_SYNTAX_.
INTRODUCTORY.
[Sidenote: _By way of introduction._]
388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component
parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express
clearly the intended meaning.
[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax._]
380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually
divide syntax into the two general heads,--agreement and
government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words
in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and
noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are
said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear
that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax
will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in
addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked
difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:--
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected
forms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of little
grammatical importance.
[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax._]
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading
characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_
and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form:
consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to
think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is
ambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order of
subject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. In
Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one
stood first.
[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_]
391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a
department of grammar,--
_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some
of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic
(peculiar to our own language).
_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in the
arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the
logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side
by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides
these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life'
by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the
preposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not
logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but
none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would
require _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet the
expression is sustained by good authority.
[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid._]
392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differ
as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer
will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of
the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes
verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given
in the following pages.
[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax._]
393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best
usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but
important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a
student with too many obtrusive _don'ts_.
The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations
from _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" that
is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and
whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of
authoritative opinion.
Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions
differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when
it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English.
It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire
correctness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it.
NOUNS.
394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective
cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks
are required concerning the use of the possessive case.
[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession._]
395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate
joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the
last noun only; for example,--
Live your _king and country's_ best support.--ROWE.
Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool.--BYRON.
_Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office.--MCCULLOCH.
_Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn.--MILTON.
In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells,
etc.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Separate possession._]
396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but
imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used
with each noun; as,--
He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and
_prelate's_ rage.--MARVELL
Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in
_Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY.
_Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and
_Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of
the High Priest.--RUSKIN.
Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's,_
and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_.--THACKERAY.
An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays.--MACAULAY.
Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together.
--_Id._
397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under
the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408).
PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS.
398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative
_who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are
two general rules that require attention.
[Sidenote: _General rules._]
(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form of
the pronoun.
(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of the
pronoun.
These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary
English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are
generally, if not universally, sanctioned.
[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative._]
399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in
the following instances:--
(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is
taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as,--
He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay
out to Boonville.--WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers._
It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine
don't admire one who carrys it out.--_Josiah Allens Wife._
(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words
is misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this,
_whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be the
nominative form, _who_.) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree was
rather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_).
Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_
or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus,--
But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such
a one as _her_.--TROLLOPE.
This should be "as _she_," because the full expression would be "such
a one as _she is_."
400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good
writers, as shown in the following examples:--
She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or
_me_.--THACKERAY.
No mightier than thyself or _me_.--SHAKESPEARE.
Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all.--POPE.
But he must be a stronger than _thee_.--SOUTHEY.
Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_.--BYRON.
I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_.--FIELDING.
[Sidenote: _A safe rule._]
It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as
illustrated in the following sentences:--
If so, they are yet holier than _we_.--RUSKIN.
Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS.
Do we see
The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_?
--MILTON.
I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to.--LONGFELLOW.
[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom."]
401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems
to be used universally instead of "than _who_." There is no special
reason for this, but such is the fact; for example,--
One I remember especially,--one _than whom_ I never met a bandit
more gallant.--THACKERAY.
The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how
to do honor to a noble foe.--SCOTT.
She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a
steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more
competent.--PARTON.
[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?]
402. And there is one question about which grammarians are not
agreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should be
used in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms of
the verb _be_.
It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefers
the nominative_ in this instance, as,--
For there was little doubt that it was _he_.--KINGSLEY.
But still it is not _she_.--MACAULAY.
And it was _he_
That made the ship to go.
--COLERIDGE.
In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, the
objective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort is
made to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spoken
English from conversations:--
"Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's
_her_."--KINGSLEY.
"Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter."--WINTHROP.
"If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_."--WM.
BLACK.
The usage is too common to need further examples.
Exercise.
Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, giving
reasons from the analysis of the sentence:--
1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify.
2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all.
3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_.
4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away.
5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it,
now."
6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of
_whomsoever_ opens to the stranger.
7. It is not _me_ you are in love with.
8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge.
9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is as
noble as these men and women.
10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad
figure but as an author.
11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or
_me_.
[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_.]
403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used in
exclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as,--
Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life.--KINGSLEY
Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Señors!--_Id._
Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there.--MILTON.
[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective.]
404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from--
(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or
preposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he be
anything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of
_to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, but
not _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_).
(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs,
verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are
cleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_
and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_).
(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in
apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who has
steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who,"
the word being in apposition with _murderer_).
[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_.]
405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no
objective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did you
see?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To
_whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is
usually avoided.
In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ for
objective use; as,--
Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT.
What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH.
Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work
of the objective use; for example,--
My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_.--GOLDSMITH.
_Who_ have we here?--_Id._
_Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend.--STEELE.
He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows
_who_.--KINGSLEY.
_Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT.
_Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT.
_Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN.
[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc._]
406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, as
well as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_);
as,--
All were knocked down but _us_ two.--KINGSLEY.
Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee._--BYRON.
Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON.
The Chieftains then
Returned rejoicing, all but _he_.
--SOUTHEY
No man strikes him but _I_.--KINGSLEY.
None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn,
Shall be left upon the morn.
BYRON.
Exercise.
Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons from
the analysis of the quotation:--
1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign.
2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such in
the world.
3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in half
an hour, and they know that as well as _me_."
4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three
contemporaries of great eminence.
5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_.
6. They crowned him long ago;
But _who_ they got to put it on
Nobody seems to know.
7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the
pedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew.
8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to
Yorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada.
9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates.
10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet
The fatal asterisk of death is set,
_Ye_ I salute.
11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning.
12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept from
under the parental wing--was a startling idea.
II. POSSESSIVE FORMS.
[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative._]
407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are
sometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is not
frequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the
use of the possessive is less likely to be clear.
We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this
happened every other day in his drawing room.--RUSKIN.
For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing
me.--C.B. BROWN.
Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_
whom I most worship on earth.--SCOTT.
He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was
ordered to ride behind the coach.--THACKERAY.
He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so
much more bounded would avail.--DE QUINCEY.
For boys with hearts as bold
As _his_ who kept the bridge so well.
--MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund,--possessive, or objective?_]
408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is such
a construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law," or "We
heard of _Brown's_ studying law."
That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be
used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely
scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference
between them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle,
and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; and
that in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, and
modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be.
[Sidenote: _Why both are found._]
But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of
sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the
possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use of
the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regarding
the _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive use
is more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the
material thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the action
substantive the chief idea before the mind.
In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of the
pronoun is more common than that of the noun.
[Sidenote: _Objective_.]
The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy
_patron_ falling from a chair.--SCOTT.
He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked
why it was not made.--THACKERAY.
The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having
been born in her house.--IRVING.
The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city
walls proper is a strong reason, etc.--BREWER.
I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little
personal anecdote.--DE QUINCEY.
Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting
about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.--RUSKIN.
We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his
entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his
wife, that the bitterness of death was past.--MACAULAY.
There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a
_man_ being sent into this earth.--CARLYLE.
[Sidenote: _Possessive_.]
There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house
built of glass.--CARLYLE.
As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for
life.--DICKENS.
The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the
little creature dead.--DE QUINCEY.
There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of
food which the civilized man rejects.--THOREAU.
It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside
my clothes.--C. BROCKDEN BROWN.
The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been
themselves in a somewhat similar condition.--AUDUBON.
There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where
there were examinations.--RUSKIN
This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past
apprehension of truth.--EMERSON
III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS.
409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some
preceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person,
number, and gender.
[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent._]
There are two constructions in which the student will need to watch
the pronoun,--when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by a
phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when the
antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot
indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are,--
_Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in
some business or salaried office.--RUSKIN.
Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on
_his_ winning or losing a game of chess.--HUXLEY.
If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault.--CABLE.
_Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of.--DEFOE.
410. In such a case as the last three sentences,--when the
antecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributive
word, taking in each of many persons,--the preferred method is to put
the pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent is
neuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neuter
singular.
The following are additional examples:--
The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of
life for _him_.--HOLMES.
Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates.--DE QUINCEY.
Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little
diary.--THACKERAY.
The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take
_His_ chamber in the silent halls of death.
--BRYANT.
[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns._]
Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine
pronoun; for example,--
Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what
spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph
in _his or her_ opinion.--EMERSON.
It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_
and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his
or her_ own.--HUXLEY.
_By using the plural pronoun._
411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is a
distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective,
is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not considered
the best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in
each case; but the construction is frequently found _when the
antecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does not
really represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his or
her_ is avoided as being cumbrous.
Notice the following examples of the plural:--
_Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived.--THACKERAY.
_Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings.--BYRON.
Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as
_anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done.--AUSTEN.
If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_
will make it _themselves_ as they go.--DEFOE.
_Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect
_they_ meet in the world.--PALEY.
_Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE.
_Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words.--SCOTT.
_Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national
custom.--PALGRAVE.
The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with
_themselves_.--RUSKIN.
Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and
giving _them_ means of being so.--_Id._
_Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way.--_Id._
_Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing
there.--WENDELL PHILLIPS.
Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to
force the other off.--PAULDING.
_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off.--_Bible._
_Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost
him.--FIELDING.
Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could
take upon _them_ to say.--SHERIDAN.
I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care
of _their_ health.--ADDISON.
Exercise.--In the above sentences, _unless both genders are
implied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.
[Sidenote: _What these terms mean._]
412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who,
which, and that may be coördinating or restrictive.
A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to a
conjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc.) and a personal pronoun.
It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being considered
already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away." This
means, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ went
away."
A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and make
clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent,
and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thought
necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_
stood at the gate." It defines _beggar_.
413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should always
be coördinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to the
practice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated as
follows:--
[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated._]
Who and which are either coördinating or restrictive, the taste of
the writer and regard for euphony being the guide.
That is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating use not being
often found among careful writers.
Exercise.
In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ are
restrictive or not, in each instance:--
[Sidenote: Who.]
1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near
Ernest.--HAWTHORNE.
2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were
comparing the features with the face on the mountain side.--_Id._
3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to
understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.--HOLMES.
4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are
saying, etc.--H.W. BEECHER
5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or
seventy years old.--THOREAU.
[Sidenote: Which.]
6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much
English history as Dutch.--MOTLEY.
7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras,
she agreed to join the party.--DE QUINCEY.
8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately
occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the
universal prostration of mind.--_Id._
9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first,
which Mr. Hare has printed.--CARLYLE.
10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in
hand, and it is called logic.--NEWMAN.
[Sidenote: That.]
11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport,
that were often vicious.--DE QUINCEY.
12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose
everywhere about him in the greatest variety.--ADDISON.
13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew
stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced.--_Id._
14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled
a mile out of his sleeves.--IRVING.
II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.
[Sidenote: _The rule._]
414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with its
antecedent in person and number.
[Sidenote: _In what sense true._]
This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does not
vary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc.,
_who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carries
over_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following,
so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive.
For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to an
eternal public," _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but,
because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular.
Notice the agreement in the following sentences:--
There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely
_speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc.--ADDISON.
O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's
wound.--BOWLES.
Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest
to bear are _those_ which never _come._--LOWELL.
[Sidenote: _A disputed point._]
415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed
questions,--whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_
been published," or, "one of the finest books that _have_ been
published."
[Sidenote: One of ... [_plural_] that who, _or_ which ... [_singular
or plural_.]]
The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take
_His_ chamber in the silent halls of death.
--BRYANT.
Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a difference
of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book]
_of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the true
antecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write the
verb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the former
has good authority.
The following quotations show both sides:--
[Sidenote: _Plural._]
He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown
equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in
improving a victory.--LECKY.
He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever
lived.--J.T.MORSE, Jr., _Franklin._
It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and
delusive splendor.--MACAULAY.
A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows
which _make_ one more ashamed, etc.--HOLMES.
I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an
irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.--LOWELL.
French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most
powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed.--M. ARNOLD.
What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those
tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY.
He is one of those that _deserve_ very well.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Singular._]
The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who _was_ pressing
hardest.--SCOTT.
He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_,
when he derided the shams of society.--HOWELLS.
A rare Roundabout performance,--one of the very best that _has_
ever appeared in this series.--THACKERAY.
Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which
ever _was_ published in this country.--_Id._
It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by
designing writers.--IRVING.
"I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at
the Piazza Hotel."--DICKENS.
The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which
_is_ an honor to the human race.--EMERSON.
Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of
any that _has_ fallen under my observation.--ADDISON.
The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls
that ever gave _itself_ to the arts.--RUSKIN.
III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE.
416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it would
be the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is an
omission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is,
when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition
_understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_,
_whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which]
he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died." Notice
these sentences:--
In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky.--SWIFT.
This is he that should marshal us the way we were
going.--EMERSON.
But I by backward steps would move;
And, when this dust falls to the urn,
In that same state I came, return.--VAUGHAN.
Welcome the hour my aged limbs
Are laid with thee to rest.--BURNS.
The night was concluded in the manner we began the
morning.--GOLDSMITH.
The same day I went aboard we set sail.--DEFOE.
The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined
on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the
marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.--CARLYLE.
To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required
time and attention.--SCOTT.
Exercise.--In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction or
phrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer.
IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_.
417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as,--
He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected
the same service from me _as_ he would from another.--FRANKLIN.
This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and
mutilation produce from accidents.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _The regular construction_.]
[Sidenote: _Caution_.]
The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verb
follows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ is
not used, but we find the relative _who, which,_ or _that_. Remember
this applies only to _as_ when used as a relative.
Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:--
Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same
spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc.--R.W. CHURCH.
They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives,
boats, looking-glasses.--ADDISON.
Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:--
[Sidenote: Who.]
This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles.
--GOLDSMITH.
The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the
first representation of the Tempest.--MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: That.]
I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my
first arrival.--SWIFT.
[Sidenote: Which.]
For the same sound is in my ears
_Which_ in those days I heard.--WORDSWORTH.
With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited,
she passed the lamp over her face and person.--SCOTT.
V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which.]
418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature a
construction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefully
avoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make an
anacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; for
example,--
_Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have
staid at home.--DEFOE
_Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would
follow him to Jerusalem.--THACKERAY.
We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake
them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us
in the power of long ago.--RUSKIN.
He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he
said that all submission was now too late.--GOLDSMITH.
But still the house affairs would draw her thence;
_Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch,
She'd come again.--SHAKESPEARE.
As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence:
it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and
this be placed in the proper clause.
Exercise.--Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper
grammatical connection in each.
[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc._]
419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the lines
of even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversight
and a blemish.
The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engaged
in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are now
thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that such conjunctions
as _and_, _but_, _or_, etc., should connect expressions of the same
kind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none is
expressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus,
(1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now," etc.; (2) "Among
the poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown," etc.; (3) "Among the poorer
sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That is,--
[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting._]
Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out both
connective and relative.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just
given:--
[Sidenote: And who.]
1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than
herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed
them.--HAWTHORNE.
2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be
introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his
conversion.--DE QUINCEY.
3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of
what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the
lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble
figure.--SCOTT.
4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte,
and in whom I myself was not a little interested.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: But who.]
5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by
name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.--HAWTHORNE.
6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity,
but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: Or who.]
7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous
Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the
stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a
thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his
love?"--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: And which.]
8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church,
and which may even be heard a mile off.--IRVING.
9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like
that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in
the western counties.--PEARSON.
10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and
which has never been described.--MOTLEY.
[Sidenote: But which.]
11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with
itself!"--HAWTHORNE.
12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the
power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.--DE QUINCEY.
[Sidenote: Or which.]
13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had
learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the
French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and
reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: That ... and which, _etc._]
420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise a
variation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimes
found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereas
the better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for any
further reference.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of
using two for the same antecedent:--
[Sidenote: That ... who.]
1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear
every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is
closed.--DE QUINCEY.
2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours,
and whose examples and principles we inherit.--BEECHER.
3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms
of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest
heaven!--CARLYLE.
[Sidenote: That ... which.]
4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of
God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love
of his brethren.--W.E. CHANNING.
5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first
organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will
remain as long as the Prometheus.--EMERSON.
6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did
not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most
important difficulties to be surmounted.--HALLAM.
7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be
acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from
you than from others.--SCOTT.
8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may
say old civilization has established in place of goodness of
heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it.--HOWELLS.
9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a
century ago, was a bustling wharf,--but which is now burdened
with decayed wooden warehouses.--HAWTHORNE.
10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme
presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high
in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition,
appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a
frenzy of passion.--SCOTT
[Sidenote: That which ... what.]
11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the
sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular
crevices, was hung in air.--W.G. SIMMS.
[Sidenote: Such as ... which.]
12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always
dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted
itself to my ear.--DE QUINCEY.
13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have
very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a
chance of becoming President.--HOLMES.
[Sidenote: Such as ... whom.]
14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men
as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: Which ... that ... that.]
15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my
father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested
notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so
forcibly upon me.--DEFOE.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: Each other, one another.]
421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other
or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether
either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whether
or not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the
following sentences:--
They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into
the high pavilion of their thoughts.--HAWTHORNE.
Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first
time.--EMERSON.
You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each
other_?--THACKERAY.
England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war
with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and
wives.--BREWER
The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order.--MACAULAY.
The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_.--_Id._
We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish
enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating
libraries.--RUSKIN.
The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us
not increase them by dissension among _each other_.--GOLDSMITH.
In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one
another_.--DICKENS.
The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each
other._--RUSKIN.
[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither.]
422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to only
two persons or objects; as, for example,--
Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn.
Assume that no one is in want of _either_.--RUSKIN
Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain,
and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as
all his own.--HAWTHORNE.
[Sidenote: _Use of_ any.]
Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which case
any should be used instead; as,--
Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was
it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of
these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud
of hope?--EVERETT.
Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in
Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in
Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the
pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their
genius.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_.]
423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as
plural, as shown in the following sentences:--
If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours
as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc.--BEECHER
Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had
died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_
memory.--STIRLING.
But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when
_any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me.--FRANKLIN.
Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's
children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY.
In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as,--
If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended.--SHAKESPEARE.
If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God.--_Bible_.
Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as,--
Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions
as _any_ that _reads_ them can be.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _Caution_.]
The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_,
which is plural as often as singular.
[Sidenote: None _usually plural_.]
424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the present
day, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _ne
ān_ (not one). Examples of its use are,--
In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers
_were_.--CARLYLE.
_None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service.--PROF. DANA
One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries
_put_, and is isolated.--EMERSON.
_None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free
from the observance of slavish bondage.--SCOTT.
Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's
children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I
know of.--THACKERAY.
Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I
think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to
smell.--THOREAU.
The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as,--
_None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian.--LUKE iv
27
Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose,
and less rarely in poetry; for example,--
Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so
firm in the confidence of the people.--LOWELL
In signal _none his_ steed should spare.--SCOTT
Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished from
the adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is more
likely to confuse the student.
Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective
_none_:--
Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no
sky] was visible overhead.--THOREAU
The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_
[no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings.--PRESCOTT
[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_.]
425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means
_everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example,--
[Sidenote: _Singular_.]
The light troops thought ... that _all was_ lost.--PALGRAVE
_All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the
other.--BAYNE
Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others.--NAPIER
[Sidenote: _Plural_.]
But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged
leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc.--PEARSON.
When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.--LINGARD
_All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled,
etc.--McMASTER.
[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?]
426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc.,
are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the
final word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression
_somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usage
is shown in the following selections:--
A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case.--G. ELIOT.
A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_.--THACKERAY.
Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as
benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_.--DICKENS.
Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes.--RUSKIN.
Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases
more archaic.--SWEET.
Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_.--RUSKIN.
His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike
_anybody else's_ in the world.--N.P. WILLIS.
"Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody
else's_ wantin' what you've got."--MRS. STOWE.
ADJECTIVES.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS.
[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc._]
427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number
is restricted to the words this and that (with these and
those), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms
for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that
the concord seems to be violated,--in such as "_these sort_ of books,"
"_those kind_ of trees," "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns being
singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but
universal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently in
literary English; for example,--
_These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness
Harbor more craft, etc.--SHAKESPEARE
All _these sort_ of things.--SHERIDAN.
I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things.--MULOCH.
You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences.--SYDNEY
SMITH.
Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop,
or _those sort_ of people.--FIELDING.
I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of
schemes.--AUSTEN.
There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those
sort_ of romantic spots.--_Saturday Review_, London.
The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing
books.--RUSKIN.
According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the
above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the
nouns to the plural.
[Sidenote: _History of this construction._]
The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in
the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that
the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following.
[Sidenote: _At the source._]
In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at
things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all
_kinds_ of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals
of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses.
[Sidenote: _Later form._]
But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such
expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old.
[Sidenote: _The result._]
Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form of
logical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of trees
should be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_
is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken
English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction,
"_These kind of_ trees are best."
[Sidenote: _A question._]
The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to
use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules
_are_ the best," or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or
_sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a
plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertain
sounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming
than a total silence."
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS.
[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree._]
428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used
when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object
with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,--
Which is _the better_ able to defend himself,--a strong man with
nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a
sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY.
Of two such lessons, why forget
The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one?
--BYRON.
We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization,
the victor or the vanquished.--PRESCOTT.
A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode.--SCOTT.
He is _taller,_ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his
court.--SWIFT.
[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form._]
429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs,
it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not,
the object would really be compared with itself: thus,--
The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in
its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has
drawn.--TROLLOPE.
I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier
curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity.--HAWTHORNE.
Exercise.
See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the following
sentences:--
1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr.
Henry.--WIRT.
2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more
than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned,
etc.--MACAULAY.
3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its
obligations as our own.--LOWELL.
4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any
mythology I know.--CARLYLE.
5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel
I remember to have read.--THACKERAY.
6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of
Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in
"Scott's lot."--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree._]
430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used
regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently
used in comparing only two things.
Examples of superlative with several objects:--
It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the
_strongest_.--MACAULAY.
Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever
lived, would not have had the face.--THACKERAY.
To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are
paid.--HUXLEY.
[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects._]
Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:--
Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion?
--THACKERAY.
Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are
the same to the sense, and differ only in form.--DR BLAIR.
Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever
can be got _easiest_.--IRVING.
It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly
contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party.--SCOTT.
There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The
_eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair
English child.--MRS. OLIPHANT.
Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the
nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause,
and the other contains the _best_ men.--EMERSON.
In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly
always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor
degree.--RUSKIN.
She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid
both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_.--GOLDSMITH.
These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the
_last_ of them.--ADDISON.
"Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him.
"Let us see which will laugh _loudest_."--HAWTHORNE.
[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative._]
431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double
comparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the word
already having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are,--
How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of
Venice._
Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero.--_Tempest._
Come you _more nearer_.--_Hamlet._
With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome.--_J. Cæsar._
Also from the same period,--
Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_
Grecians.--BEN JONSON.
After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion.--_Bible_, 1611.
Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following
examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant
persons:--
The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the
_most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was
seen."--BULWER.
"There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature;
not a bit of high life among them."--GOLDSMITH.
_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_?
432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so
long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that
both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary
English. Instances of both are given below.
The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea
from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of
either or both.
[Sidenote: First three, _etc._]
For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping
them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY.
The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last,
jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN.
The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY.
Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat
raw.--LAMB.
The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding
number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._]
These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN.
He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON.
In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you
are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT.
I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books.
--COWPER.
The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of
triumphs.--GIBBON.
ARTICLES.
[Sidenote: _Definite article_.]
433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers
of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun
expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate
objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers.
Examples of this construction are,--
[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.]
The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed
is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON.
_The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by
his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN.
He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either
on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE.
It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between
_the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_,
No. 1508.
[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.]
There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether
the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the
Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_.
434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before
nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning;
as,--
In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems,
I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY.
He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_,
distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN.
_The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet
boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting
came.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a
singular noun_.]
435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of
two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only;
as,--
Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is
but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE.
_The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT.
_The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON.
[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.]
Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the
ancient and modern_ general views of the
town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS.
At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment
suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY.
The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic
and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._
Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_
orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.]
436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to
limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The
article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the
modified nouns. Examples of this use are,--
We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_
life.--BEECHER.
The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and
those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably
exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE.
Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and
_a square_ one alternately.--BURKE.
As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_
statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most
common book of reference.--MACAULAY.
To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_
passage.--JOHNSON.
Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun
expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.
[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._]
437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives
unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs.
433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with
the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first
sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first
three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the
same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions
"_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium."
Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:--
To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON.
Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS.
James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY.
So wert thou born into a tuneful strain,
_An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein.
--DRYDEN.
[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._]
438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend
special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns;
as,--
James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a
murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY.
Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER.
He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a
Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY.
VERBS.
CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER.
[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._]
439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather
than the form of its subject.
It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with
its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec.
276, and the following illustrations prove it.
The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have
separate forms for singular and plural number.
[Sidenote: _Singular verb._]
440. The singular form of the verb is used--
[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._]
(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning.
Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ.
_He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT.
_He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER.
[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._]
(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number
of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,--
The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a
weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON.
Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The
Nation._
In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W.
PHILLIPS
A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her
girdle.--FROUDE.
_Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to
prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE
This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the
writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a
plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above.
[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.]
(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected
by _or_ or _nor_; as,--
It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great
intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without
academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD.
_Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_.
--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._]
(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of
things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,--
Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some
circumstances.--DE QUINCEY.
Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_
no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH.
Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and
every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE
Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN
The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and
other singulars of plural form; as,--
Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER.
"Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young
girls.--_Critic_, No. 674
The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH.
[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._]
(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_,
in the following cases:--
(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing,
or as making up one general idea; as,--
In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the
female world--ADDISON.
The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably
abated.--BURKE
To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE
In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not
the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY
The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON.
When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the
thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS.
(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or
considered as appositional; for example,--
The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the
nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_
gone.--BURKE.
A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth,
a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON
The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not
take the place of the man.--_Id._
To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any
way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with
death.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._]
This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially
frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,--
There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD.
There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an
agitated gesture.--BURKE
There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves,
with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE.
Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the
"No, sir!"--MACAULAY.
For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray,
The rout, the ruin, the dismay.
--SCOTT.
(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the
first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,--
Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY.
The oldest, as well as the newest, wine
_Begins_ to stir itself.
--LONGFELLOW.
Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER.
The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and
Comedy.--FIELDING
(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by
_every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives.
Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY.
Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE
QUINCEY
Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN.
Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN.
Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON.
Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._
Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their
calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Plural verb._]
441. The plural form of the verb is used--
(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,--
These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT.
Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH.
The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON.
(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_
of the collection are thought of; as,--
A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON.
A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN.
All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE.
A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE
The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of
canonization.--SCOTT.
The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR.
(3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by
and_, making up a plural subject, for example,--
Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE
But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a
mystery to us.--FROUDE.
His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT.
Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than
Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._]
The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb
is plural, as with a subject of plural form.
A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_
sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON.
The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of
insignificant characters.--MACAULAY
(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive
word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,--
One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU.
One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE.
One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON
One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive
in the village.--THACKERAY
One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY.
But notice the construction of this,--
A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN.
AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON.
[Sidenote: _General usage_.]
442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the
verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases
where there are forms for different persons: as,--
Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY.
Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL.
It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the
oath.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.]
443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the
second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first
person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,--
I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT.
You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER.
Ah, brother! only I and thou
_Are_ left of all that circle now.
--WHITTIER.
You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY.
Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_
[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.]
444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by
adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with
the pronoun nearest to it; for example,--
Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN.
If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH.
Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD.
Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE.
Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON.
This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided
either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I
_can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the
sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form
(as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ never
said so, nor _has_ she").
[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_.]
445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper
to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage
rather than the unusual and irregular.
Exercise.
Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage,
as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):--
1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last
Man,--and, as we would hope,--perhaps the devil,
That neither of their intellects are vast.
--BYRON.
2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of
the man as a statuette in bronze.--TROLLOPE.
3. How each of these professions are crowded.--ADDISON.
4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.--_Id._
5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are
significant.--EMERSON.
6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.--BURKE.
7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or
murder.--ADDISON.