THE SIEGE OF CHARLESTON.
BLOCKADE OF THE HARBOR--DU PONT'S ATTACK--DEFEAT--CAPTURE OF THE
"ATLANTA"--GILLMORE'S SIEGE--ASSAULT ON FORT WAGNER--ITS CAPTURE--THE
SWAMP ANGEL--BOMBARDMENT OF CHARLESTON--ACCURATE FIRING FROM MORTAR
GUNS--TURNING NIGHT INTO DAY--STEADY CANNONADING FOR FORTY HOURS.
As Charleston was the cradle of secession, there was a special desire
on the part of the Northern people that it should undergo the heaviest
penalties of war. They wanted poetic vengeance to fall upon the very
men that had taught disunion, fired upon Sumter, and kindled the
flames of civil strife. And there were not a few at the South who
shared this sentiment, believing that they had been dragged into ruin
by the politicians of South Carolina. Many would have been glad if the
whole State could have been pried off from the rest of the Union and
slidden into the depths of the sea. But there was a better than
sentimental reason for directing vigorous operations against
Charleston. Its port was exceedingly useful to the Confederates for
shipping their cotton to Europe and receiving in return the army
clothing, rifles, and ammunition that were produced for them by
English looms and arsenals. Early in the war the Government attempted
to close this port with obstructions. Several old whale-ships were
loaded with stone, towed into the channel, and sunk, at which there
was a great outcry, and the books were searched to see whether this
barbarous proceeding, as it was called, was permissible under the laws
of war and of nations. In 1854 the harbor of Sebastopol had been
obstructed in the same way; but that was done by the Russians, whose
harbor it was, to prevent the enemy from coming in. The strong
currents at Charleston soon swept away the old hulks or buried them in
the sand, and a dozen war vessels had to be sent there to maintain the
blockade. This was an exceedingly difficult task. The main channel ran
for a long distance near the shore of Morris Island, and was protected
by batteries. The westward-bound blockade runners commonly went first
to the British port of Nassau, in the West Indies, and thence with a
pilot sailed for Charleston. After the main channel had been closed in
consequence of the occupation of Morris Island by National troops,
steamers of very light draft, built in England for this special
service, slipped in by the shallower passes. A great many were
captured, for the blockaders {289} developed remarkable skill in
detecting their movements, but the practice was never wholly broken up
till the city was occupied by the National forces in February, 1865.
[Illustration: THE ATTACK ON CHARLESTON.]
In January, 1863, two Confederate iron-clads steamed out of the
harbor, on a hazy morning, and attacked the blockading fleet. Two
vessels, by shots through their steam-drums, were disabled, and struck
their colors; but the remainder of the fleet came to their assistance,
and the iron-clads were driven back into the harbor, leaving their
prizes behind. General Beauregard and Captain Ingraham (commanding the
military and naval forces of the Confederacy at Charleston) formally
proclaimed this affair a victory that had "sunk, dispersed, and driven
off or out of sight the entire blockading fleet," and, consequently,
raised the blockade of the port. These assertions, repeated in foreign
newspapers, threatened for a time to create serious complications with
European powers, by raising the question whether the blockade
(supposed to be thus broken) must not be re-proclaimed, and notice
given to masters of merchant vessels, before it could be
reëstablished. But the falsity of the claim was soon shown, and no
foreign vessels accepted the invitation to demand free passage into
the port of Charleston.
[Illustration: MAJOR-GENERAL QUINCY A. GILLMORE.]
This affair increased the desire to capture the port, put an absolute
end to the blockade-running there, and use it as a harbor of refuge
for National vessels. Accordingly, a powerful fleet was fitted out for
the purpose, and placed under the command of Rear-Admiral S. F. Du
Pont, who had reduced the forts of Port Royal in November, 1861. It
consisted of seven monitors, an iron-clad frigate, an iron-clad ram,
and several wooden gunboats. On the 7th of April, 1863, favored by
smooth water, Du Pont steamed in to attack the forts, but most
extraordinary precautions had been taken to defend the city. The
special desire of the Northern people to capture it was offset by an
equally romantic determination on the part of the Secessionists not to
part with the cradle in which their pet theory had been rocked for
thirty years. Besides the batteries that had been erected for the
reduction of Fort Sumter, they had established others, and they
occupied that fort itself. All these works had been strengthened, and
new guns mounted, including some specially powerful ones of English
manufacture. All the channels were obstructed with piles and chains,
with innumerable torpedoes, some of which were to be fired by electric
wires from the forts, while others were arranged to explode whenever a
vessel should run against them. The main channel, between Fort
Moultrie and Fort Sumter, was crossed by a heavy cable supported on
empty barrels, with which was connected a network of smaller chains.
In the south channel there was a tempting opening in the row of piles;
but beneath this were some tons of powder waiting for the electric
spark.
The monitor _Weehawken_ led the way, pushing a raft before her to
explode the torpedoes. Not a man was to be seen on any of the decks,
and the forts were ominously silent. But when the _Weehawken_ had
reached the network of chains, and had become somewhat entangled
therein with her raft, the batteries opened all around, and she and
the other monitors that came to her assistance were the target for a
terrible concentric fire of bursting shells and solid bolts. The
return fire was directed principally upon Sumter, and was kept up
steadily for half an hour, but seemed to have little effect; and after
trying both the main and the south channel, the fleet retired. The
monitor _Keokuk_, which had made the nearest approach to the enemy,
was struck nearly a hundred times. Shots passed through both of her
turrets, and there were nineteen holes in her hull. That evening she
sank in an inlet. Most of the other vessels were injured, and some of
the monitors were unable to revolve their turrets because of the
bending of the plates.
[Illustration: REAR-ADMIRAL JOHN A. DAHLGREN AND OFFICERS.]
Du Pont's defeat was offset two months later, when the Confederate
iron-clad _Atlanta_ started out on her first cruise. She was
originally an English blockade-runner, and as she was unable to get
out of the port of Savannah after the fall of Fort Pulaski, the
Confederates conceived the idea of iron-plating her {290} after the
fashion of the _Merrimac_ and sending her out to sink the monitors and
raise the blockade of Charleston. It was said that the ladies of
Charleston contributed their jewelry to pay the expenses, and after
fourteen months of hard labor she was ready for action. But Du Pont
had heard the story, and sent two monitors to watch her. On the 17th
of June, early in the morning, she dropped down the channel, followed
by two steamers loaded with citizens, including many ladies, who
anticipated a great deal of pleasure in seeing their powerful
iron-clad sink the monitors. These came up to meet her, the
_Weehawken_, Captain Rodgers, taking the lead. Rodgers fired just five
shots from his enormous eleven-inch and fifteen-inch guns. One struck
the shutter of a port-hole and broke it, another knocked off the
_Atlanta's_ pilot-house, another struck the edge of the deck and
opened the seams between the plates, and another penetrated the iron
armor, splintered the heavy wooden backing, and disabled forty men.
Thereupon the _Atlanta_ hung out a white flag and surrendered, while
the pleasure-seekers hastened back to Savannah. It is said that the
vessel might have been handled better if she had not run aground. She
was carrying an immense torpedo at the end of a boom thirty feet long,
which projected from her bow under water. She was found to be
provisioned for a long cruise, and was taken to Philadelphia and
exhibited there as a curiosity.
[Illustration: REAR-ADMIRAL D. M. FAIRFAX.]
The city of Charleston, between its two rivers, with its
well-fortified harbor, bordered by miles of swampy land, was
exceedingly difficult for an enemy to reach. General Quincy A.
Gillmore, being sent with a large force to take it, chose the approach
by way of Folly and Morris Islands, where the monitors could assist
him. Hidden by a fringe of trees, he first erected powerful batteries
on Folly Island. On the northernmost point of Morris Island (Cumming's
Point) was the Confederate Battery Gregg, the one that had done most
damage to Sumter at the opening of the war. South of this was Fort
Wagner, and still farther south were other works.
Fort Wagner was a very strong earthwork, measuring on the inside six
hundred and thirty feet from east to west, and two hundred and
seventy-five feet from north to south. It had a bomb-proof magazine,
and a heavy traverse protecting its guns from any possible attack on
the land side. Behind the sea-face was a well-constructed bomb-proof,
into which no shot ever penetrated. The land-face was constructed with
reëntering angles, so that the approaches could all be swept by cross
fire, and the work was surrounded by a ditch filled with water, in
which was a line of boarding-pikes fastened together with interlaced
wire, and there were also pickets at the front of the fort with
interwoven wire a slight distance above the ground, to impede the
steps of any assaulting force. It was one of the most elaborate works
constructed during the war. Its engineer, Captain Cleves, was killed
by one of the first shells fired at it.
On the morning of July 10th, Gillmore suddenly cut down the trees in
his front and opened fire upon the most southerly works on Morris
Island, while at the same time the fleet commanded by Admiral
Dahlgren, who had succeeded Du Pont, bombarded Fort Wagner. Under
cover of this fire troops were landed, and the earthworks were quickly
taken.
The day being terribly hot, the advance on Fort Wagner was postponed
till the next morning, and then it was a failure. A week later a
determined assault was made with a force of six thousand men, the
advance being led by the first regiment of colored troops (the
Fifty-fourth Massachusetts) that had been raised under the
authorization that accompanied the Emancipation Proclamation. A
bombardment of the fort by the land batteries and the fleet was kept
up from noon till dusk, and during its last hour there was a heavy
thunder-storm. As soon as this was over, the assaulting columns were
set in motion. They marched out under a concentrated fire from all the
Confederate batteries, then met sheets of musketry fire that blazed
out from Wagner, then crossed the ditch waist-deep in water, while
hand-grenades were thrown from the parapet to explode among them, and
even climbed up to the rampart. But here the surviving remnant met a
stout resistance and were hurled back. General Strong, Colonel
Chatfield, Colonel Putnam, and Robert G. Shaw, the young commander of
the black regiment, were all killed, and a total loss was sustained of
fifteen hundred men, while the Confederates lost but about one
hundred.
[Illustration: BREVET BRIGADIER-GENERAL STEWART L. WOODFORD. (Chief of
Staff to General Gillmore.)]
[Illustration: BREVET BRIGADIER-GENERAL ALFRED H. TERRY. (Afterward
Major-General.)]
In burying the dead, the Confederates threw the body of Colonel Shaw
into the bottom of a trench, and heaped {291} upon it the bodies of
black soldiers, whose valor, no less than their color, had produced an
uncontrollable frenzy in the Confederate mind. When it was inquired
for, under flag of truce, word was sent back: "We have buried him with
his niggers." Those who thus tried to cast contempt upon the boyish
colonel were apparently not aware that he was braver than any of his
foes. In advancing along that narrow strip of land, every foot of
which was swept by a deadly fire, crossing the ditch and mounting the
parapet, Colonel Shaw exhibited a physical courage that it was
impossible to surpass; while in organizing and leading men of the
despised race that was now struggling toward liberty, he showed a
moral courage such as the rebels neither shared nor comprehended.
Among those who participated in this sorrowful enterprise was the Rev.
Henry Clay Trumbull, chaplain of the Tenth Connecticut Regiment, who
was so assiduous in his attentions to the wounded, and remained so
long on the field among them, that he was captured by the
Confederates, who held him a prisoner for several months. Among those
in attendance at the hospital at the first parallel was Clara Barton,
who afterward became famous for her humane services.
[Illustration: BATTERY REYNOLDS--FIVE TEN-INCH MORTARS BEARING ON FORT
WAGNER.]
[Illustration: HEADQUARTERS OF FIELD OFFICERS ON THE SECOND PARALLEL.]
Gen. Alvin C. Voris, who was seriously wounded in the assault on Fort
Wagner, has given a vivid description of his experiences there, from
which we quote a few interesting passages:
"All through the night of July 17th I lay with my men, the
Sixty-seventh Ohio, within half canister range of the fort. It was
very dark, cloudy, and enlivened by an occasional splash of rain and
lightning, by which we could see sentinels on beat on the fort. Just
before break of day we crawled quietly away, and took a good square
breath of relief as we passed behind our first line of intrenchments.
There we undertook to rest under a most scorching sun and on burning
white sand, which reflected back both light and heat rays with
torturing rigor. We were compelled to work night and day, twelve hours
on and twelve off, all the while under shot and exploding shell from
some quarter. When off duty we tried to rest ourselves under the
shelter of the low sand-waves silently thrown up by the wind. Our poor
tired bodies became so exhausted under the great pressure upon us that
we would stretch out on the burning sands, even when under the
greatest danger, and snatch a few hours of fitful, anxious sleep,
frequently to be awakened by the explosion of some great shell. The
land and sea breezes kept the air full of floating sand, which
permeated everything--clothing, {292} eyes, ears, nostrils--and at the
height of the wind would fly with such force as to make the face and
hands sting with pain.
"Just at dark ten regiments of infantry were formed along the beach,
one and a half miles below the fort, and the charge was at once
undertaken. Quietly the column marched until its head had passed the
line of our field batteries. No sooner had this taken place than one
thousand six hundred men in Wagner and Gregg sprang to arms and opened
on the advancing columns with shot, shell, and musketry, which called
to their immediate assistance the armed energies of Sumter, Moultrie,
and Beauregard, and all the batteries on Sullivan's and James's
Islands. When we got within canister range of the fort there were
added to this awful cataclysm double-shotted charges of canister from
eight heavy guns directly raking our approach, each discharge equal to
a double pailful of cast-iron bullets, three-fourths of an inch in
diameter. Every moment some unfortunate comrade fell, to rise no more,
but we closed up our shattered ranks and pressed on with such
impetuosity that we scaled the walls and planted our banners on the
fort. The Sixty-seventh, with heroic cheers, flung her flag to the
midnight breezes on the rampart of Wagner, but only to bring it away
riddled to tatters. Seven out of eight of the color-guard were shot
down, and Color-Sergeant McDonald, with a broken leg, brought it away.
Lieutenant Cochran went alone to headquarters, two thousand five
hundred yards to the rear, for reinforcements, assuring General
Gillmore that we could hold the fort, and then went back to Wagner and
brought off eighteen out of forty men with whom he started in the
column in that fatal charge. Two other lieutenants, with a dozen men,
held one of the enemy's large guns for nearly two hours, over which
they had hand-to-hand contests with the soldiers in charge of the
piece.
"I was shot within a hundred and fifty yards of the fort, and so
disabled that I could not go forward.... Two boys of the Sixty-second
Ohio found me and carried me to our first parallel, where had been
arranged an extempore hospital. Here a surgeon sent his savage
finger-nail into my lacerated side and pronounced the bullet beyond
his reach, and said I would not need his further attention. Like a
baby I fainted, and, on reviving, laid my poor aching head on a
sand-bag to recruit a little strength. That blessed chaplain, Henry
Clay Trumbull, found me and poured oil of gladness into my soul and
brandy into my mouth, whereat I praised him as a dear good man and
cursed that monster of a surgeon, which led the chaplain to think the
delirium of death was turning my brain, and he reported me among the
dead of Wagner."
General Gillmore now resorted to regular approaches for the reduction
of Fort Wagner. The first parallel was soon opened, and siege guns
mounted, and the work was pushed as rapidly as the unfavorable nature
of the ground would admit. By the 23d of July a second parallel was
established, from which fire was opened upon Fort Sumter, two miles
distant, and upon the intervening earthworks. As the task proceeded
the difficulty increased, for the strip of land grew narrower as Fort
Wagner was approached, and the men in the trenches were subjected to
cross-fire from a battery on James's Island, as well as from
sharp-shooters and from the fort itself. A dozen breaching batteries
of enormous rifled guns were established, most of the work being done
at night, and on the 17th of August all of them opened fire. The shot
and shell were directed mainly against Fort Sumter, and in the course
of a week its barbette guns were dismounted, its walls were knocked
into a shapeless mass of ruins, and its value as anything but a rude
shelter for infantry was gone.
The parallels were still pushed forward toward Wagner, partly through
ground so low that high tides washed over it, and finally where mines
of torpedoes had been planted. When they had arrived so near that it
was impossible for the men to work under ordinary circumstances, the
fort was subjected to a bombardment with shells fired from mortars and
dropping into it almost vertically, while the great rifled guns were
trained upon its bomb-proof at short range, and the iron-clad frigate
_New Ironsides_ came close in shore and added her quota in the shape
of eleven-inch shells fired from eight broadside guns. Powerful
calcium lights had been prepared, so that there was no night there,
and the bombardment went on incessantly. At the end of two days, three
columns of infantry were ready to storm the work, when it was
discovered that the Confederates had suddenly abandoned it. Battery
Gregg, on Cumming's Point, was also evacuated.
It is easy to tell all this in a few words; but no brief account of
that operation can give the reader any adequate idea of the enormous
labor it involved, the danger, the anxiety, and the dogged
perseverance of the besiegers. It required the efforts of three
hundred men to move a single gun up the beach. General Gillmore was
one of the most accomplished of military engineers, and we present
here a few of the more interesting passages from his admirable
official report:
At the second parallel the "Surf Battery" had barely escaped entire
destruction, about one-third of it having been carried away by the
sea. Its armament had been temporarily removed to await the issue of
the storm. The progress of the sap was hotly opposed by the enemy,
with the fire of both artillery and sharp-shooters. At one point in
particular, about two hundred yards in front of Wagner, there was a
ridge, affording the enemy good cover, from which we received an
unceasing fire of small-arms, while the guns and sharp-shooters in
Wagner opened vigorously at every lull in the fire directed upon it
from our batteries and gunboats. The firing from the distant James's
Island batteries was steady and accurate. One attempt, on the 21st, to
obtain possession of the ridge with infantry having failed, it was
determined to advance by establishing another parallel. On the night
of August 21st the fourth parallel was opened about one hundred yards
from the ridge, partly with the flying sap and partly with the full
sap. At the place selected for it the island is about one hundred and
sixty yards in width above high water. It was now determined to try
and dislodge the enemy from the ridge with light mortars and navy
howitzers in the fourth parallel, and with other mortars in rear
firing over those in front. The attempt was made on the afternoon of
August 26th, but did not succeed. Our mortar practice was not very
accurate. Brigadier-General Terry was ordered, on the 26th of August,
to carry the ridge at the point of the bayonet, and hold it. This was
accomplished, and the fifth parallel established there on the evening
of the same day, which brought us to within two hundred and forty
yards of Fort Wagner. The intervening space comprised the narrowest
and shallowest part of Morris island. It was simply a flat ridge of
sand, scarcely twenty-five yards in width, and not exceeding two feet
in depth, over which the sea in rough weather swept entirely across to
the marsh on our left. Approaches by the flying sap were at once
commenced on this shallow beach, from the right of the fifth parallel,
and certain means of defence in the parallel itself were ordered. It
was soon ascertained that we had now reached the point where the
really formidable, passive, defensive arrangements of the enemy
commenced. An {293} elaborate and ingenious system of torpedo mines,
to be exploded by the tread of persons walking over them, was
encountered, and we were informed by the prisoners taken on the ridge
that the entire area of firm ground between us and the fort, as well
as the glacis of the latter on its south and east fronts, was thickly
filled with these torpedoes. This knowledge brought us a sense of
security from sorties, for the mines were a defence to us as well as
to the enemy. By daybreak on the 27th of August our sappers had
reached, by a rude and unfinished trench, to within one hundred yards
of Fort Wagner. The dark and gloomy days of the siege were now upon
us. Our daily losses, although not heavy, were on the increase, while
our progress became discouragingly slow, and even fearfully uncertain.
The converging fire from Wagner alone almost enveloped the head of our
sap, delivered, as it was, from a line subtending an angle of nearly
ninety degrees, while the flank fire from the James's Island batteries
increased in power and accuracy every hour. To push forward the sap in
the narrow strip of shallow shifting sand by day was impossible, while
the brightness of the prevailing harvest moon rendered the operation
almost as hazardous by night. Matters, indeed, seemed at a standstill,
and a feeling of despondency began to pervade the rank and file of the
command. There seemed to be no adequate return in accomplished results
for the daily losses which we suffered, and no means of relief,
cheering and encouraging to the soldier, appeared near at hand. In
this emergency, although the final result was demonstrably certain, it
was determined, in order to sustain the flagging spirits of the men,
to commence vigorously and simultaneously two distinct methods of
attack, viz., first, to keep Wagner perfectly silent with an
overpowering curved fire from siege and coehorn mortars, so that our
engineers would have only the more distant batteries of the enemy to
annoy them; and, second, to breach the bomb-proof shelter with rifled
guns, and thus deprive the enemy of their only secure cover in the
work, and, consequently, drive them from it. Accordingly, all the
light mortars were moved to the front and placed in battery; the
capacity of the fifth parallel and the advanced trenches for
sharp-shooters was greatly enlarged and improved; the rifled guns in
the left breaching batteries were trained upon the fort and prepared
for prolonged action; and powerful calcium lights to aid the
night-work of our cannoneers and sharp-shooters, and blind those of
the enemy, were got in readiness. The coöperation of the powerful
battery of the _New Ironsides_, Captain Rowan, during the daytime, was
also secured.
[Illustration: A BOMB-PROOF.]
[Illustration: MAJOR-GENERAL WILLIAM B. TALIAFERRO, C. S. A.]
These final operations against Fort Wagner were actively inaugurated
at break of day on the morning of September 5th. For forty-two
consecutive hours the spectacle presented was of surpassing sublimity
and grandeur. Seventeen siege and coehorn mortars unceasingly dropped
their shells into the work, over the heads of our sappers and the
guards of the advanced trenches; thirteen of our heavy Parrott
rifles--one hundred, two hundred, and three hundred pounders--pounded
away at short though regular intervals, at the southwest corner of the
bomb-proof; while during the daytime the _New Ironsides_, with
remarkable regularity and precision, kept an almost incessant stream
of eleven-inch shells from her eight-gun broadside, ricocheting over
the water against the sloping parapet of Wagner, whence, deflected
upward with a low remaining velocity, they dropped nearly vertically,
exploding within or over the work, and rigorously searching every part
of it except the subterranean shelters. The calcium lights turned
night into day, and while throwing around our own men an impenetrable
obscurity, they brilliantly illuminated every object in front, and
brought the minutest details of the fort into sharp relief. In a few
hours the fort became practically silent.
The next night, after the capture of Fort Wagner, a few hundred
sailors from the fleet went to Fort Sumter in row-boats and attempted
its capture. But they found it exceedingly difficult to climb up the
ruined wall; most of their boats were knocked to pieces by the
Confederate batteries; they met an unexpected fire of musketry {294}
and hand-grenades, and two hundred of them were disabled or captured.
While all this work was going on, General Gillmore thought to
establish a battery near enough to Charleston to subject the city
itself to bombardment. A site was chosen on the western side of Morris
Island, and the necessary orders were issued. But the ground was soft
mud, sixteen feet deep, and it seemed an impossible task. The captain,
a West Pointer, to whom it was assigned, was told that he must not
fail, but he might ask for whatever he needed, whereupon he made out a
formal requisition for "a hundred men eighteen feet high," and other
things in proportion. The jest seems to have been appreciated, but the
jester was relieved from the duty, which was then assigned to Col.
Edward W. Serrell, a volunteer engineer, who accomplished the work.
Piles were driven, a platform was laid upon them, and a parapet was
built with bags of sand, fifteen thousand being required. All this had
to be done after dark, and occupied fourteen nights. Then, with great
labor, an eight-inch rifled gun was dragged across the swamp and
mounted on this platform. It was nearly five miles from Charleston,
but by firing with a high elevation was able to reach the lower part
of the city. The soldiers named this gun the "Swamp Angel." Late in
August it was ready for work, and, after giving notice for the removal
of non-combatants, General Gillmore opened fire. A few shells fell in
the streets and produced great consternation, but at the thirty-sixth
discharge the Swamp Angel burst, and it never was replaced.
Gillmore had supposed that when Sumter was silenced the fleet would
enter the harbor, but Admiral Dahlgren did not think it wise to risk
his vessels among the torpedoes, especially as the batteries of the
inner harbor had been greatly strengthened. As Fort Wagner and Battery
Gregg were nearer the city by a mile than the Swamp Angel, Gillmore
repaired them, turned their guns upon Charleston, and kept up a
destructive bombardment for weeks.
As a protection to the city, under the plea that its bombardment was a
violation of the rules of war, the Confederate authorities selected
from their prisoners fifty officers and placed them in the district
reached by the shells. Capt. Willard Glazier, who was there, writes:
"When the distant rumbling of the Swamp Angel was heard, and the cry
'Here it comes!' resounded through our prison house, there was a
general stir. Sleepers sprang to their feet, the gloomy forgot their
sorrows, conversation was hushed, and all started to see where the
messenger would fall. At night we traced along the sky a slight stream
of fire, similar to the tail of a comet, and followed its course until
'whiz! whiz!' came the little pieces from our mighty two-hundred
pounder, scattering themselves all around." By placing an equal number
of Confederate officers under fire, the Government compelled the
removal of its own.
[Illustration: ST. MICHAEL'S CHURCH, CHARLESTON, S. C.]
{295}