And finally, as it is not enough, before commencing to rebuild the
house in which we live, that it be pulled down, and materials and
builders provided, or that we engage in the work ourselves, according
to a plan which we have beforehand carefully drawn out, but as it is
likewise necessary that we be furnished with some other house in which
we may live commodiously during the operations, so that I might not
remain irresolute in my actions, while my reason compelled me to
suspend my judgement, and that I might not be prevented from living
thenceforward in the greatest possible felicity, I formed a provisory
code of morals, composed of three or four maxims, with which I am
desirous to make you acquainted.
The _first_ was to obey the laws and customs of my country, adhering
firmly to the faith in which, by the grace of God, I had been educated
from my childhood and regulating my conduct in every other matter
according to the most moderate opinions, and the farthest removed from
extremes, which should happen to be adopted in practice with general
consent of the most judicious of those among whom I might be living.
For as I had from that time begun to hold my own opinions for nought
because I wished to subject them all to examination, I was convinced
that I could not do better than follow in the meantime the opinions of
the most judicious; and although there are some perhaps among the
Persians and Chinese as judicious as among ourselves, expediency seemed
to dictate that I should regulate my practice conformably to the
opinions of those with whom I should have to live; and it appeared to
me that, in order to ascertain the real opinions of such, I ought
rather to take cognizance of what they practised than of what they
said, not only because, in the corruption of our manners, there are few
disposed to speak exactly as they believe, but also because very many
are not aware of what it is that they really believe; for, as the act
of mind by which a thing is believed is different from that by which we
know that we believe it, the one act is often found without the other.
Also, amid many opinions held in equal repute, I chose always the most
moderate, as much for the reason that these are always the most
convenient for practice, and probably the best (for all excess is
generally vicious), as that, in the event of my falling into error, I
might be at less distance from the truth than if, having chosen one of
the extremes, it should turn out to be the other which I ought to have
adopted. And I placed in the class of extremes especially all promises
by which somewhat of our freedom is abridged; not that I disapproved of
the laws which, to provide against the instability of men of feeble
resolution, when what is sought to be accomplished is some good, permit
engagements by vows and contracts binding the parties to persevere in
it, or even, for the security of commerce, sanction similar engagements
where the purpose sought to be realized is indifferent: but because I
did not find anything on earth which was wholly superior to change, and
because, for myself in particular, I hoped gradually to perfect my
judgments, and not to suffer them to deteriorate, I would have deemed
it a grave sin against good sense, if, for the reason that I approved
of something at a particular time, I therefore bound myself to hold it
for good at a subsequent time, when perhaps it had ceased to be so, or
I had ceased to esteem it such.
My _second_ maxim was to be as firm and resolute in my actions as I was
able, and not to adhere less steadfastly to the most doubtful opinions,
when once adopted, than if they had been highly certain; imitating in
this the example of travelers who, when they have lost their way in a
forest, ought not to wander from side to side, far less remain in one
place, but proceed constantly towards the same side in as straight a
line as possible, without changing their direction for slight reasons,
although perhaps it might be chance alone which at first determined the
selection; for in this way, if they do not exactly reach the point they
desire, they will come at least in the end to some place that will
probably be preferable to the middle of a forest. In the same way,
since in action it frequently happens that no delay is permissible, it
is very certain that, when it is not in our power to determine what is
true, we ought to act according to what is most probable; and even
although we should not remark a greater probability in one opinion than
in another, we ought notwithstanding to choose one or the other, and
afterwards consider it, in so far as it relates to practice, as no
longer dubious, but manifestly true and certain, since the reason by
which our choice has been determined is itself possessed of these
qualities. This principle was sufficient thenceforward to rid me of all
those repentings and pangs of remorse that usually disturb the
consciences of such feeble and uncertain minds as, destitute of any
clear and determinate principle of choice, allow themselves one day to
adopt a course of action as the best, which they abandon the next, as
the opposite.
My _third_ maxim was to endeavor always to conquer myself rather than
fortune, and change my desires rather than the order of the world, and
in general, accustom myself to the persuasion that, except our own
thoughts, there is nothing absolutely in our power; so that when we
have done our best in things external to us, all wherein we fail of
success is to be held, as regards us, absolutely impossible: and this
single principle seemed to me sufficient to prevent me from desiring
for the future anything which I could not obtain, and thus render me
contented; for since our will naturally seeks those objects alone which
the understanding represents as in some way possible of attainment, it
is plain, that if we consider all external goods as equally beyond our
power, we shall no more regret the absence of such goods as seem due to
our birth, when deprived of them without any fault of ours, than our
not possessing the kingdoms of China or Mexico, and thus making, so to
speak, a virtue of necessity, we shall no more desire health in
disease, or freedom in imprisonment, than we now do bodies
incorruptible as diamonds, or the wings of birds to fly with. But I
confess there is need of prolonged discipline and frequently repeated
meditation to accustom the mind to view all objects in this light; and
I believe that in this chiefly consisted the secret of the power of
such philosophers as in former times were enabled to rise superior to
the influence of fortune, and, amid suffering and poverty, enjoy a
happiness which their gods might have envied. For, occupied incessantly
with the consideration of the limits prescribed to their power by
nature, they became so entirely convinced that nothing was at their
disposal except their own thoughts, that this conviction was of itself
sufficient to prevent their entertaining any desire of other objects;
and over their thoughts they acquired a sway so absolute, that they had
some ground on this account for esteeming themselves more rich and more
powerful, more free and more happy, than other men who, whatever be the
favors heaped on them by nature and fortune, if destitute of this
philosophy, can never command the realization of all their desires.
In fine, to conclude this code of morals, I thought of reviewing the
different occupations of men in this life, with the view of making
choice of the best. And, without wishing to offer any remarks on the
employments of others, I may state that it was my conviction that I
could not do better than continue in that in which I was engaged, viz.,
in devoting my whole life to the culture of my reason, and in making
the greatest progress I was able in the knowledge of truth, on the
principles of the method which I had prescribed to myself. This method,
from the time I had begun to apply it, had been to me the source of
satisfaction so intense as to lead me to, believe that more perfect or
more innocent could not be enjoyed in this life; and as by its means I
daily discovered truths that appeared to me of some importance, and of
which other men were generally ignorant, the gratification thence
arising so occupied my mind that I was wholly indifferent to every
other object. Besides, the three preceding maxims were founded singly
on the design of continuing the work of self-instruction. For since God
has endowed each of us with some light of reason by which to
distinguish truth from error, I could not have believed that I ought
for a single moment to rest satisfied with the opinions of another,
unless I had resolved to exercise my own judgment in examining these
whenever I should be duly qualified for the task. Nor could I have
proceeded on such opinions without scruple, had I supposed that I
should thereby forfeit any advantage for attaining still more accurate,
should such exist. And, in fine, I could not have restrained my
desires, nor remained satisfied had I not followed a path in which I
thought myself certain of attaining all the knowledge to the
acquisition of which I was competent, as well as the largest amount of
what is truly good which I could ever hope to secure Inasmuch as we
neither seek nor shun any object except in so far as our understanding
represents it as good or bad, all that is necessary to right action is
right judgment, and to the best action the most correct judgment, that
is, to the acquisition of all the virtues with all else that is truly
valuable and within our reach; and the assurance of such an acquisition
cannot fail to render us contented.
Having thus provided myself with these maxims, and having placed them
in reserve along with the truths of faith, which have ever occupied the
first place in my belief, I came to the conclusion that I might with
freedom set about ridding myself of what remained of my opinions. And,
inasmuch as I hoped to be better able successfully to accomplish this
work by holding intercourse with mankind, than by remaining longer shut
up in the retirement where these thoughts had occurred to me, I betook
me again to traveling before the winter was well ended. And, during the
nine subsequent years, I did nothing but roam from one place to
another, desirous of being a spectator rather than an actor in the
plays exhibited on the theater of the world; and, as I made it my
business in each matter to reflect particularly upon what might fairly
be doubted and prove a source of error, I gradually rooted out from my
mind all the errors which had hitherto crept into it. Not that in this
I imitated the sceptics who doubt only that they may doubt, and seek
nothing beyond uncertainty itself; for, on the contrary, my design was
singly to find ground of assurance, and cast aside the loose earth and
sand, that I might reach the rock or the clay. In this, as appears to
me, I was successful enough; for, since I endeavored to discover the
falsehood or incertitude of the propositions I examined, not by feeble
conjectures, but by clear and certain reasonings, I met with nothing so
doubtful as not to yield some conclusion of adequate certainty,
although this were merely the inference, that the matter in question
contained nothing certain. And, just as in pulling down an old house,
we usually reserve the ruins to contribute towards the erection, so, in
destroying such of my opinions as I judged to be Ill-founded, I made a
variety of observations and acquired an amount of experience of which I
availed myself in the establishment of more certain. And further, I
continued to exercise myself in the method I had prescribed; for,
besides taking care in general to conduct all my thoughts according to
its rules, I reserved some hours from time to time which I expressly
devoted to the employment of the method in the solution of mathematical
difficulties, or even in the solution likewise of some questions
belonging to other sciences, but which, by my having detached them from
such principles of these sciences as were of inadequate certainty, were
rendered almost mathematical: the truth of this will be manifest from
the numerous examples contained in this volume. And thus, without in
appearance living otherwise than those who, with no other occupation
than that of spending their lives agreeably and innocently, study to
sever pleasure from vice, and who, that they may enjoy their leisure
without ennui, have recourse to such pursuits as are honorable, I was
nevertheless prosecuting my design, and making greater progress in the
knowledge of truth, than I might, perhaps, have made had I been engaged
in the perusal of books merely, or in holding converse with men of
letters.
These nine years passed away, however, before I had come to any
determinate judgment respecting the difficulties which form matter of
dispute among the learned, or had commenced to seek the principles of
any philosophy more certain than the vulgar. And the examples of many
men of the highest genius, who had, in former times, engaged in this
inquiry, but, as appeared to me, without success, led me to imagine it
to be a work of so much difficulty, that I would not perhaps have
ventured on it so soon had I not heard it currently rumored that I had
already completed the inquiry. I know not what were the grounds of this
opinion; and, if my conversation contributed in any measure to its
rise, this must have happened rather from my having confessed my
Ignorance with greater freedom than those are accustomed to do who have
studied a little, and expounded perhaps, the reasons that led me to
doubt of many of those things that by others are esteemed certain, than
from my having boasted of any system of philosophy. But, as I am of a
disposition that makes me unwilling to be esteemed different from what
I really am, I thought it necessary to endeavor by all means to render
myself worthy of the reputation accorded to me; and it is now exactly
eight years since this desire constrained me to remove from all those
places where interruption from any of my acquaintances was possible,
and betake myself to this country, in which the long duration of the
war has led to the establishment of such discipline, that the armies
maintained seem to be of use only in enabling the inhabitants to enjoy
more securely the blessings of peace and where, in the midst of a great
crowd actively engaged in business, and more careful of their own
affairs than curious about those of others, I have been enabled to live
without being deprived of any of the conveniences to be had in the most
populous cities, and yet as solitary and as retired as in the midst of
the most remote deserts.