful. When frost

comes on, the boxes are protected by any kind of litter and haulm. As

the salad is wanted, they are removed into some place having a

moderately increased temperature, and where there is no light. Each box

affords two crops of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for

cutting when about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young

leaves of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich

mould, or in boxes in a heat of from 55 deg. to 60 deg., giving a gentle

watering as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight

after sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.

In Belgium a variety of chicory called _Witloef_ is much preferred as a

salad to the French _Barbe de capucin_. The seeds are sown and the

plants thinned out like those of the ordinary sort. They are eventually

planted in light soil, in succession, from the end of October to

February, at the bottom of trenches a foot or more in depth, and covered

over with from 2 to 3 ft. of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks,

according to the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be

cut before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced in

frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same way as

sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten with butter,

and throughout the Continent the roots are stored for use as salads

during winter.

See also ENDIVE (_Cichorium endivia_).

CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India, in the South Arcot

district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and 151 m. S. of Madras by rail.

Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas at Chidambaram are the oldest in the

south of India, and portions of them are gems of art. Here is supposed

to have been the northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the

successive capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum and

Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is said to have

been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who came south on a

pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the temple tank; upwards of

60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every December. It contains a "hall of

a thousand pillars," one of numerous such halls in India, the exact

number of pillars in this case being 984; each is a block of solid

granite, and the roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three

hundred of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within

the temple enclosure.

CHIEF (from Fr. _chef_, head, Lat. _caput_), the head or upper part of

anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the escutcheon,

occupying one-third of the whole. When applied to a leading personage, a

head man or one having the highest authority, the term chief or

chieftain (Med. Lat. _capitanus_, O. Fr. _chevetaine_) is principally

confined to the leader of a clan or tribe. The phrase "in chief" (Med.

Lat. _in capite_) is used in feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief

direct from the lord paramount (see FEUDALISM).

CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in Bavaria,

lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Inn

(to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach. With a length of 6 and

a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about 33 sq. m., and contains three

islands, Herrenwoerth, Frauenwoerth and Krautinsel. The first, which has a

circumference of 61/2 m. and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the

romantic castle which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat

of a bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine

monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south sides,

but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which command

beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear and it is well

stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights are strictly

preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway from Rosenheim to

Salzburg skirts the southern shores.

CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name and of the

provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in 99 deg. 0' E., 18

deg. 46' N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying walls, lies on the

right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the branches of the Me Nam, in a

plain 800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It

has streets intersecting at right angles, and an enceinte within which is

the palace of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of

the river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian

Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of converts and

has done much good educational work. Chieng Mai, which the Burmese have

corrupted into Zimme, by which name it is known to many Europeans, has

long been an important trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants

from the north and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west

and south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in

which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms are engaged.

The total value of the import and export trade of the Bayap division

amounts to about L2,500,000 a year. The Siamese high commissioner of

Bayap division has his headquarters in Chieng Mai, and though the

hereditary chief continues as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in

the other Lao states of Nan, Pre, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which

make up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that

official and his staff. The government forest department, founded in

1896, has done good work in the division, and the conservator of forests

has his headquarters in Chieng Mai. The headquarters of an army division

are also situated here. A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where,

in addition to the ordinary law courts, there is an international court

having jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.

The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many Shans,

a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty Europeans. Hill tribes

(Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains in large numbers.

Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom, which, at

one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma and then to Siam, and

later broken up into a number of states, has finally become a provincial

division of Siam. In 1902 a rising of discontented Shans took place in

Bayap which at one time seemed serious, several towns being attacked and

Chieng Mai itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the

malcontents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included

the commissioner of Pre and a European officer of gendarmerie.

CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of

Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the town of Turin. Pop.

(1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune). Its Gothic cathedral, founded in

1037 and reconstructed in 1405, is the largest in Piedmont, and has a

13th century octagonal baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of

Turin in the 9th and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th

century. In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy

to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came under

the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it was made into a

principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an early centre of trade and

manufacture; and in the middle of the 15th century produced about

100,000 pieces of cotton goods per annum.

See L. Cibrario, _Delle storie di Chieri_ (Turin, 1855).

CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of

Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome by rail,

and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901) 26,368. It is

situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. from the railway

station, from which it is reached by an electric tramway. It commands a

splendid view of the Apennines on every side except the east, where the

Adriatic is seen. It is an active modern town, upon the site of the

ancient _Teate Marrucinorum_ (q.v.), with woollen and cotton

manufactories and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of

Chieti dates from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop.

The cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of the

exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is, however, fine.

The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals. Close by is the town

hall, which contains a small picture gallery, in which, in 1905, was

held an important exhibition of ancient Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis

family possesses a private collection of some importance. To the north

of Chieti is the octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in

1317, which is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple

of Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its name

from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part of the duchy of

Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801, but was soon rebuilt and

became the seat of a count. The Normans made it the capital of the

Abruzzi.

CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives), a seaport

of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Chih-li, in the

province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of

the city of Teng-chow-fu. It was formerly quite a small place, and had

only the rank of an unwalled village; but it was chosen as the port of

Teng-chow, opened to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin,

and it is now the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the

centre of a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British

consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign

settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though most of the

inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the lowest class, the

houses are for the most part well and solidly built of stone. The

foreign settlement occupies a position between the native town and the

sea, which neither affords a convenient access for shipping nor allows

space for any great extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto

been steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large

hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the place

as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the community are

supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church. Though the harbour

is deep and extensive, and possessed of excellent anchorage, large

vessels have to be moored at a considerable distance from the shore.

Chi-fu has continued to show fair progress as a place of trade, but the

total volume is inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies.

In 1880 the total exports and imports were valued at L2,724,000, in 1899

they amounted to L4,228,000, and in 1904 to L4,909,908. In 1895 there

entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage of 835,248 tons,

while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to 1842, representing a

tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports are mainly woollen and cotton

goods, iron and opium, and the exports include bean cake, bean oil,

peas, raw silk, straw-braid, walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli,

vegetables and dried fruits. Communication with the interior is only by

roads, which are extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by

pack animals. From its healthy situation and the convenience of its

anchorage, Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of

the European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has at times

been an important coaling station. It lies in close proximity to Korea,

Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it shared to some extent in the

excitement to which the military and naval operations in these quarters

gave rise. The Chi-fu convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas

Wade and Li-Hung-Chang.

CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of Sienese extraction

descended from the counts of Ardenghesca. The earliest authentic mention

of them is in the 13th century, and they first became famous in the

person of Agostino Chigi (d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built

the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by

Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments; Pope

Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and gave him the

privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) arms with those of the

Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope (Alexander VII.) in 1655,

conferred the Roman patriciate on his family, and created his nephew

Agostino prince of Farnese and duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold

I. created the latter _Reichsfuerst_ (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in

1659. In 1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of

the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a very great

importance on the death of every pope. On the marriage in 1735 of

another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with Giulia Albani, heiress of the

Albani, a Venetian patrician family, said to be of Albanian origin, her

name was added to that of Chigi. The family owns large estates at Siena.

See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. (Berlin,

1868); _Almanach de Gotha_.

CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping parliamentary

division of Essex, England; with stations (Chigwell Lane and Chigwell)

on two branches of the Great Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London.

Pop. (1901) 2508. The old village church of St Mary, principally

Perpendicular, has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of

the Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south and

east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of Chigwell

appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery of the

neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of visitors and of

residents from London, is described in Dickens's novel, _Barnaby Rudge_,

and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's "Maypole," still stands. The old

grammar school, founded by Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d.

1631), whose fine memorial brass is in St Mary's church, has become one

of the minor modern institutions of the English public school type.

William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead.

CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of China, in which is

situated Peking, the capital of the empire. It contains eleven

prefectural cities, and occupies an area of 58,950 sq. m. The population

is 29,400,000, the vast majority of whom are resident in the plain

country. This province forms part of the great delta plain of China

proper, 20,000 sq. m. of which are within the provincial boundaries; the

remainder of the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define

its northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed

principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary the

Hun-ho ("muddy river"), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko, and other

streams having their sources in mountains of Shan-si and other ranges.

It is bounded E. by the Gulf of Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by

Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The proportion of Mahommedans among the population

is very large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000

Mahommedan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,

there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of heat and

cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of December, January

and February the rivers are frozen up, and even the Gulf of Chih-li is

fringed with a broad border of ice. There are four rivers of some

importance in the province: the Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in

the mountains in Mongolia and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a

junction with the Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in

the mountains on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a

south-easterly course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which

point it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m.

above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after running

a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties itself in the

same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which rises in Mongolia,

enters the province on the north-east after passing to the west of

Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p'ing Fu in its course (which is

south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from thence winds its way to the

north-eastern boundary of the Gulf of Chih-li. The province contains

three lakes of considerable size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu,

which lies in 37 deg. 40' N. and 115 deg. 20' E.; the second in importance

is one which is situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the

Tu-lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high roads

radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of Suean-hwa Fu, which

passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu K'ow; another, which enters

Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow to the north-east, and after continuing

that course as far as Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to

Dolonnor; a third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing

Fu to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates on the

coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly direction to

Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. The mountain ranges to

the north of the province abound with coal, notably at Chai-tang,

T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western

Hills. "At Chai-tang," wrote Baron von Richthofen, "I was surprised to

walk over a regular succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of

which, estimating it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the

lowest to the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is

anthracite, as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of

greater value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Suean-hwa Fu

coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places above

named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in different parts

of the province, and hot and warm springs are very common at the foot of

the hills along the northern and western edges of the province. The

principal agricultural products are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet,

maize, pulse and potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large

quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples, plums,

apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is the Treaty Port of

the province.

CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded N. and N.E. by

the United States (New Mexico and Texas), E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango,

and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora. Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area,

87,802 sq. m. The surface of the state is in great part an elevated

plateau, sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side,

however, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which form

elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain extending from

the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite destitute of vegetation

where irrigation is not used. There is little rainfall in this region

and the climate is hot and dry. The more elevated plateaus and valleys

have the heavier rainfall, but the average for the state is barely 39

in.; an impermeable clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil,

and the bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolson de

Mapimi depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once considered to

be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with irrigation have shown

its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion of the narrow valleys

of the sierras on the west into irrigation reservoirs promises to

reclaim a considerable part of its area. The only river of consequence

is the Conchos, which flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande

across the whole length of the state. In the north there are several

small streams flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little

progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always be a

serious obstacle to its development outside the districts where

irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable to the

production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo, cotton and grapes, from

which wine and brandy are made. The principal grape-producing district

is in the vicinity of Ciudad Juarez. Stock-raising is an important

industry in the mountainous districts of the west, where there is

excellent pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal

industry of the state, however, is mining--its mineral resources

including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The silver mines

of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and include the famous

mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla, Cosihuiriachic, Jesus

Maria, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more

than one hundred of these mines, and the total annual yield at the end

of the 19th century was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed

from north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are short

branches to some of the mining districts.

Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva Viscaya, with

Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern provinces, known as the

Provincias Internas, were separated from the viceroyalty, and in 1786

the provinces were reorganized as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not

separated from Durango until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow

Spanish authority in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his

lieutenants were captured and executed, after which the province

remained passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state

have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks in

Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to Juarez. The

principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of

the state capital, in a rich mining district (pop. 14,748 in 1900),

Ciudad Juarez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E. of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).

CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state, on the

Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City and 225 m. S. by E.

of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900) 30,405. The city stands in a

beautiful valley opening northward and hemmed in on all other sides by

spurs of the Sierra Madre. It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its

climate is mild and healthy. The city is laid out regularly, with broad

streets, and a handsome plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his

companions of the revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most

noteworthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of San

Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the best

specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was built, it is

said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of the Santa

Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the government palace, the

Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit College (now occupied by a modern

institution of the same character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in

the 18th century. Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway,

and has tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation of

the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo

mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance is

agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing is making good

progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics by modern methods.

The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods are old industries in

Chihuahua, but the introduction of American skill and capital toward the

end of the 19th century placed them on an entirely new footing. The

manufacture of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.

Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining town, and was

made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua.

Because of the rich mines in its vicinity it soon became one of the most

prosperous towns in northern Mexico, although the state was constantly

raided by hostile Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000.

The war of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to

political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency of

General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the United States,

Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March 1847, by Colonel A.W.

Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March by General Price. In 1864

President Juarez made the city his provisional capital for a short time.

CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province of India. It

is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the Indus, about 50 m. below

Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It was occupied by a British force

early in 1893, when a determined attack was made on the place by the

Kohistanis from the Indus valley districts to the south-west, aided by

contingents from Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus.

Its importance consists in its position with reference to the

Kashmir-Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected

with Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its command

of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit from the Punjab

frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil pass. By the Kashmir route

Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would

bring it 100 m. nearer, but the unsettled condition of the country

through which the road passes has been a bar to its general use.

CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; _Erythema pernio_), a mild form of frostbite,

affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing a painful

inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of the affected part.

The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology are (1) that the lesions

occur in the extremities of the circulation, and (2) that they are

usually started by rapid changes from heat to cold or vice versa. The

treatment is both general and local. In the general treatment, if a

history of blanching fingers (fingers or hands going "dead") can be

obtained, the chilblains may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's

disease, and these improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac

tonics are often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some

attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve

wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, _e.g._ calcium lactate

or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer in most cases.

The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and avoid extremes of heat

and cold. In the local treatment, two drugs are of great value in the

early congestive stage--ichthyol and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in

lanoline spread on linen and worn at night, often dispels an attack at

the beginning. Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill

in its use. It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins,

stronger for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by

lanoline. If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from

the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently

changed, soon cures:--Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol [minim]x,

pulveris zinci oxidi [drachm]iv, vaseline [ounce]ss.

CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a Wiltshire man,

who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith, became himself a London

goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of

another goldsmith named William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's

stepfather, Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time

the business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers. This was

the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up the business of a

goldsmith and confined himself to that of a banker. He inherited some

wealth and was very successful in business; he was jeweller to the

king, and lent considerable sums of money to the government. Being a

freeman of the city of London, Child was elected a member of the court

of common council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the

same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691 and as lord

mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began about this time. In 1698

he was chosen member of parliament for Devizes and in 1702 for the city

of London, and was again returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died

on the 4th of October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir

Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought Osterley

Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant the earl of

Jersey.

Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died in 1721.

Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor of London in 1732,

and a director of the East India Company. He was chosen member of

parliament for the city of London in 1722, and was member for Middlesex

from 1727 until his death. After the death of the younger Sir Francis at

Fulham on the 20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his

brother Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the

principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was at first

conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet Street, London; and

the present bank occupies the site formerly covered by the Marygold and

the adjacent Devil tavern.

CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and educationist, was

born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825. He graduated at Harvard in

1846, taking the highest rank in his class in all subjects; was tutor in

mathematics in 1846-1848; and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in

history, political economy and English. After two years of study in

Europe, in 1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor of

rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English drama (having

edited _Four Old Plays_ in 1848) and Germanic philology, the latter at

Berlin and Goettingen during a leave of absence, 1849-1853; and he took

general editorial supervision of a large collection of the British

poets, published in Boston in 1853 and following years. He edited

Spenser (5 vols., Boston, 1855), and at one time planned an edition of

Chaucer, but contented himself with a treatise, in the _Memoirs of the

American Academy of Arts and Sciences_ for 1863, entitled "Observations

on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did much to

establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and scansion as now

generally understood. His largest undertaking, however, grew out of an

original collection, in his British Poets series, of _English and

Scottish Ballads_, selected and edited by himself, in eight small

volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward the leisure of his life--much

increased by his transfer, in 1876, to the new professorship of

English--was devoted to the comparative study of British vernacular

ballads. He accumulated, in the university library, one of the largest

folklore collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than

printed sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all

other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative hearing to

popular versions still surviving. At last his final collection was

published as _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, at first in ten

parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto volumes, which remain the

authoritative treasury of their subject. Professor Child worked--and

overworked--to the last, dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896,

having completed his task save for a general introduction and

bibliography. A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work

by his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.

CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact if not in

name the first governor-general of the British settlements in India, was

born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his uncle, the chief of

the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was appointed chief of the East

India Company's affairs at Surat and Bombay, while at the same time his

brother, Sir Josiah Child (q.v.), was governor of the company at home.

The two brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs of

the company through the period of struggle between the Moguls and

Mahrattas. They have been credited by history with the change from

unarmed to armed trade on the part of the company; but as a matter of

fact both of them were loth to quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out

with Aurangzeb in 1689, but in the following year Child had to sue for

peace, one of the conditions being that he should be expelled from

India. He escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.

CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant, economist and governor

of the East India Company, was born in London in 1630, the second son of

Richard Child, a London merchant of old family. After serving his

apprenticeship in the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his

own account at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the

Commonwealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable fortune,

and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India Company, his

interest in India being accentuated by the fact that his brother John

(q.v.) was making his career there. He was returned to parliament in

1659 for Petersfield; and in later years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678)

and for Ludlow (1685-1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy,

both by speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the

East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to the right

of restricting competition with its trade, brought him to the notice of

the shareholders, and he became a director in 1677, and, subsequently,

deputy-governor and governor. In this latter capacity he was for a

considerable time virtually the sole ruler of the company, and directed

its policy as if it were his own private business. He and his brother

have been credited with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but

the actual renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the

company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor Sir Joseph

Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He died on the 22nd of

June 1699. Child made several important contributions to the literature

of economics; especially _Brief Observations concerning Trade and the

Interest of Money_ (1668), and _A New Discourse of Trade_ (1668 and

1690). He was a moderate in those days of the "mercantile system," and

has sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development of

the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various proposals

for improving British trade by following Dutch example, and advocated a

low rate of interest as the "_causa causans_ of all the other causes of

the riches of the Dutch people." This low rate of interest he thought

should be created and maintained by public authority. Child, whilst

adhering to the doctrine of the balance of trade, observed that a people

cannot always sell to foreigners without ever buying from them, and

denied that the export of the precious metals was necessarily

detrimental. He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous

population, and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and

employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated the

reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade with her

colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was created Viscount

Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.

See also Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Grant, _Sketch

of the History of the East India Company_ (1813); D. Macpherson,

_Annals of Commerce_ (1805); B. Willson, _Ledger and Sword_ (1903).

(T. A. I.)

CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was born at Medford,

Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802. She was educated at an

academy in her native town and by her brother Convers Francis

(1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and from 1842 to 1863 Parkman

professor in the Harvard Divinity School. Her first stories, _Hobomok_

(1824) and _The Rebels_ (1825), were popular successes. She was a

schoolmistress until 1828, when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874),

a brilliant but erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834

she edited _The Juvenile Miscellany_, the first children's monthly

periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her husband

began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery cause, and in 1833

she published _An Appeal for that Class of Americans called Africans_, a

stirring portrayal of the evils of slavery, and an argument for

immediate abolition, which had a powerful influence in winning recruits

to the anti-slavery cause. Henceforth her time was largely devoted to

the anti-slavery cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she

edited the _Anti-Slavery Standard_ in New York City. After the Civil War

she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights. She died

at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1880. In addition to

the books above mentioned, she wrote many pamphlets and short stories

and _The (American) Frugal Housewife_ (1829), one of the earliest

American books on domestic economy, _The Mother's Book_ (1831), a

pioneer cook-book republished in England and Germany, _The Girls' Own

Book_ (1831), _History of Women_ (2 vols., 1832), _Good Wives_ (1833),

_The Anti-Slavery Catechism_ (1836), _Philothea_ (1836), a romance of

the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, _Letters from New York_ (2

vols., 1843-1845), _Fact and Fiction_ (1847), _The Power of Kindness_

(1851), _Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life_ (1853), _The Progress of

Religious Ideas through Successive Ages_ (3 vols., 1855), _Autumnal

Leaves_ (1857), _Looking Toward Sunset_ (1864), _The Freedman's Book_

(1865), _A Romance of the Republic_ (1867), and _Aspirations of the

World_ (1878).

See _The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical

Introduction by J.G. Whittier_ (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W.

Higginson's _Contemporaries_ (Boston, 1899).

CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings, generally

below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative of "parent," and

applies to either sex, though some early dialectical uses point to a

certain restriction to a girl. The word is derived from the A.S. _cild_,

an old Teutonic word found in English only, in other Teutonic languages

_kind_ and its variants being used, usually derived from the

Indo-European root _ken_, seen in Gr. [greek: genos], Lat. _genus_, and

Eng. "kin"; _cild_ has been held to be a modification of the same root,

but the true root is _kilth_, seen in Goth. _kilthei_, womb, an origin

which appears in the expressions "child-birth," "to be with child," and

the like; the plural in A.S. was _cild_, and later _cildru_, which in

northern M.E. became _childre or childer_, a form dialectically extant,

and in southern English _childeren_ or _children_ (with the plural

termination -en, as in "brethren"). There are several particular uses of

"child" in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the

"Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members of a race,

as in "children of Abraham," and also to express origin, giving a

description of character, as "children of darkness." During the 13th and

14th centuries "child" was used, in a sense almost amounting to a title

of dignity, of a young man of noble birth, probably preparing for

knighthood. In the _York Mysteries_ of about 1440 (quoted in the _New

English Dictionary_) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring

to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of Livy (ii.

124) "than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit Caius Mucius." The

spelling "childe" is frequent in modern usage to indicate its archaic

meaning. Familiar instances are in the line of an old ballad quoted in

_King Lear_, "childe Roland to the dark tower came," and in Byron's

_Childe Harold_. With this use may be compared the Spanish and

Portuguese _Infante_ and _Infanta_, and the early French use of _Valet_

(q.v.).

_Child-study._--The physical, psychological and educational development

of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided material in recent

years for what has come to be regarded as almost a distinct part of

comparative anthropological or sociological science, and the literature

of adolescence (q.v.) and of "child-study" in its various aspects has

attained considerable proportions. In England the British Child Study

Association was founded in 1894, its official organ being the

_Paidologist_, while similar work is done by the Childhood Society, and,

to a certain extent, by the Parents' National Educational Union (which

issues the _Parents' Review_). In America, where specially valuable work

has been done, several universities have encouraged the study (notably

Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John Dewey); and

Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has led to elaborate inquiries,

the principal periodical for the movement being the _Pedagogical

Seminary_. The impetus to this study of the child's mind and capacities

was given by the classic work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H.

Pestalozzi, and F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it

much further, notably W.T. Preyer (_The Mind of the Child_, 1881), whose

psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief pioneers in new

methods of investigation. Other authorities of first-rate importance

(their chief works only being given here) are J. Sully (_Studies of

Childhood_, 1896), Earl Barnes (_Studies in Education_, 1896, 1902),

J.M. Baldwin (_Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, 1895),

Sigismund (_Kind und Welt_, 1897), A.F. Chamberlain (_The Child_, 1900),

G. Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader

in America of such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down

(_Practical Child Study_, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (_Fundamentals of

Child-study_, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (_Psychology of

Childhood_, 5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth

particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond's excellent summary,

_Introduction to Child Study_ (1907), which deals succinctly with

methods and results; Irving King's _Psychology of Child Development_

(1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof. David R. Major's _First Steps

in Mental Growth_ (1906); and Miss M. Shinn's _Notes an the Development

of a Child_ (1893) and Mrs Louise E. Hogan's _Study of a Child_ (1898),

which are noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what

children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of important

material has been collected and analysed, and a number of conclusions

suggested which bear both on psychology and the science of education;

but it must be borne in mind, as regards a great deal of the voluminous

literature of the subject, that it is often more pertinent to general

psychology and hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the

essential nature of a child--whatever "_a_ child" generically may be as

the special object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a

transition stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern

"child students" to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular

child with a _parti pris_, or to exaggerate child-study--which is really

interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards full human

equipment--as though it involved the discovery of some distinct form of

animal, of separate value on its own account.

_Growth._--Into the psychical characteristics and development of the

child and all the interesting educational problems involved it is

impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the works cited

above. But a knowledge of the more important features of normal physical

development has a constant importance. Some of these, as matters of

comparative physiology or pathology, are dealt with in other articles in

this work. One of these chief matters of interest is weight and height,

and this is naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But

while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the British

average for healthy children may here be followed. At birth the average

weight of a baby is a little over 7 lb and the length about 20 in. The

following are the averages for weight and height, taking the age in

years of the child at the last birthday:--

+--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+

| Age. | Height, in inches. | Weight, in pounds. |

+--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+

| | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys |

| | | | | |

| 1 | 28.7 | 29 | 19.8 | 20.5 |

| 2 | 32.5 | 32.5 | 25.5 | 26.5 |

| 3 | 35 | 35 | 30 | 31.2 |

| 4 | 38 | 38 | 34 | 35 |

| 5 | 40.5 | 41 | 39.2 | 41.2 |

| 6 | 42.8 | 44 | 41.7 | 44.4 |

| 7 | 44.5 | 46 | 47.5 | 49.7 |

| 8 | 46.6 | 47 | 52.1 | 54.9 |

| 9 | 48.7 | 49 | 55.5 | 60.4 |

| 10 | 51 | 51.8 | 62 | 67.5 |

| 11 | 53.1 | 53.5 | 68 | 72 |

| 12 | 55.6 | 55 | 76.4 | 76.7 |

| 13 | 57.7 | 57 | 87.2 | 82.6 |

| 14 | 59.8 | 59.3 | 96.7 | 92 |

| 15 | 60.9 | 62 | 102.7 | 106 |

+--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+

See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS; CHILDREN'S

GAMES; INFANT; &c.

CHILDEBERT, the name of three Frankish kings.

CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis. In the

partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his share the town

of Paris, and the country to the north as far as the river Somme, and to

the west as far as the English Channel, with the Armorican peninsula. In

524, after the murder of Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the

cities of Chartres and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions

against the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share of the

spoils of that kingdom the towns of Macon, Geneva and Lyons. When

Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the Franks in

535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was guaranteed to Childebert

by his brothers. Childebert also made a series of expeditions against

the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he took possession of Pampeluna with the

help of his brother Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced

to retreat. From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious

relic, the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates

of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St

Germain-des-Pres. He died without issue in 558, and was buried in the

abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been discovered.

See "Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert a

Saint-Germain-des-Pres," in the _Bulletin de la Societe des

Antiquaires_ (1887).

CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of Sigebert. When

his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert was taken from Paris by

Gundobald, one of his faithful _leudes_, to Metz, where he was

recognized as sovereign. He was then only five years old, and during his

long minority the power was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and

the nobles. Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy,

sought alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn. But

after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers occasioned

to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of Gundobald in 585,

Childebert threw himself unreservedly into the arms of Gontran. By the

pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert was recognized as Gontran's heir, and

with his uncle's help he quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded

in seizing the castle of Woewre. Many attempts were made on his life by

Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance for her son

Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert annexed the

kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated seizing Clotaire's estates

and becoming sole king of the Franks. He died, however, in 595.

Childebert II. had had relations with the Byzantine empire, and fought

in 585 in the name of the emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.

CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the Merovingians. A

son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded his brother Clovis III. in

695, and reigned until 711.

See B. Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Koenige," in

_Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490. (C. PF.)

CHILDERIC, the name of three Frankish kings.

CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded his

father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe he was

established around the town of Tournai, on lands which he had received

as a _foederatus_ of the Romans, and for some time he kept the peace

with his allies. About 463, in conjunction with the Roman general

Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths, who hoped to extend their

dominion along the banks of the Loire; after the death of Egidius he

assisted Count Paul in attempting to check an invasion of the Saxons.

Paul having perished in the struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from

some Saxons, followed them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and

massacred them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who wished

to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him. The stories of

his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight years in Thuringia

with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his return when a faithful

servant advised him that he could safely do so by sending to him half of

a piece of gold which he had broken with him; and of the arrival at

Tournai of Queen Basine, whom he married, are entirely legendary. After

the fall of the Western Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric

regarded himself as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in

481 and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (q.v.), afterwards

king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when numerous

precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a figure of the

king, were found.

CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of the Frankish

king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was proclaimed king of

Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III., ruled over the rest of the

dominions of Clovis. After the death of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler

of the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but

soon quarrelled with some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated

whilst hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.

CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king of the

Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for seven years when the

mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin the Short, decided in 743 to

recognize Childeric as king. We cannot say whose son he was, or what

bonds bound him to the Merovingian family. He took no part in public

business, which was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace.

When in 747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take

the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751 after

having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias that it were

better to name king him who possessed the power than him who possessed

it not. Childeric was dethroned and placed in the monastery of St Omer;

his son, Theuderich, was imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.

See W. Junghans, _Die Geschichte der fraenkischen Koenige Childerich und

Clodovech_ (Goettingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, _Anastasis Childerici I.

Francorum regis_ (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, _Le Tombeau de

Childeric I, roi des Francs_ (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire

de France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).

CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British statesman, was born

in London on the 25th of June 1827. On leaving Cambridge he went out to

Australia (1850), and became a member of the government of Victoria, but

in 1857 returned to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering

parliament in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he

continued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in

1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers occupied

a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone ministries. He

was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871, and as such

inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health compelled his

resignation of office in 1871, but next year he returned to the ministry

as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. From 1880 to 1882 he was

secretary for war, a post he accepted somewhat unwillingly; and in that

position he had to bear the responsibility for the reforms which were

introduced into the war office under the parsimonious conditions which

were then part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the

Egyptian War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;

and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to less

advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the exchequer, and the

beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter year was the occasion

of the government's fall. Defeated at the general election at

Pontefract, he was returned as a Home Ruler (one of the few Liberals who

adopted this policy before Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South

Edinburgh, and was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the

first Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its

financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of

resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and died on the 29th of

January 1896, his last piece of work being the drafting of a report for

the royal commission on Irish financial relations, of which he was

chairman. Childers was a capable and industrious administrator of the

old Liberal school, and he did his best, in the political conditions

then prevailing, to improve the naval and military administration while

he was at the admiralty and war office. His own bent was towards

finance, but no striking reform is associated with his name. His most

ambitious effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in

1884, but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the

subsequent conversion in 1888.

The _Life_ (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting

side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet.

CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental scholar, son of

the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at Nice, was born in 1838.

In 1860 he received an appointment in the civil service of Ceylon, which

he retained until 1864, when he was compelled to return to England owing

to ill-health. He had studied P[=a]li during his residence in Ceylon,

under Yatramulle Unnanse, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished a

life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese

character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first P[=a]li

text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a P[=a]li dictionary,

the first volume of which was published in 1872, and the second and

concluding volume in 1875. In the following year it was awarded the

Volney prize by the Institute of France, as being the most important

philological work of the year. He was a frequent contributor to the

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which he published the

_Mah[=a]-parinibb[=a]na Sutta_, the P[=a]li text giving the account of

the last days of Buddha's life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian

at the India Office, and in the following year he became the first

professor of P[=a]li and Buddhist literature at University College,

London. He died in London on the 25th of July 1876.

CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always in theory given to

children the same remedies as to adults for ill-usage, whether by their

parents or by others, and has never recognized the _patria potestas_ as

known to the earlier Roman law; and while powers of discipline and

chastisement have been regarded as necessarily incident to paternal

authority, the father is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done

to them. The only points in which infancy created a defect in civil

status were that infants were subject to the restraints on complete

freedom of action involved in their being in the legal custody of the

father, and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers

and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in amount and

severity to the nature of the fault committed and the age and mental

capacity of the child punished. But the court of chancery, in delegated

exercise of the authority of the sovereign as _parens patriae_, always

asserted the right to take from parents, and if necessary itself to

assume the wardship of children where parental rights were abused or

serious cruelty was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court

of Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as giving a

cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if attended by fatal

results rendered the parent liable to indictment for murder or

manslaughter.

The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children undoubtedly

changed considerably with the relaxation of the accepted standard of

severity in domestic or scholastic discipline and with the growth of new

ideas as to the duties of parents to children, which in their latest

developments tend enormously to enlarge the parental duties without any

corresponding increase of filial obligations.

Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment

legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common law came to

recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, bound under duty or

contract to supply necessaries to a child, unable by reason of its

tender years to provide for itself, wilfully neglected to supply them,

and thereby caused the death of the child or injury to its health,

although no actual assault had been committed. Questions have from time

to time arisen as to what could be regarded as necessary within this

rule; and quite apart from legislation, popular opinion has influenced

courts of justice in requiring more from parents and employers than used

to be required. But parliament has also intervened to punish abandonment

or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby their lives are

endangered, or their health has been or is likely to be permanently

injured (Offences against the Person Act of 1861, s. 27), and the

neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or servants (same act, s. 26,

and Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor

Law Amendment Act 1868, parents were rendered _summarily_ punishable who

wilfully neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or

lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their custody,

whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be seriously

injured. This enactment (now superseded by later legislation) made no

express exception in favour of parents who had not sufficient means to

do their duty without resort to the poor law, and was construed as

imposing criminal liability on parents whose peculiar religious tenets

caused them advisedly to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick

child.

The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for children

prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the subject than

in the institution of an effective system of police, whereby it became

possible to discover and repress cruelty punishable under the ordinary

law. It is quite inaccurate to say that children had very few rights in

England, or that animals were better protected. But before the

constitution of the present police force, and in the absence of any

proper system of public prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless

cases of neglect and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as

nobody's business, because there was no person ready to undertake in the

public interest the protection of the children of cruel or negligent

parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special object of

preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded in 1894 by a

more stringent act, which was repealed by the Prevention of Cruelty to

Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded for the most part by the

Children Act 1908, which introduced many new provisions in the law

relating to children and specifically deals with the offence of

"cruelty" to them. This offence can only be committed by a person over

sixteen in respect of a child under sixteen of whom he has "custody,"

"charge" or "care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of

its parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, or of

its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that it is in the

charge of a person to whom the parent has committed such charge (e.g. a

schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a person who has actual

possession or control of it. Cruelty is defined as consisting in

assault, ill-treatment (falling short of actual assault), neglect,

abandonment or exposure of the child in a manner likely to cause

_unnecessary_ suffering or injury to health, including injury to or loss

of sight, hearing or limb, or any organ of the body or any mental

derangement; and the act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and

intentional, and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may

be punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender may be

sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly or

indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the death of the

child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted under the Friendly

Societies Acts. A parent or other person legally liable to maintain a

child or young person will be deemed to have "neglected" him by failure

to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in

the event of inability to provide such food, &c., by failure to take

steps to procure the same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.

These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes already

mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the provisions which

facilitate the taking of evidence of young children, in permitting poor

law authorities to prosecute at the expense of the rates, and in

permitting a constable on arresting the offender to take the child away

from the accused, and the court of trial on conviction to transfer the

custody of the child from the offender to some fit and willing person,

including any society or body corporate established for the reception of

poor children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The

provisions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only to

the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily injury

to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, kidnapping and

illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public performance. The act

of 1908 also makes an endeavour to check the heavy mortality of infants

through "overlaying,"[1] enacting that where it is proved that the death

of an infant under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst

the infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,

and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the influence

of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have neglected the child

in manner likely to cause injury to its health, as mentioned above. The

acts have been utilized with great zeal and on the whole with much

discretion by various philanthropic societies, whose members make it

their business to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all

classes in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention

of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter of the

28th of May 1895, for the purposes _inter alia_ of preventing the public

and private wrongs of children, and the corruption of their morals and

of taking action to enforce the laws for their protection.

The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against baby-farming

(q.v.). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 did not apply where only

one child was taken, but now by the act of 1908, where a person

undertakes for reward the nursing and maintenance of one or more infants

under the age of _seven_ years apart from their parents or having no

parents, he must give notice in writing to the local authority within

forty-eight hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is

already in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to

continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception of the

child. The notice to the local authority must state the name, sex, date

and place of birth of the infant, the name and address of the person

receiving the infant and of the person from whom the infant was

received. Notice must also be given of any change of address of the

person having the care of the infant, or of the death of the infant, or

of its removal to the care of some other person, whose name and address

must also be given. It is the duty of local authorities to provide for

the carrying-out in their districts of that portion of the act which

refers to nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants'

protection visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may

retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c. Relatives or

legal guardians of an infant who undertake its nursing and maintenance,

hospitals, convalescent homes, or institutions, established for the

protection and care of infants, and conducted in good faith for

religious and charitable purposes, as well as boarding schools at which

efficient elementary education is given, are exempt from the provisions

of the act.

The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in relation to

children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced restrictions on

the employment of children which lie on the border land between cruelty

and the regulation of child labour. It prohibits custodians of children

from taking them, or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses

to sing, play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These

provisions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen. There

are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under eleven to sing,

play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer anything for sale in

public-houses or places of public amusement at any hour without a

licence from a justice, which is granted only as to children over ten

and under stringent conditions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen

to be trained as acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for

any dangerous performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act

1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male young

person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a dangerous public

performance.

The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding L25, or

alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without hard

labour for any term not exceeding three months, any custodian, &c., of

any child or young person who allows him to be in any street, premises

or place for the purpose of begging or receiving alms, or of inducing

the giving of alms, whether or not there is a pretence of singing,

playing, performing or offering anything for sale. An important

departure in the act of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of

children to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under

seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open grate not

sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of burning or scalding

is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding L10. Provision

is made against allowing children between the ages of four and sixteen

to be in brothels; it is also made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c.,

of a girl under sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or

prostitution, and any person having the custody of a young girl may be

bound over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of

a court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person, that

she is exposed to such risk.

The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the United

States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty on selling

tobacco to any person apparently under the age of sixteen, whether for

his own use or not. It empowers constables and park keepers to seize

tobacco in the possession of any person apparently under sixteen found

smoking in any street or public place, as well as to search them; it

also empowers a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic

machines for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act

also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a court

whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain cases (e.g.

of decency or morality), and the forbidding children (other than infants

in arms) being present in court during the trial of other persons; it

places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking an article in pawn from children

under fourteen; and on vagrants for preventing children above the age of

five receiving education. It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating

liquor to any child under the age of five, except upon the orders of a

duly qualified medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other

urgent cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed

premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the licensed

premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts to cause a child to

be in the bar of licensed premises other than railway refreshment rooms

or premises used for any purpose to which the holding of a licence is

merely auxiliary, or where the child is there simply for the purpose of

passing through to some other part of the premises. It makes provision

for the safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law

relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile

offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS).

In the act of 1908, "child" is denned as a person under the age of

fourteen years, and "young person" as a person who is fourteen years and

upwards and under the age of sixteen years. The act applies to Scotland

and Ireland. In the application of the act to Ireland exception is made

relative to the exclusion of children from bars of licensed premises, in

the case of a child being on licensed premises where a substantial part

of the business carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other

business wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and

the child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than

intoxicating liquor.

_British Possessions._--Legislation much on the lines of the acts of

1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g. Tasmania

(1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica (1896), South Australia

(1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892 and 1900), New Zealand (1906),

Mauritius (1906), Victoria (1905,1906). In South Australia a State

Children's Department has been created to care for and manage the

property and persons of destitute and neglected children, and the

officials of the council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the

legislation of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South

Australia. See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGISLATION.

(W. F. C.; T. A. I.)