We may now ask: What was the purpose of _The Trial of Jesus from a Lawyer's Standpoint, Vol. 1 (of 2) The Hebrew Trial

the first trial suffice? According to the most reliable authorities, the

answer to this question is to be found in that provision of the Hebrew

law which required two trials instead of one, in every case where the

prisoner had been found guilty at the first trial. Not only were there

to be two trials, but they were to be held on different days. The

morning session of the Sanhedrin was intended, therefore, to give a

semblance of legality and regularity to this requirement of Hebrew law.

But we shall see how completely the Sanhedrin failed in this design.

"What legitimacy," says Keim, "might be lacking in the proceedings of

the nocturnal sitting of the Sanhedrin, was to be completely made up by

the morning sitting, without prejudice to the authority and the--in the

main point--decisive action of the former.... There nevertheless was no

lack of illegality. The most striking instance of this was the fact that

though they wished to bring about an extension of the procedure over two

days they had in fact only two sittings, and not two separate days. But

contempt of the legal ordinances was much more seriously shown by the

absence of any investigation into the circumstances of the case at the

second sitting, although _both law and tradition demanded such an

investigation_."[349]

If "both law and tradition demanded such an investigation," that is, if

the second trial of the case on the second day of the proceedings was

required to be formal and in the nature of an action _de novo_; if the

second trial was required by law to be characterized by all the

formality, solemnity, and legality of the first trial; what errors, we

may ask, are disclosed by the reports of St. Luke, St. Matthew, and St.

Mark in the proceedings against Jesus conducted by the Sanhedrin at the

morning session? To be brief, reply may be made that the irregularities

were virtually the same as those that occurred at the night trial. The

same precipitancy that was forbidden by Hebrew law is apparent. This

haste prevented, of course, that careful deliberation and painstaking

investigation of the case which the Mosaic Code as well as the rules of

the Mishna imperatively demanded. It is true that the second trial was

not conducted at night. But the Passover Feast was still in progress,

and no court could legally sit at such a time. The Sanhedrin at the

second session seems to have been still sitting in the palace of

Caiaphas instead of the Hall of Hewn Stones, the legal meeting place of

the court. This we learn from a passage in St. John.[350] Again, no

witnesses seem to have been summoned, and the accused was convicted upon

his uncorroborated confession.

And finally, the verdict at the second trial, as was the case in that of

the first, seems to have been unanimous, and therefore illegal. This

unanimity is indicated by the combined reports of St. Matthew, St. Mark,

and St. Luke. St. Matthew says: "When the morning was come, _all_ the

chief priests and elders of the people took counsel against Jesus to put

Him to death." St. Mark says: "And straightway in the morning, the chief

priests held a consultation with the elders and scribes and the _whole

council_, and bound Jesus, and carried him away, and delivered him to

Pilate." These accounts of the first two Evangelists very clearly state

that the full Sanhedrin was present at the morning trial. Then St. Luke

very explicitly explains the nature and manner of the verdict: "Then

said they _all_, Art thou then the Son of God? And he said unto them, Ye

say that I am. And they said, What need we any further witness? for we

ourselves have heard of his own mouth."

It may be objected that no formal verdict was pronounced at the second

trial. Such a verdict would have been expressed in these words: "Thou,

Jesus, art guilty."[351] While such words are not expressly reported by

the Evangelists, the account of St. Luke taken in connection with the

report of St. Mark of the night trial, which the morning session was

intended to confirm, clearly indicates that such a verdict must have

been pronounced. A reasonable inference from the whole context of the

synoptic writers in describing both trials certainly justifies such a

conclusion.

The question again arises: If the full Sanhedrin was present at the

morning session and if all the members condemned Jesus, either with or

without a formal verdict, is it not true that both Nicodemus and Joseph

of Arimathea, who were doubtless members of the court, were arrayed

against the Christ? If they were hostile in their attitude toward Him,

either openly or by acquiescence at the morning session, does this fact

not help to support the contention made under Point IX that they voted

against Him at the night trial? We are well aware that there is much

opposition to this view, but we are, nevertheless, compelled to agree

rather reluctantly with Keim that "it is a pure supposition that members

of the council who were secret friends of Jesus--whose existence,

moreover, cannot be established--either raised an opposition in one of

the sessions, or abstained from voting, or were not present."[352] The

plain language of the Scriptures indicates: (1) That both Nicodemus[353]

and Joseph of Arimathea[354] were members of the Great Sanhedrin; (2)

that they were both present at both trials;[355] and (3) that they both

either voted against Him or tacitly acquiesced in the judgments

pronounced against Him.[356] We have already discussed under Point IX

the passage in Luke xxiii. 51 referring to the fact that Joseph of

Arimathea "had not consented to the counsel and deed of them," which

seems to furnish refutation of the contention which we have made, as far

as such contention relates to Joseph of Arimathea. Suffice it to note

the opinion of Keim that "the passage in itself can be held to refer to

absence or to dissent in voting."[357]

"And the whole multitude of them arose, and led him unto Pilate."

The reader may ask: Why did the Jews lead Jesus away to Pilate? When

they had condemned Him to death on the charge of blasphemy, why did they

themselves not put Him to death? Why did they invoke Roman interference

in the matter? Why did they not stone Jesus to death, as Hebrew law

required in the case of culprits convicted of blasphemy? Stephen was

stoned to death for blasphemy.[358] What was the difference between his

case and that of Jesus? Why was Jesus crucified instead of being put to

death by stoning?

The stoning of Stephen as a blasphemer by the Jews has been explained as

an irregular outbreak of fanatical priests, a sort of mob violence. It

has also been contended that the case of Stephen was one of the rare

instances in which Roman procurators permitted the Jews to execute the

death sentence. In any event it was an exceptional proceeding. At the

time of the crucifixion of Jesus and of the martyrdom of Stephen the

Jews had lost the right of enforcing the death penalty. Judea was a

subject province of the Roman empire. The Jews were permitted by the

Romans to try capital cases. If an acquittal was the result, the Romans

did not interfere. If a verdict of guilty was found, the Jews were

compelled to lead the prisoner away to the Roman governor, who reviewed

or retried the case as he saw fit. Accordingly, having condemned Him to

death themselves, the Jews were compelled to lead Jesus away to the

palace of Herod on the hill of Zion in which Pilate was stopping on the

occasion of the Paschal Feast, to see what he had to say about the

matter, whether he would reverse or affirm the sentence which they had

pronounced.

The Roman trial of Jesus will be treated in the second volume of this

work.

END OF VOL. I

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "Testimony of the Evangelists," pp. 7-11.

[2] "Testimony of the Evangelists," pp. 25, 26.

[3] I "Starkie on Evidence," pp. 480-545.

[4] John x. 30: "I and my Father are one."

[5] Matt. ix. 9.

[6] Col. iv. 14: "Luke, the beloved physician."

[7] Matt. xxvi. 70-72.

[8] Matt. xxvi. 46-50.

[9] Matt. xxvi. 56.

[10] Matt. xiv. 28-31.

[11] Mark x. 35-42; Matt. xx. 20-25.

[12] Matt. xi. 2, 3.

[13] Mark iii. 21.

[14] Luke iv. 28, 29.

[15] Mark xiv. 51, 52.

[16] "Intro. Vie de Jesus."

[17] Luke i. 2, 3.

[18] "Die synoptischen Evangelien," pp. 412-14.

[19] Marcus Dods, "The Bible, Its Origin and Nature," p. 184.

[20] An opposite doctrine seems to be taught in Luke xii. 11, 12; xxiv.

48, 49.

[21] "Evidences of Christianity," p. 319.

[22] Matt. xiv. 12-20; Mark vi. 34-43; Luke ix. 12-17; John vi. 5-13.

[23] Luke xxii. 64.

[24] Luke xxii. 51.

[25] Campbell's "Philosophy of Rhetoric," c. v. b. 1, Part III, p. 125.

[26] "Intro. Vie de Jesus," p. 62.

[27] D. L. Moody, "Sermon on the Resurrection of Jesus."

[28] See also I "Starkie on Evidence," pp. 496-99.

[29] "Ant.," XVIII. 3, I.

[30] See authorities cited in "The Brief."

[31] "De iis qui sero puniuntur," p. 554.

[32] P. 1080, edit. 45.

[33] P. 1247, edit. 24, Huds.

[34] P. 1327, edit. 43.

[35] "Productique omnes, virgisque cæsi, ac securi percussi," Lib. XI.

c. 5.

[36] Domit. Cap. X. "Patremfamilias--canibus objecit, cum hoc _titulo_,

Impie locutus, parmularius."

[37] Book LIV.

[38] "Aur. Vict. Ces.," Cap. XLI. "Eo pius, ut etiam vetus veterrimumque

supplicium, patibulum, et cruribus suffringendis, primus removerit."

Also see Paley's "Evidences of Christianity," pp. 266-68.

[39] Luke xxii. 44.

[40] Tissot, "Traité des Nerfs," pp. 279, 280.

[41] Joannes Schenck à Grafenberg, "Observ. Medic.," Lib. III. p. 458.

[42] Voltaire, "Oeuvres complètes," vol. xviii. pp. 531, 532.

[43] De Mezeray, "Histoire de France," vol. iii. p. 306.

[44] John xix. 34.

[45] John xix. 35.

[46] John xviii. 6.

[47] "Encyc. Brit.," vol. xv. p. 550.

[48] Mendelsohn, "Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews," p.

191.

[49] Mendelsohn, p. 189, n. 1.

[50] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. xii. p. 1.

[51] Emanuel Deutsch, "The Talmud," p. 26.

[52] Farrar, "Hist. of Interpretation."

[53] Emanuel Deutsch, "The Talmud," p. 47.

[54] "Encyc. Brit.," vol. xxiii. p. 35.

[55] Emanuel Deutsch, "The Talmud," p. 58.

[56] Emanuel Deutsch, "The Talmud," p. 27.

[57] Emanuel Deutsch, "The Talmud," p. 27.

[58] Deut. xvi. 18.

[59] "Ant.," XIII. 10, 6.

[60] Horace.

[61] Emanuel Deutsch, "The Talmud," p. 12.

[62] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. xii. p. 22.

[63] Emanuel Deutsch, "Talmud," p. 12.

[64] Maimon., "H. Sanh." xv. 10-13.

[65] Mendelsohn, "Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews," pp.

45-50.

[66] Mendelsohn, "Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews," pp.

45-50.

[67] Mendelsohn, p. 43.

[68] Mendelsohn, pp. 39, 40.

[69] Mendelsohn, pp. 39, 40.

[70] Maimonides ("Yad"), "Sanhedrin" xix.

[71] Dr. Smith's "Hist. of Greece," p. 557.

[72] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. ii. p. 257.

[73] Ex. ii. 12-16.

[74] "Sanh." 52b; Maim., "H. Sanh." xv. 4.

[75] "H. Sanh." xv. 5.

[76] Benny, "Crim. Code of the Jews," p. 90.

[77] Mendelsohn, p. 159.

[78] Chap. I. 10; X. i, 2.

[79] Matt. xxvi. 59.

[80] "Ant.," XIV. Chap. V. 4; "Wars of the Jews," I. VIII. 5; "Talmud,"

"Sanhedrin."

[81] "Post Bibl. Hist.," vol. i. p. 106.

[82] Matt. xvi. 21.

[83] "Commentary on the Law," vol. ccclxvi. recto.

[84] "Sanhedrin" 32.

[85] Benny.

[86] Jose b. Halafta, I. c.

[87] R. Johanan, "Sanhedrin" 19a.

[88] Benny.

[89] Benny.

[90] "Sanhedrin" 17a; "Menahoth" 65a.

[91] Sifre, Num. 92 (ed. Friedmann, p. 25b).

[92] Yalkut, "Exodus," Sec. 167.

[93] Sotah 22b.

[94] "Const. of the Sanhedrin," Chap. I.

[95] Benny, "The Criminal Code of the Jews," p. 71.

[96] Saalschütz, "Das Mosaische Recht," p. 58; Deut. xx. 5, 6.

[97] Luke ii. 46-51.

[98] Jer. xxxvii., xxxviii.

[99] "Jesus of Nazara," vol. vi. p. 45.

[100] "The Life and Words of Christ," vol. ii. p. 517.

[101] "Archæol." 87.

[102] Acts xxiv. 1, 2.

[103] I Kings iii. 16-28.

[104] Mendelsohn, "Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews," pp.

102, 103.

[105] Mendelsohn, pp. 96-98.

[106] "Sanhedrin," Chap. I. fol. 19.

[107] Mendelsohn, p. 97.

[108] Mishna, "Sanhedrin," Chap. IV. 1.

[109] Mendelsohn, p. 98.

[110] "Sanhedrin," 8b, 41a, _et al._

[111] Mendelsohn, p. 101.

[112] Schürer, "The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ," 2d Div.,

[113] "Sanhedrin," IV. 4.

[114] "Sanhedrin," IV. 1.

[115] "Sanhedrin," 17a, p. 176.

[116] "Sanhedrin," Chap. I. 5.

[117] Benny.

[118] Benny.

[119] Benny.

[120] Mendelsohn, p. 140, n. 327.

[121] Montaigne, "Essays," III. C. XIII.

[122] "Un homme ne jugera jamais seul; cela n'appartient qu'a Dieu."

"Ne sis judex unus; non est enim unicus judex, nisi unus."--Salvador,

"Institutions de Moïse," L. IV. Chap. II. p. 357.

[123] "But let not the testimony of women be admitted, on account of the

levity and boldness of their sex."--Josephus, "Ant.," IV. 8, 15.

[124] "Nor let servants be admitted to give testimony, on account of the

ignobility of their souls."--"Ant.," IV. 8, 15.

[125] "Ant.," IV. 8, 15.

[126] Maimonides, I. C. XI. 6, based on "Sanh." 26b.

[127] Mendelsohn, p. 118.

[128] "Talmud," B. B. 43a.

[129] Deut. xvii. 6.

[130] Num. xxxv. 30.

[131] "Hist. Nat.," Lib. VIII. Cap. XXII.

[132] L. 20, Dig. De quæstionibus, xlviii. 18.

[133] Blackstone, iv. 357.

[134] Con. U. S., Art. III, Sec. 3.

[135] "Les lois qui font périr un homme sur la déposition d'un seul

témoin, sont fatales à la liberté. La raison en exige deux; parce qu'un

témoin qui affirme, et un accusé qui nie, font un partage; et il faut un

tiers pour le vider. Les Grecs and les Romains exigeaient une voix de

plus pour condamner. Nos lois françaises en demandent deux. Les Grecs

prétendaient que leur usage avait été établi par les dieux; mais c'est

le notre."--"De L'Esprit Des Lois," L. XII. C. III.

[136] Mishna, "Sanhedrin," C. V. 2.

[137] Maimonides, "Sanhedrin," Chap. XX.

[138] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. v. p. 277.

[139] "Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews," p. 29.

[140] Philo Judæus, "De Decalogo," III.

[141] Prov. xi. 10; Mishna, "Sanhedrin," IV. 5.

[142] Apocrypha.

[143] Benny.

[144] Mishna, "Sanhedrin," Chap. V. 1.

[145] Benny.

[146] Deut. xix. 18-21.

[147] Apocrypha.

[148] Maimonides, Mishna, "Sanhedrin," Chap. IV. 2.

[149] Münsterberg, "On the Witness Stand," "Untrue Confessions," pp.

137-171.

[150] Rosadi.

[151] Rabbi Wise, "Martyrdom of Jesus."

[152] "Yad," Edut, xvii. 1.

[153] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. v. p. 279.

[154] Num. xxxv. 30.

[155] Mishna, "Sanhedrin" V. 3, 4.

[156] Matt. xxvi. 60.

[157] Mark xiv. 56.

[158] Lev. xxii. 28.

[159] Deut. xvii. 5; "Sanhedrin" VII. 4.

[160] Num. vi. 2-4.

[161] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. vi. p. 260.

[162] "Einleitung in der Gesetzgebung," p. 4.

[163] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. vi. p. 260; Benny, "Criminal Code of the

Jews," p. 97; Saalschütz, "Das Mosaische Recht," n. 560.

[164] Mishna, treatise Makhoth.

[165] Mishna, "Capita Patrum," I. 1.

[166] Salvador, "Institutions de Moïse."

[167] Mishna, "Sanhedrin," IV. 1.

[168] "Jesus Before the Sanhedrin," p. 109.

[169] "Talmud," Jerus., Sanh., C. I. fol. 19.

[170] Mishna, "Tamid," C. III.

[171] Geikie, vol. ii. p. 517.

[172] Lyman Abbott, "Jesus of Nazareth," pp. 446, 447.

[173] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. v. pp. 279, 280.

[174] Benny.

[175] Mendelsohn, p. 144.

[176] Josephus, "Ant.," XIV. 9, 4.

[177] Schürer, 2d div., vol. i. p. 175.

[178] Schürer, 2d div., vol. i. p. 184.

[179] "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. ii. p. 556.

[180] "Jesus of Nazara," vol. vi. p. 37.

[181] "The Talmud," p. 32.

[182] "Ant.," xv. 6, 2.

[183] "History of the Jews," vol. ii. p. 163.

[184] "Tribus, pseudo-propheta, sacerdos magnus, non nisi a septuaginta

et unius judicum consessu judicantur."--"Mishna, De Synedriis," i. 5.

[185] "Among the offenses of which it took cognizance were false claims

to prophetic inspiration and blasphemy."--Andrews, "The Life of Our

Lord," p. 510.

[186] "Gesch. d. Judenth." vol. i. pp. 402-409.

[187] "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. ii. p. 553.

[188] "Vie de Jesus," pp. 303, 304.

[189] "Trial of Jesus Christ," p. 81.

[190] Matt. xxvi. 60, 61.

[191] Mark xiv. 57, 58.

[192] Matt. xxvi. 64-66.

[193] Mark xiv. 56.

[194] John ii. 20.

[195] John ii. 19.

[196] John ii. 21.

[197] "The Martyrdom of Jesus," pp. 75-77.

[198] Deut. xiii. 1-5.

[199] I Kings xxi. 10.

[200] Isa. lii, 5; Ezek. xxxv. 12.

[201] Luke xxii. 65; Acts xiii. 45; xviii. 6.

[202] Revelation xiii. 1-6.

[203] "Blackstone," vol. ii. pp. 75-84.

[204] Greenidge, "Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time," pp. 427, 507, 518.

[205] Deut. iv. 15, 16; Deut. xiii.

[206] Gen. xli. 16.

[207] Num. xx. 10-12.

[208] Num. xx. 20-24.

[209] Greenleaf, "Testimony of the Evangelists," p. 555.

[210] Matt. v. 17.

[211] John xi. 41.

[212] Matt. ix. 20-22; Mark v. 25-34; Luke viii. 43-48.

[213] Matt. viii. 24-26; Mark iv. 37-39; Luke viii. 23-25.

[214] Matt. viii. 28-32; Mark v. 1-13; Luke viii. 26-33.

[215] Matt. ix. 18-26; Mark v. 22-42; Luke viii. 41-55.

[216] Luke vii. 12-15.

[217] Matt. ix. 2, 3.

[218] Luke v. 21.

[219] John v. 18.

[220] John x. 30-33.

[221] John vi. 41.

[222] John viii. 58.

[223] "Testimony of the Evangelists," p. 562.

[224] Edersheim, "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. ii. p. 629.

[225] John xiii.-xvii.

[226] Matt. xi. 3.

[227] Luke xxiv. 39-43; John xx. 24-28.

[228] John xiii. 33.

[229] John xviii. 9.

[230] "Jesus Devant Caïphe et Pilate."

[231] Acts iv. 3.

[232] "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. ii. p. 494.

[233] See Cooley's "Blackstone," vol. ii. p. 330, n. 6; also Greenleaf,

"On Evidence," vol. i. pp. 531-35 (10th edition).

[234] "Vie de Jesus," p. 303.

[235] John xviii. 13.

[236] Matt. xxvi. 57.

[237] Mark xiv. 53.

[238] Luke xxii. 54.

[239] John xviii. 19.

[240] Luke iii. 2; Acts iv. 6.

[241] "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. i. p. 264.

[242] "The Life of Our Lord," p. 142.

[243] Luke iii. 2.

[244] Plummer, St. Luke, in "International Critical Commentary," pp. 84,

515.

[245] Josephus, "Ant.," XVIII. chap. ii. 2.

[246] John xviii. 19-23.

[247] Mark xiv. 58-61.

[248] Matt. xxvi. 60-63.

[249] Matt. xxvi. 63.

[250] Mark xiv. 59.

[251] Acts vi. 14.

[252] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. i. p. 163.

[253] Fiske, "Manual of Classical Literature," iii. Sec. 108; Smith,

"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," 89a.

[254] See discussion of Point I.

[255] Luke xxii. 66.

[256] Luke xxii. 2.

[257] Mark xiv. 2.

[258] Mark xiv. i; Matt. xxvi. 4 (Consilium fecerunt ut Jesum dolo

tenerent et occiderent).

[259] Maimonides, "Sanhedrin" II.

[260] John xviii. 28; Luke xxii. 1; Mark xiv. 1; Matt. xxvi. 2.

[261] Mishna, "Capita Patrum," I, 1.

[262] Mishna, "Treatise Makhoth."

[263] See Part II, Chap. V.

[264] Edmund Stapfer, "Life of Jesus."

[265] Matt. xxvi. 57-66.

[266] Mark xiv. 55-64.

[267] Matt. xxvii. 1.

[268] Mark xv. 1.

[269] Luke xxii. 66-71.

[270] "Martyrdom of Jesus," p. 74.

[271] "Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews," p. 133, n. 311.

[272] See Part II, Chap. IV.

[273] Mark xiv. 56-65.

[274] Mark xiv. 62.

[275] Matt. xii. 14-16; Mark iii. 7; ix. 29, 30.

[276] Luke xiii. 31, 32.

[277] Matt. xxii. 15.

[278] John iv. 26.

[279] Mark i. 34.

[280] John x. 24.

[281] Matt. xvi. 20.

[282] Blackstone.

[283] Mendelsohn, p. 143.

[284] Mark xiv. 63, 64.

[285] "Martyrdom of Jesus," p. 74.

[286] "The Trial of Jesus," p. 200.

[287] Matt. xxvi. 59; Mark xiv. 55.

[288] Matt. xxvii. 1.

[289] Mark xv. 1.

[290] John iii. 1; vii. 50.

[291] Luke xxiii. 51.

[292] John vii. 51.

[293] John vii. 50; xix. 39.

[294] Luke xxiii. 51.

[295] Mendelsohn, p. 98.

[296] Deut. xvii. 7, 8.

[297] "It is important to notice that every time the necessities of the

case required the Sanhedrin returned to the Hall Gazith, or of Hewn

Stones, as in the case of Jesus and others."--"Thosephthoth, or

Additions to the Talmud," Bab., "Sanhedrin," C. IV. fol. 37, recto.

[298] Edersheim, "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. ii. p. 556,

n. 1.

[299] John xviii. 28.

[300] MM. Lémann, "Jesus Before the Sanhedrin," p. 140.

[301] Mark xiv. 63, 64.

[302] Edersheim, "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. ii. p. 561.

[303] Rabbi Wise, "Martyrdom of Jesus," p. 74.

[304] Benny, "Criminal Code of the Jews," p. 81.

[305] Matt. xxvi. 65.

[306] See Part II, Qualifications of Judges.

[307] "Talmud, Pesachim, or the Passover," fol. 57, verso; see also

"Jesus Before the Sanhedrin," pp. 54, 55.

[308] Benny, "Criminal Code of the Jews," pp. 28-41.

[309] Matt. xxi. 31.

[310] Matt. xxiii. 14, 15.

[311] "Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," vol. i. pp. 93, 94.

[312] Matt. xxiii. 27, 29-33.

[313] "Vie de Jesus," p. 267.

[314] John xi. 49, 50.

[315] John xi. 53.

[316] Luke xxii. 1-3.

[317] Matt. xxvi. 3-5.

[318] Benny, "Criminal Code of the Jews," p. 56.

[319] Geikie, "The Life and Words of Christ," vol. ii. p. 517.

[320] Deut. xix. 18-21.

[321] Mark xiv. 55.

[322] Mishna, Treatise "Makhoth."

[323]

"Afresh the mighty line of years unroll'd,

The Virgin now, now Saturn's sway returns;

Now the blest globe a heaven-sprung Child adorns,

Whose genial power shall whelm earth's iron race,

And plant once more the golden in its place."--Virgil, Eclogue IV.

[324] Gen. xlix. 8-10.

[325] "Sanhedrin," fol. 97, verso.

[326] "Martyrdom of Jesus," p. 76.

[327] John xi. 48-50.

[328] I Sam. xv. 29.

[329] Hosea xi. 9.

[330] Mark vii. 9-13.

[331] "Jewish Encyc.," vol. i. p. 583.

[332] Hodge, "Systematic Theology," vol. i. p. 485.

[333] Steenstra, "The Being of God as Unity and Trinity," pp. 192, 193.

[334] John ii. 15.

[335] John vi. 30.

[336] John x. 24, 25.

[337] Matt. xi. 4, 5.

[338] I Kings xvii. 17-22.

[339] John xi. 41.

[340] Matt. ix. 18-26; Mark v. 22-42; Luke viii. 41-55.

[341] Luke vii. 12-15.

[342] John iii. 2.

[343] See Friedlieb, Archæol., 87; Dupin, 75; Keim, vol. iii. 327.

[344] Bab. Sanh. f. 63, 1: "Cum synedrium quemquam moti adjudicavit, ne

quidquam degustent illi isto die."

[345] Andrews, "The Life of Our Lord," p. 522.

[346] "The Life of Our Lord," pp. 523, 524.

[347] Luke xxii. 66-71.

[348] See Part II, Chap. V.; also Benny, "Crim. Code of the Jews," pp.

81-83.

[349] Keim, "Jesus of Nazara," vol. vi. pp. 63, 64.

[350] John xviii. 28.

[351] "Thou, Reuben, art guilty! Thou, Simon, art acquitted, art not

guilty!" were stereotyped forms of verdicts under Hebrew criminal

procedure. Sanh. in Friedl., p. 89.

[352] Keim, "Jesus of Nazara," vol. vi. p. 74.

[353] John iii. 1; vii. 50.

[354] Luke xxiii. 50, 51.

[355] Matt. xxvi. 59; Mark xiv. 55; Matt. xxvii. 1; Mark xv. 1.

[356] Mark xiv. 63, 64; Luke xxii. 70, 71.

[357] Keim, "Jesus of Nazara," vol. vi. p. 74, n. 2.

[358] Acts vi. 11; vii. 59.

INDEX

Abarbanel, Isaac, on the Sanhedrin, I, 106

Ab-beth-din, vice-president of the Sanhedrin, I, 112

Abbott, Lyman, on the scribes of the Sanhedrin, I, 158

Acts of Pilate, the Apocryphal,

modern criticism of, II, 327

discovery of, II, 327

Lardner on the authenticity of, II, 328 _seq._

Tischendorf on the authenticity of, II, 345 _seq._

antiquity of, II, 351

text of, II, 351 _seq._

Æbutius, Publius, part of, in the exposure of Bacchanalian orgies, II,

271 _seq._

Ædile, Roman, judicial powers of, II, 36

Æsculapius, Græco-Roman divinity, II, 198

Akiba, Jewish rabbi, Mishna systematized by, I, 79

Albanus, Roman governor, his deposition of Albanus, II, 296

Alcmene, myth of Zeus and, II, 265

Alexander, Jewish Alabarch, biographical note on, II, 299

Alexander III, pope, genuineness of "true cross" attested by bull of,

II, 63

Alexandrian MS. of the Bible, I, 67

Ananias ben Nebedeus, Jewish priest,

biographical note on, II, 299

family of, cursed in Talmud, II, 302

Ananos. See Annas

Ananus, son of Annas, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II, 296

Anathemas, Jewish, against the Christians, II, 307, 308

Anaxagoras, Greek philosopher,

on the deification of natural forces, II, 225

his exposure of the divination of Lampon, II, 226

Annanias, author of "Acts of Pilate," II, 351

Annas (Ananos), Jewish high priest,

examination of Christ before, I, 238-247

deposition of, by Gratus, I, 244; II, 20

Christ examined in house of, I, 256

biographical note on, II, 295

legendary examination of Joseph of Arimathea, II, 374, 376

Antecedent Warning, peculiar provision of Hebrew Criminal Law

regarding, I, 147-152

Antistius, L., Roman tribune, impeachment of Julius Cæsar by, II, 46

Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, persecution of Christians by, II, 78

Aphrodisia, rites of, II, 265

Aphrodite, Greek divinity, patroness of prostitutes, II, 265

Aquillius, Manlius, Roman governor, trial of, before the Comitia, II, 40

Antonius, Marcus, Roman advocate, defense of, of Manlius Aquillius, II,

Aristotle, Greek philosopher, on the licentiousness of Sparta, II, 241

Arnold, Matthew, on despair of Roman people, II, 286

Arnobius, Numidian writer,

on the familiar treatment of Roman gods, II, 218

on the lewdness of the Roman drama, II, 267

Art, effect of, in corruption of Roman and Greek morals, II, 268

Aspasia, mistress of Pericles, II, 242

Athens, domestic licentiousness of, II, 240, 241

Athronges, Jewish peasant, revolt of, II, 110

Atticus, Numerius, Roman senator, attests ascent of Augustus to heaven,

II, 234

Atys, myth of, represented on Greek and Roman stage, II, 267

Augurs,

Roman priests, II, 204

spectators at licentious dramas, II, 267

Augury, modes of, II, 211

Augustus Cæsar, Roman emperor,

reign and policy of, II, 25, 26

care of profligate daughter Julia, II, 83

belief of, in omens, II, 215

his chastisement of Neptune, II, 222

deification of, II, 233

Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Roman emperor and philosopher,

persecution of Christianity by, II, 78

adoration of Serapis by, II, 217

on suicide, II, 232

Bacchanalian orgies, Livy's account of, II, 270-283

Bacchus, Roman deity, licentious festivals of, II, 265

Barabbas (Bar Abbas) released by Pilate, II, 131, 138, 363

Baring-Gould, S., on the symbolism of the Cross, II, 66

Baths, Roman, splendor of, II, 247

Beheading of criminals under Hebrew Law, I, 91, 99

Benny,

on the Talmud, I, 75

on internment in Jewish Cities of Refuge, I, 98, 99

Bernhardt, Sarah, insulted in Quebec, II, 182

Bernice (Berenice), Jewish queen, a suppliant before Florus, II, 100

Bible,

the manuscripts of, I, 67

purity of text of, I, 69

anthropomorphism of, I, 336-338

influence of, II, 4, 5

"Birchath Hamminim" Jewish imprecation against Christians, II, 308

Blasphemy,

discussion of charge against Christ of, I, 193-209

Hebrew definition of, I, 199-201

classification of, I, 203

Boethus, family of, cursed in Talmud, II, 301. See also Simon

Bossuet, Jacques B., French divine, on the citizenship of Christ, II,

108

Brothels, Roman, dedication of, to Venus, II, 265

Burning of criminals under Hebrew Law, I, 92, 99

Cæsar, Caius Julius,

10th legion cowed by, II, 169

superstition of, II, 205

disbelief of, in immortality, II, 229

deification of, II, 233

divorces of, II, 238

profligacy of, II, 238, 239

unnatural practices attributed to, II, 263

Caiaphas, Jewish high priest,

accusation of, against Christ, before Sanhedrin, I, 190

erratic conduct of, at trial of Christ, I, 290

rôle of, in trial of Jesus before Pilate, II, 101

biographical note on, II, 295

legendary examination of Joseph of Arimathea by, II, 374, 376

Caligula, Roman emperor,

deifies his sister Drusilla, II, 234

depravity of, II, 234

Cantharus, family of, cursed in Talmud, II, 301

Capital Crimes under Hebrew Criminal Law, classification and

punishments of, I, 91-101

Carlyle, Thomas, on the life of Christ, II, 187

Cassius, Dion, on the labeling of Roman criminals, I, 57

Cato, Marcus Porcius,

contempt of, for the haruspices, II, 228

suicide of, II, 232

divorces of, II, 237

contempt of, for Lucullus, II, 246

merciless treatment of slaves, II, 251

Catulus, Quintus, dream of, presaging accession of Augustus, II, 214

Chanania, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 314

Chanania ben Chiskia, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 309

Charles IX, king of France, bloody sweat of, I, 59, 60

Christianity, conflict of, with Roman paganism, I, 16; II, 76-79

Chrysostom, St. John, on the legendary desire of Tiberius to deify

Christ, II, 344

Cicero, Marcus Tullius,

dream of, presaging accession of Augustus, II, 215

on Roman superstition, II, 221

on Roman skepticism, II, 227

his divorce of his wife, II, 237

witticism of, upon Cæsar's gallantries, II, 239

Cities of Refuge, Jewish, internment in, I, 96-99

Claudia, granddaughter of Augustus,

marriage of, to Pilate, II, 82

dream of, regarding Jesus, II, 133, 355

Claudius, Roman commander, throws sacred pullets into the sea, II, 222

Clement V, pope, and the Talmud, I, 88, 89

Coliseum, the, description of, II, 260

Comitia Centuriata,

public criminal trials in, II, 37-43

miscarriage of justice in, II, 38-42

Commodus, Roman emperor, deification of, II, 234

Consul, Roman, judicial powers of, II, 36

Coke, Sir Edward, contrast between Pilate and, II, 170-172

Cornelius, son of Ceron, the elder, biographical note on, II, 321

Cross, Roman instrument of death,

erroneous representations of, II, 56

forms of, II, 62

use of, by various races as religious symbol, II, 64-67

"Cross, the True," legends of, II, 62, 63

Crucifixion,

Plutarch on, I, 56

history of, II, 54, 55

mode of, II, 55

pathology of, II, 58, 59

Roman citizens exempt from, II, 54

of Jesus, II, 365

Cybele, Roman deity, importation of, from Phrygia, II, 199

Deification of Roman emperors, ceremony of, II, 234

Dembowski, Bishop, and the Talmud, I, 88

Demosthenes, on the women of Athens, II, 242

Dérembourg, Joseph, on the Jewish priestly families, II, 294

Deutsch, Emanuel,

on the Talmud, I, 74, 80

on the existence of the Great Sanhedrin at the time of Christ, I,

179, 181

Diocletian, Roman emperor, deification of, II, 233

Divination, Roman modes of, II, 211

Divorce,

among the Romans, II, 236-239

trivial pretexts for, II, 237, 238

Döllinger,

on the Roman view of Christianity and high treason, II, 77

on divorce, and the profligacy of Roman matrons, II, 236

on the effect of art in corrupting Greek and Roman manners, II, 268

Domitian, Roman emperor, self-deification of, II, 235

Doras, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II, 321

Dorotheas, son of Nathanael, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II,

321

Drama, the, licentiousness of, among Greeks and Romans, II, 266

Dreams, interpretation of, among Romans and Greeks, II, 213, 214

Druidism, annihilation of, II, 73

Drusilla, deified by Caligula, II, 234

Dysmas, legendary name of one of the thieves crucified with Jesus, II,

364

Edersheim, Alfred, on the existence of the Great Sanhedrin at the time

of Christ, I, 177

Elders, Jewish chamber of. See Sanhedrin

Eleazar ben Partah, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 314

Eleazar, son of Annas, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II,

295

Eleazar, son of Simon Boethus, Jewish high priest, biographical note

on, II, 297

Eliezer, Jewish rabbi, Mishna amplified by, I, 79

Ellicott, Dr., on the character of Pilate, II, 91

Epicurus, Greek philosopher, II, 229

Epicureanism, degradation of, among Romans, II, 230

Epitaphs, irreligious Roman, II, 222, 285

Epulos, Roman priests, II, 204

Etruria, importation of haruspices from, II, 210

Eusebius, reference of, to the "Acts of Pilate," II, 329, 333, 344

Evhemere, on the Greek gods, II, 225

Evangelists,

honesty of, I, 12

character of, I, 13, 14

motives of, I, 15

ability of, I, 18

candor of, I, 20-24

discrepancies of, I, 29-33

corroborative elements of narrative of, I, 34-39

impossibility of collusion among, I, 38

conformity of narrative of, with human experience, I, 39

coincidence of testimony of, with collateral circumstances, I, 52-67

narrative of, confirmed by profane historians, I, 56, 57

Evidence, rules of, under Hebrew Law, I, 144, 145

False swearing under Hebrew Criminal Law, I, 93

Fathers, Church, writings of the, I, 68

Fecenia, Hispala, part of, in exposure of Bacchanalian orgies, II,

271 _seq._

Felix, Minucius, Christian father, controversy of, with pagans on

adoration of the cross, II, 64

Flagellation, under Hebrew Criminal, I, 94

Flamens,

Roman priests, II, 204

spectators at licentious dramas, II, 267

Gallio, pro-consul of Achaia, attitude of, toward Jewish clamors, II,

107

Gamaliel, Jewish rabbi, biographical note on, II, 304

Ganymede, depraving influence of myth of rape of, II, 262

Gavazzi, Alessandro, sermons of, in Coliseum, II, 262

Geib, on the status of Judea, II, 16 on the courts of the Roman

Provinces, II, 32

Geikie, Cunningham,

on the non-existence of the Sanhedrin at the time of Christ, I, 181

on the character of the trial of Jesus before Sanhedrin, I, 184

Gemara,

the Jerusalem and Babylonian recensions of, I, 81

relation of, to Mishna, I, 83. See also Talmud and Mishna

Germanicus,

Cæsar temples profaned on death of, II, 222

exposure of children born on day of death of, II, 254

Gestas, legendary name of one of thieves crucified with Jesus, II, 364

Golden House of Nero, II, 246

Gibbon, Edward,

on the jurisdiction of the great Sanhedrin, I, 120

on the laws of the Twelve Tables, II, 53

on the extent of the Roman Empire, II, 196

Gladiatorial games,

origin of, II, 256

gigantic scale of, in Rome, II, 256, 257

conduct of, II, 258

Gospels, the, admissibility of, as legal evidence, I, 5-12

Governors, Roman,

powers of, II, 24, 27, 28, 29

forbidden to take wives to their provinces, II, 84, 85

Graetz, Heinrich, on the existence of the Sanhedrin at the time of

Christ, I, 181

Greeks,

superstition of, II, 223

philosophy of, II, 229

depraving effect on Romans of art, literature, and manners of, II,

240-244, 268, 284

Bacchanalian orgies introduced by, II, 270

invective of Juvenal against, II, 284

Greenidge, on the interpretation of native law by Roman proprætors, II,

Greenleaf, Simon, American jurist,

on the admissibility of the Scriptures as legal evidence, I, 6-9

on the testimony of the Evangelists, I, 10, 11

on the legal justice of the conviction of Christ for blasphemy, I,

209

Hacksab ben Tzitzith, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II, 320

"Hall of Hewn Stones," sessions of Sanhedrin in, I, 117

Haruspices, Roman, account of, II, 210

Helcias, Jewish treasurer, biographical note on, II, 300

Helena, Empress, legendary discovery of "true cross" by, II, 62

Hercules, Greek divinity, burning of, represented on Greek and Roman

stage, II, 267

Herder, Johann, on the character of Christ, II, 187

Herod Antipas,

character of, II, 120

his treatment of Jesus, II, 122-127

Herod I, the Great,

last will of, II, 119, 120

arbitrary changes of, in high priesthood, II, 293

Hetairai, status of, in Athens, II, 242, 243

High priest, Jewish,

vestments of, I, 158

abuses in appointment of, II, 293

Hillel, Jewish doctor, inspiration of, I, 84

Hillel, School of,

and the Mishna, I, 79

dissensions of, with School of Shammai, II, 309

Homer, the bible of the Greeks, II, 264

Honorius IV, pope, and the Talmud, I, 87

Horatius, trial of, before the Comitia Centuriata, II, 40

Ignatius, St., martyrdom of, in Coliseum, II, 261

Impalement, death by, II, 61

Infanticide, among Romans, II, 254

Inkerman, story of soldier killed at battle of, II, 191

Innes,

on the trials of Jesus before the Sanhedrin, I, 185; II, 10

on the cowardice of Pilate, II, 138

Interpreters, not allowed in Jewish courts, I, 107

Imprisonment. See Law, Hebrew Criminal, I, 93

Ishmael, Jewish rabbi, and the Mishna, I, 79

Ismael ben Eliza, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 309

Ismael ben Phabi, Jewish high priest,

biographical note on, II, 298

family of, cursed in Talmud, II, 301

Isis, Egyptian deity,

rites of, established in Rome, II, 217

Roman temples of, a resort of vice, II, 269

Issachar ben Keifar Barchi, Jewish priest, cursed in Talmud, II, 302

James, brother of Jesus, condemnation of, by Ananus, II, 296

Janus, Roman god, invocations of, II, 207

Jehovah, appearances of, in human form, I, 343-349

Jerome, St., on the Jewish anathema against Christians, II, 308

Jesus, the Christ,

human perfection of, I, 14; II, 186

scourging of, I, 56, 57

breaking of legs of, by soldiers, I, 57

bloody sweat of, I, 59, 60

physical cause of death of, I, 61, 62

watery issue of, I, 60-62

devotion of women to, I, 66

resurrection of, I, 211; II, 368

divinity of, I, 211, 212

celebrates the Paschal feast, I, 220-224

at Gethsemane, I, 224-226

arrest of, I, 225

private examination of, before high priest, I, 238-247

charged with sedition and blasphemy I, 250

annnounces his Messiahship before Sanhedrin, I, 273, 274

Messianic prophecies fulfilled in Him, I, 323-328, 341, 342

miracles of, I, 350-355

at morning session of Sanhedrin, I, 356-362

condemned to death by Sanhedrin, I, 365

His teachings treasonable under Roman law, II, 72

before Pilate, II, 96 _seq._

charged with high treason before Pilate, II, 106, 352

indictment of, before Pilate, II, 107-109

acquitted by Pilate, II, 116

sent by Pilate to Herod, II, 118

before Herod, II, 119 _seq._

mocked, and sent back to Pilate by Herod, II, 127

second appearance of, before Pilate, II, 129 _seq._

delivered to Jews by Pilate, II, 138

mocked by mob, II, 139

tributes of skeptics to, II, 187

Napoleon's tribute to, II, 189, 190

charged by Jews with illegitimacy, II, 356

crucifixion of, II, 365

See also trial of Jesus, Hebrew, and trial of Jesus, Roman

Jesus ben Sie, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II, 298

Jews, the political state of,

at time of Jesus, II, 11-23

discussion of their responsibility for Christ's death, II, 174-180

prejudices against, II, 180-187

distinguished, II, 185, 186

Joazar, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II, 296

Jochanan ben Zakai, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 311

John, St.,

at the sepulcher, I, 37

at the crucifixion of Christ, I, 65

John, St., Gospel of, style of, I, 19

John, Jewish priest, biographical note on, II, 299

Jonathan, son of Annas, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II,

295

Jonathan ben Uziel, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 306

John, son of John, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II, 321

Joseph of Arimathea,

presence of, at trials of Christ, I, 282-286, 364

biographical note on, II, 318

receives body of Jesus from Pilate, II, 366

apocryphal account of escape of, from Jews, II, 367, 373-376

Josephus, Flavius,

on the character of Pilate, I, 21

on scourging I, 56

on the Pharisees, I, 87

on the existence of the great Sanhedrin at time of Christ, I, 176

on the loss, by Jews, of power of life and death, II, 19

on the rapacity of the high priests, II, 301

Jowett, Benjamin, upon the corruption of Rome, II, 240

Judah, the Holy, Jewish rabbi, and the composition of the Mishna, I, 79,

Judas, son of Hezekiah, Jewish rebel, put to death by Herod, II, 109

Judas Iscariot, his betrayal of Christ, I, 227-235

Julia, daughter of Augustus,

profligacy of, II, 82

marriages of, II, 83

Julian, Roman emperor, his defiance of Mars, II, 222

Juno, Roman divinity, sacrifices to, II, 208

Jupiter, Roman deity,

multitudinous forms of, II, 203

sacrifices to, II, 208

Justin Martyr, reference of, to "Acts of Pilate," II, 331, 346, 348

Juvenal, Satires of, on Roman social depravity, II, 240, 244, 248

Keim, Theodor,

on the existence of the Great Sanhedrin at the time of Christ, I,

178

on the character of Christ, II, 188, 189

Knight, R. P., on the symbolism of the Cross, II, 65

Koran, the, I, 77

Lamartine, Alphonse, on the death of Christ, II, 3

Lampon, Greek diviner, exposed by Anaxagoras, II, 226

Lardner, on the authenticity of the "Acts of Pilate," II, 328 _seq._

Law, Hebrew Criminal,

administration of, I, 153, 154

basis of, I, 73, 84, 85

burial of bodies after execution under, I, 101, 171

capital punishments under, I, 91-93, 99-101

circumstantial evidence under, I, 144

Cities of Refuge under, I, 96

courts and judges, I, 102-126

execution under, I, 170, 171

false swearing under, I, 93

flagellation under, I, 94

imprisonment under, I, 93

peculiarities of, I, 125, 132, 147, 167, 168

slavery under, I, 95

tenderness of, for human life, I, 154, 155, 310

testimony under, I, 144-147

witnesses under, I, 127-144

written and documentary evidence irrelevant, I, 133, 145

Laws, Roman,

lex Appuleia, II, 69

Cornelia, II, 69

Julia Majestatis, II, 69, 80

Memmia, II, 46

Porcia, II, 54

Remmia, II, 49

Talionis, II, 53

Valeria, II, 37, 54

Varia, II, 69

Lazarus, raising of, from the dead, I, 352

Lectisternia, Roman banquets to the gods,

slaves released at, II, 130

indecencies of, II, 218

Lémann, extract from work of, on Sanhedrin, II, 291

Lepidus, Marcus, Roman patrician, magnificence of, II, 246

Livy,

on scourging, I, 57

account of Bacchanalian orgies, II, 270-283

Longinus, legendary name of soldier who pierced Christ, II, 379

Lucullus, Roman patrician, luxury of, II, 244

Luke, St., occupation of, I, 19

Luke, St., Gospel of, style of, I, 19

Lupercals, Roman priests, II, 204

Luxury of the Romans, II, 244

Lycurgus, code of, II, 241

Macarius, identification of "true cross" by, II, 63

Macaulay, Lord, speech of, on Jewish disabilities, II, 184

Mahomet, character of, I, 14

Malchus, ear of, cut off by Peter, I, 36, 226

Magath, Julius, extract from work of, II, 291

Maimonides,

on Hebrew Capital Crimes, I, 91

on the prohibition of nocturnal trials, I, 255, 256

Manlius, Marcus, trial of, before the Comitia Centuriata, II, 40

Marius, Caius, assassin cowed by, I, 62

Mark, St., Jesus arrested at home of, I, 220

Marriage,

among the Romans, II, 236

among the Greeks, II, 240-243

Marcius, Quintus, Roman consul, motion of, on the suppression of the

Bacchanalian orgies, II, 282

Mars, Roman deity, II, 208

Messiah, the,

prophecies regarding, and their fulfillment in Jesus, I, 322-328

varying expectations of Jews regarding, I, 319-322; II, 110

conception of Pharisees of, II, 324

conception of Sadducees of, II, 325

Matthew, St., occupation of, I, 19

Matthias, son of Annas, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II,

296

Mendelssohn, on the Talmud, I, 75

Messalina, Roman empress, lewdness of, II, 244

Messalinus, Cotta, prosecuted for treason, II, 70

Metrodorus on the Greek gods, II, 226

Mezeray, de, on the bloody sweat of Charles IX, I, 60

Minerva, Roman deity, II, 208

Miracles,

probability of, I, 40-51

Spinoza on, I, 40-43

Renan on, I, 44

of Christ, I, 351-354

Mishna, the,

E. Deutsch on, I, 80

subdivisions of, I, 80

relation of Talmud to, I, 83

traditional view of, I, 84

on capital and pecuniary cases, I, 155, 156. See also Gemara and

Talmud.

Mommsen, Theodor,

on the jurisdiction of native courts of Roman subject peoples, II,

on Roman marital looseness, II, 243

on Roman extravagance, II, 247

Montefiore, Sir Moses, anecdote of, II, 180

Mosaic Code, the, a basis of Hebrew Criminal Law, I, 73, 84, 85

Müller, Johannes, explodes legend of Pilate and Lake Lucerne, II, 95

Nachum Halbalar, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 314

Nævius, Marcus, accusation of Scipio Africanus by, II, 41

Napoleon I,

fickleness of populace toward, I, 63, 64

tribute of, to Jesus, II, 189

religious faith of, II, 190, 191

Nasi, prince of the Sanhedrin, I, 112

Nathan, Jewish rabbi, note on, II, 315, note

Neptune, Roman deity, II, 208

Nero, Roman emperor,

deification of, II, 234

Golden House of, II, 246

Ney, Michel, French marshal, compared with St. Peter, I, 64

Nicodemus, Jewish elder,

presence of, at trial of Christ, I, 282-286

defense of Christ before Sanhedrin, I, 305

presence and conduct of, at second trial of Jesus by Sanhedrin, I,

364

biographical note on, II, 319

apocryphal account of pleading of, for Jesus before Pilate, II, 360

Gospel of. See "Acts of Pilate"

Nordau, Max, on Jewish pride in Jesus, II, 188

Oaths, not administered to witnesses, under Jewish law, I, 134

Octavian. See Augustus

Omens, belief of Romans in, II, 215

Onkelos, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 305

Oracle, Delphic, consulted by Romans, II, 210

Osiris, Egyptian deity, the cross a symbol of, II, 66

Ovid, Roman poet, on unnatural practices in temples, II, 269

Paganism, Græco-Roman,

conflict of, with Christianity, I, 16; II, 76-79

Hellenization of Roman religion, II, 199

importation of foreign gods, II, 200

origin and multiplicity of Roman gods, II, 198-204

Roman priesthood, II, 204, 205

Roman forms of worship, II, 205-209

perplexity of worshipers regarding deities, II, 207

prayer, II, 207, 208-210

augury and divination, II, 210-215

omens, II, 215, 216

decay of Roman faith, II, 217-220

Roman skepticism, II, 220-229

sacrilege among Romans, II, 221

disbelief of Romans in immortality, II, 228, 229

Epicureanism among the Romans, II, 229-231

stoicism, II, 231-233

deification of Roman emperors, II, 233-235

base deities of Romans, II, 265

effect of religion in Greek and Roman social corruption, II, 269

Palace of Herod, description of, II, 96, 97

Paley, William, on the discrepancies of the Gospels, I, 32, 33

Pan, Græco-Roman divinity, feasts of, II, 265

Paul, St.,

on the depravity of Rome, II, 284

delivery of, to Felix, II, 299

Pericles, Greek tyrant, and the divination of Lampon, II, 226

Pentateuch, the, a basis of Hebrew jurisprudence, I, 73

Permanent Tribunals (quæstiones perpetuæ), mode of trials before, at

Rome, II, 43-52

Peter, St.,

at the sepulcher, I, 37

compared with Marshal Ney, I, 64

and Malchus, I, 36, 226

Pharisees,

and the Talmud, I, 87

attitude of, toward the law, I, 338

dominant in priestly order, II, 302

their conception of the Messiah, II, 324

characteristics of, II, 324

Philip, St., and the feeding of the five thousand, I, 35

Phillips, Wendell, on Hindu swordsmanship, I, 48

Philo, Jewish philosopher, on the character of Pilate, I, 21; II, 89-91

Phryne, mistress of Praxiteles anecdote of, II, 242

Pilate, Pontius,

powers of, as procurator of Judea, II, 27-31

name and origin of, II, 81, 82

marriage of, II, 82

becomes procurator of Judea, II, 84

provokes the Jews, II, 85

appropriates funds from Corban, II, 86

hangs shields in Herod's palace, II, 88

slays Galileans, II, 88

character of, I, 21; II, 88

canonization of, II, 89

ordered to Rome by Vitellius, II, 92

legends regarding death of, II, 92-94

interrogation of Jesus, II, 112-115

talents of, II, 115

his opinion of Jesus, II, 115

acquits Jesus, II, 116

sends Jesus to Herod, II, 117

reconciled with Herod, II, 128

offers to release Barabbas, II, 130

warned by wife's dream of Jesus, II, 133, 355

washes his hands of Christ's death, II, 137, 364

releases Barabbas, II, 138, 363

summary of his conduct of Christ's trial, II, 168

conduct of, compared with Cæsar, II, 169; with Sir Edward Coke, II,

170-172

Pindar, Greek poet, denunciation of, of vulgar superstitions, II, 224

Plato, Greek philosopher,

unnatural love of, II, 263

reprobation of Homeric myths, II, 264

Pliny, the Younger,

correspondence of, with Trajan, II, 78

disbelief of, in immortality, II, 229

on slavery, II, 203

Plutarch,

on crucifixion, I, 56

anecdotes of Lucullus, II, 244-246

Polybius, on Roman pederasty, II, 263

Pompeia divorced by Cæsar, II, 238

Pompey, Cneius, the Great,

conquest of Palestine by, II, 11

defeated at Pharsalia, II, 25

divorce of his wife Mucia, II, 238

Pontiffs, Roman, II, 204

Poppæa, wife of Nero, deification of, II, 77

Postumius, Spurius, Roman consul, suppression of Bacchanalians by, II,

270-283

Prætor, Roman, judicial powers of, II, 36

Priesthood, Roman. See Roman religion

Priests, Jewish Chamber of. See Sanhedrin

Procurator, Roman, jurisdiction of, II, 27, 28

Provinces, Roman, classification of, by Augustus, II, 27

Quetzalcoatle, crucified Savior, worshiped by Mexicans, II, 66

Rabbi, origin of Jewish title of, II, 315

Rabbis, Jewish, arrogance of, II, 316

Raphall, Morris, on the origin of the Sanhedrin, I, 104

Rawlinson, George, on the political state of Judea at the time of

Christ, II, 11

Religions, policy of Romans toward foreign, and of conquered peoples,

II, 72-74

Renan, Ernest,

on miracles, I, 44-47

on the "judicial ambush" of blasphemers, I, 235

on the character of Pilate, II, 90

on the character of Christ, II, 187, 188

Richard III, King of England, contest of, with Saladin, I, 48

Richter on the pathology of crucifixion, II, 58, 59

Rosadi,

on the confession of the accused under Hebrew law, I, 143

on the hatred of Pilate toward the Jews, II, 98

on the order of criminal trials in Roman provinces, II, 32

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, on the death of Christ, II, 187

Romans,

laws of, the basis of modern jurisprudence, II, 5

policy of, toward subject peoples, II, 13-15

responsibility of, for Christ's death, II, 174-176

religion of. See Paganism

Ruga, Carvilius, first Roman to procure a divorce, II, 236

Sacrifice, human, among the Romans, II, 209

Sadducees,

attitude of, toward the law, I, 338

attitude of, toward anthropomorphism of Pentateuch, I, 338

dominant in the Sanhedrin, I, 339

disbelief of, in immortality, II, 322

wealth and rank of, II, 322

Saladin, Saracen Sultan, contest of, with Richard III, I, 48

Salians, Roman priests, II, 204

Sallust, Roman historian, on the conspiracy of Cataline, II, 229

Salvador, Joseph, on the existence of the Great Sanhedrin at the time of

Christ, I, 177

Samuel, Hakaton, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 307

Sanctuary, right of, among ancient peoples, I, 96

Sanhedrin, the Great,

origin of, I, 103

history of, I, 104

organization of, I, 105

chamber of scribes, I, 105; II, 303

chamber of elders, I, 105; II, 318

chamber of priests, I, 105; II, 292

qualifications of members of, I, 106

disqualifications of judges of, I, 109

officers of, I, 112

compensation of officers of, I, 115

sessions of, I, 116

recruitment of personnel of, I, 117

quorum of, I, 119

jurisdiction of, I, 119

appeals to, from minor Sanhedrins, I, 120

morning sacrifice of, I, 157

assembling of judges of, I, 158

scribes of, I, 158, 159

examination of witnesses by, I, 159-162

debates and balloting of judges of, I, 162

procedure of, in cases of condemnation of accused, I, 165-167

method of counting votes, I, 167, 168

death march of, I, 169, 170

question of existence of, at time of Christ, I, 175-181

jurisdiction of, in capital cases at the time of Christ, I, 181-183

discussion of trial of Christ before, I, 183-186

procedure of, in trial of Christ before, I, 186

illegality of proceedings of, against Christ, I, 255-259, 260-262,

263-266, 267-270, 287-294

illegality of sentence of, against Christ, I, 271-278, 279-286

disqualifications of members of, who condemned Christ, I, 296-308

morning session of, at trial of Christ, I, 356-364

three sessions of, to discuss Christ, I, 305, 306

authority of, after Roman conquest, II, 12, 16, 21

deprived by Romans of power of capital punishment, II, 19, 20

biographical sketches of members of, who tried Jesus, II, 291-326

Sanhedrins, minor,

appeals from, to Great Sanhedrin, I, 120

establishment of, I, 121

jurisdiction of, I, 121

superior rank of those of Jerusalem, I, 123, 124

Saul, Abba, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 313

Savonarola, Girolamo, Florentine reformer, burning of, I, 63

Scaurus, Manercus, prosecuted for treason, II, 70

Sceva, Jewish priest, biographical note on, II, 300

Schenck, account of, of the bloody sweat of a nun, I, 59

Schürer,

on the existence of the Sanhedrin at the time of Christ, I, 176

on the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin, II, 18

on the administration of civil law by Sanhedrin, II, 30

Scipio Africanus, trial of, before Comitia Centuriata, II, 41

Scott, Sir Walter, on the contest between Richard III and Saladin, I,

47, 48

Scourging,

of Jesus, I, 56

mode of, among Romans, II, 55

Scribes, Jewish, Edersheim on, I, 302

Scribes, Jewish Chamber of. See Sanhedrin

Segnensis, Henricus, anecdote of, illustrative of mediæval ignorance

regarding Talmud, II, 74

Semiramis, Assyrian queen, origin of crucifixion imputed to, II, 54

Seneca,

anecdote from, regarding political informers, II, 71

on the patriotic observance of the national religion, II, 226

on suicide, II, 232

on slavery, II, 252

on Roman myths, II, 265

Septuagint, version of the Bible, paraphrasing of anthropomorphic

passages in, I, 237

Sepulture, of crucified criminals forbidden, II, 58

Serapis, Egyptian deity,

images of thrown down, II, 73

Marcus Aurelius an adorer of, II, 217

Servilia, mistress of Julius Cæsar, II, 239

Shammai, School of,

and the Mishna, I, 79

dissensions of, with School of Hillel, II, 309

Shevuah ben Kalba, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II, 319

Shoterim of the Sanhedrin, I, 113

Sibylline Books, II, 199, 204

Sibyl, Erythræan, Virgil inspired by, II, 287

Simon, Jewish rebel, revolt of, II, 110

Simon, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II, 320

Simon Boethus, made high priest by Herod I, II, 296

Simon ben Camithus, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II, 298

Simon Cantharus, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II, 297

Simon, son of Gamaliel, Jewish elder, biographical note on, II, 305

Simon Hamizpah, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, 314

Sinaitic MS. of the Bible, I, 67

Slavery,

under Hebrew law, I, 95

account of, among Romans, II, 250, 251

Social life, Græco-Roman,

marriage and divorce, II, 236-240

prostitution, II, 242-244

luxury and extravagance, II, 244-249

poverty of Roman masses, II, 249

slavery, II, 249-253

infanticide, II, 254

gladiatorial games, II, 255-262

depravity of, traceable to corrupt myths, II, 262-270

practice of Bacchanalian rites, II, 270-283

hopeless state of, at time of Christ, II, 284-287

Socrates, Greek philosopher,

resemblance of charges against, to those against Jesus, II, 181

counsel of, to Hetairai, II, 243

Sodomy, prevalence of,

among Greeks and Romans, II, 262-264

practiced in Roman temples, II, 269

Solomon ben Joseph, Jewish rabbi, on the Talmud, I, 90

Sonnenthal, Adolf von, Jewish actor, refused freedom of Vienna, II, 182

Sparta, licentiousness of, II, 241

Spartacus, Roman gladiator, revolt of, II, 259, 260

Spartans, marital looseness of, II, 241

Spinoza, Jewish philosopher, on miracles, I, 40-44

Standards, apocryphal miracle of, at trial of Christ, II, 354 _seq._

Starkie on the credibility of testimony, I, 12

Stephen, St., stoning of, I, 365

Stephen, Sir James F. J.,

on the Roman treatment of Christianity, II, 76

on Pilate's trial of Jesus, II, 159-164

Stoicism,

among the Romans, II, 231

resemblance of, to Christian precepts, II, 331

Stoning of criminals under Hebrew law, I, 92, 99

Strangling of criminals under Hebrew law, I, 91, 99

Strauss, David,

on the behavior of Jesus before Herod, II, 126

on the character of Christ, II, 187

Stroud on the physical cause of death of Christ, I, 61, 62

Suetonius, Roman historian,

on the labeling of criminals before execution, I, 57

on divination, II, 213

narrative of, of dreams presaging reign of Augustus, II, 214

account of, of belief of Augustus in omens, II, 215

Suicide, attitude of Stoics toward, II, 232

Suspension, death by, II, 61, 62

Sweat, bloody, historical instances of, I, 59, 60

Tacitus, Roman historian, on slavery, II, 253

Talmud, the,

definition of, I, 74

recensions of, I, 81

contents of, I, 82

relation of Mishna to, I, 83, to Gemara, I, 83; to Pentateuch, I,

83; to Mosaic Code, I, 84, 85

efforts of Christians to extirpate, I, 87, 88

message and mission of, I, 89

We may now ask: What was the purpose of this second trial? Why did not