Literature; Difficulties to be encountered by Authors; the Book
Fair; Digression respecting the Claims of Spain to Gil Blas; Public
and Private Literary Societies; Libraries; Obstacles to
Improvement, from the State of Society; Female Education; Education
for the Liberal Professions; Course of Study for the Bar; Course of
Medical Studies; Charitable Institutions; Consumption of Madrid;
Prices of Provisions.
A priest, with whom I was acquainted in Madrid, telling me one day, that
he had thoughts of going to London or Paris, to print an English and
Spanish Grammar, and a German and Spanish Grammar, which he had written;
I asked him why he did not print them in Madrid, since they were
intended for the use of his own countrymen,--especially as they could
contain nothing political? His answer was, that nothing was so difficult
as to obtain a license to publish a book, even although it contained no
allusion to politics: and “the better the book,” said he, “the more
difficult it is to obtain a license, and the more dangerous to publish;
because Government does not wish to encourage writing, or even thinking,
upon any subject: and the publication of a good book sets men
a-thinking.”
This comprehensive reply explains, pretty nearly, the present state of
literature in Spain; judging of it by the number and merit of published
works:
The number of books published, from 1820 to 1823, was very considerable.
The energy then communicated to letters, from the removal of almost all
restriction, was extraordinary: books upon all subjects issued from the
press; and the best proof, perhaps, that can be given, that many of
these were books of talent, is, that most of them are now prohibited.
Literature, however, then received an impetus, which still continues in
some degree to affect it, notwithstanding the difficulties to be
overcome: for there is a considerably greater number of books published
now, than previous to the revolution; and no reasonable doubt can be
entertained, that another removal of the restrictions which press upon
literature, would bring into the field a large accession of native
talent.
Even after a license has been obtained to publish a manuscript, its
publication is still a dangerous speculation; because it frequently
happens, that when the book is printed, and partly circulated, some
great man, even more fastidious than the censors, discovers a dubious
passage, and the book is prohibited. There are four difficulties,
therefore, which an author must resolve to face, before he sits down to
prepare his manuscript:--the probability that he may be refused a
license; the probability that, before being licensed, his manuscript may
be mutilated--a probability that, I am told, amounts almost to a
certainty, unless the work be upon one of the exact sciences; the
probability that, after the work be published, some caprice may forbid
its sale; and the certainty, that if the work be a talented work, the
author of it, whether obtaining his license or no, will be looked upon
with suspicion; and, if in Government employment, will almost certainly
lose his appointment.
These are sad drawbacks upon literary exertion. But there is yet
another: men are afraid to read, as well as to write; and the sale of a
work is therefore insecure. Book-sellers do not care to venture upon the
publication without some guarantee; the consequence of which is, that
almost every book published in Spain, is published by subscription, or
in numbers, or both in numbers and by subscription; by either of which
modes the risk is lessened. What should we say in England of bills
posted about the streets, announcing a new novel to be published by
subscription, and in numbers? Yet I saw an announcement of this kind, of
a novel to be called El Dissimulador--the Dissembler. But the greater
number of books at present published in Spain, are translations from
French and English, adapted, of course, to the Spanish censorship. I
noticed the following announcements, by bills posted on the
walls:--“Universal History,” from the French, in numbers: “the History
of Spain,” a new edition, in numbers: “the History of Spanish America,”
an original work, in numbers. This manuscript I should think
must have been sadly carved. The following were announced by
subscription:--“Selections from French and English Literature;” “Church
History;” “Chateaubriand’s Holy Land;” “the History of the
Administration of Lord North,” a singular enough choice; “the History of
the English Regicides;” “the Works of Fenelon;” a new edition of “Gil
Blas;” “Evelina;” and while I was in Madrid, proposals were circulated
for publishing by subscription, and in numbers, the whole prose works of
Sir Walter Scott. I heard of one voluminous, and rather important work,
about to be published by a society called “the Academy of History,”
viz., all “the inscriptions in Greek and Latin, now extant, throughout
Spain.” The Arabic inscriptions are not included in the work, these
being already collected and printed.
Although the Spanish government endeavours by every means to repress
intelligence, and thwart the progress of knowledge, there is no lack of
books in Spain, to those who will, and dare to read them. This is indeed
done under the rose; but it is done. There are two libraries in Madrid,
which contain the best French authors; and persons who are known to the
librarian, or recommended to him, may obtain almost any prohibited book.
I had personal proof of this. Sitting one morning with a lady connected
with the royalist party, but a woman of very liberal views, and one of
the few blue-stockings of Madrid, I was compassionating the situation of
those who, like herself, were lovers of literature, but who were denied
the means of gratifying their taste. The lady assured me she had no need
of my compassion upon this score, for that she might have any French
author she chose, and many English authors, from the library of----. And
when I expressed some surprise at this, she desired me to fix upon any
celebrated books that occurred to me, and they should be put into my
hands in less than half an hour. I chose accordingly; and in ten
minutes, I had in my hands a Paris edition of “the Social Compact,” and
the Basil edition of “Gibbon’s Historical Work.” Books, therefore, may
be had; but persons are afraid to have and to read them.
A considerable number of prohibited books slip into circulation at the
time of the fair. I was then in Madrid, and spent a few hours each day
strolling among the booths and stalls, and talking with the vendors of
goods. Every kind of article is exposed at this fair,--clothes,
calicoes, jewellery, toys, hardware, china, but especially books and
pictures. The books were innumerable; and their high prices seemed to be
an index to a good demand; and yet I thought that, on the last day of
the fair, the shelves were but little relieved of their burden:
probably, however, the book merchants had other copies to replace those
that were sold. The books were of all descriptions; but the most
numerous class, was theological and religious; particularly the lives of
saints, who have all their biographers. The next most numerous class was
history; chiefly histories connected with Spain and America. Then
followed Spanish plays, and Spanish novels. After these, Spanish
translations from French and English works. And lastly, books in foreign
languages. Among the Spanish translations from English works, I noticed
many copies of Blair’s Lectures, Clarissa Harlowe, and Goldsmith’s Roman
History. Among the books in English, I observed Bell’s Surgery, the Life
of Wellington, and Lady Morgan’s Italy, whose English dress had blinded
the eyes of the Inquisitors, who looked very scrutinizingly at the
stalls. I saw several copies of Machiavelli,--a prohibited book, I
believe,--and one Bible in 14 volumes, with notes by a Dominican friar,
which I have no doubt are sufficiently curious.
I questioned the book-vendors, as to the demand, and in what current it
ran. They informed me, that the demand for religious books was on the
decline; and that the lives of saints especially, were almost
unmarketable. Translation from French and English, especially the
former, and even works in the French language, were asked for; the
demand was also large and constant, for the Spanish dramatists and
novels; especially Don Quixotte and Gil Blas, which were to be seen on
every stall, in great numbers, and of various editions. I opened several
copies of Gil Blas, and found the title-page invariably in these
words,--“Aventuras de Gil Blas de Santillana, robadas á España, y
adoptadas en Francia por M. Le Sage; restituidas á su patria y à su
lengua nativa per un Español zeloso que no sufre se burlen de su
nacion.” This is a point upon which the Spanish nation is very jealous;
every educated person stoutly maintaining, that to Spain belongs the
honour of having produced Gil Blas. It is evident, that in the dispute
between France and Spain, regarding their respective claims to Gil Blas,
the proofs must be drawn from the internal evidence afforded by the work
itself. The only direct proofs that could be obtained, would be the
production of the original manuscript. This however must lie upon the
French; because if any plausible reason exist for supposing, that the
Spanish manuscript got into the hands of Le Sage, the Spanish manuscript
of course cannot be produced; and the French must produce their French
manuscript. That this has never been done, seems to afford a primâ facie
evidence in favour of the Spanish claims; especially if, as I believe to
be the case, the internal evidence be also in favour of Spain. The
belief that Gil Blas is a French work, and the work of Le Sage, is so
universal, and I feel so perfect a conviction that this belief is
erroneous, that I cannot allow this opportunity to escape, of
introducing a short digression upon the subject.
The Spanish statement is this: that Don Antonio de Solis, a well-known
Spanish author, wrote in 1665 a romance, entitled “Aventuras del
Bachiller de Salamanca, ó Historia de Don Querubim de la Ronda;” that
Solis could not publish this in Spain, owing to its containing many
allusions to persons then existing; and that Hugo, Marquess of Lionne,
ambassador from France at the Spanish court, who was a man of letters,
purchased not only a library of Spanish poets and dramatists, but also
many manuscripts, which were afterwards seen in the library of the
Marquess’s third son; that it is known that this son, Julio de Lionne,
was intimately allied in friendship with M. Le Sage, and by him the
manuscript of the Bachelor of Salamanca, “Don Querubim de la Ronda,” was
confided to Le Sage, who divided the work, making from it the Adventures
of Gil Blas, and the Bachelor of Salamanca. These assertions afford a
presumption; but no more. At the same time, it cannot escape
observation, that a complete refutation of these assertions, or at least
of the result drawn from them, would be, the production by the heirs of
M. Le Sage, of the manuscript, either of Gil Blas, or the Bachelor of
Salamanca. But there are many proofs drawn from the work itself,
strongly supporting the presumption afforded by the tale told by the
Spaniards. Of these I shall state a few:--1st. There are many French
words and phrases, which do not correspond with the usual elegance of Le
Sage’s style, and which have the appearance of being literal
translations of Spanish words and phrases. 2nd. There are innumerable
Spanish proper names in Le Sage’s work, and particularly small villages,
of which no foreigner could know the names, still less their
geographical position. 3rd. We find in Gil Blas a variety of particular
circumstances, usages, and habits, peculiar to Spanish provincial life,
of which no stranger could have a sufficient knowledge. 4th. There are
in Le Sage’s work innumerable errors in names of persons and towns,
seeming to prove, that errors have arisen in copying the Spanish
manuscript. The proofs of each of these might extend to a chapter: none
of them, taken singly, amount to much; but when considered along with
the story told of the manner in which the MS. came into the possession
of Le Sage, unanswered, as it is, by the production of any French
manuscript; and along with the admitted fact, that several of the
incidental stories introduced into Gil Blas are to be found in old
Spanish romances,--a strong conviction is produced, that Gil Blas is a
Spanish, and not a French work.
A strange enough answer was made by the Count de Neufchateau, member of
the French academy, to the assertion that Le Sage had availed himself of
the Spanish manuscript. He said, Le Sage would not have taken to himself
the merit of having written Gil Blas, if the work had been composed from
the manuscript of another; and the reason he gives for his confidence in
Le Sage’s honour is, that he did not hesitate to acknowledge his other
plagiarisms. He acknowledged that he took from Spanish authors “the New
Adventures of Don Quixotte,” published by him in 1735; “The Devil upon
Two Sticks,” published in 1732; “The Adventures of Guzman de Alfarache,”
published in 1707; “The Life and Doings of Estavanillo Gonzalez,”
published in 1734; and “_The Bachelor of Salamanca_,” published in
1738. What the force of this argument is, I leave the reader to judge.
But to return from this digression. Private literary associations are
out of the question in Spain: several were set on foot in 1821-22; but
after the return of the king, any thing of this kind was known to be so
obnoxious, that these societies dissolved themselves, without waiting
for any express order to that effect. Two public institutions only,
connected with literature, exist at present. Like every other
institution in Spain, they are _Real_, and therefore under the
surveillance of government;--their names are, “The Royal Spanish
Academy,” and “The Royal Academy of History.” The object of the first of
these, is to perfect the Castilian language; and with this view they
have published two excellent works, a Dictionary and a Grammar, besides
a treatise on Orthography, and several smaller writings. The object of
the Academy of History is to separate truth from falsehood in the
history of Spain, and to collect all that may throw light upon the
ancient and modern history, as well as geography, of that country. This
society has published an excellent Geographical Dictionary, which has
gone through several editions; and is now on the eve of publishing the
collection of Inscriptions which I have already mentioned, accompanied
by notes.
There is no want of public and valuable libraries in Spain, particularly
in Madrid. The two principal of these, are the Royal Library, and the
Royal Library of San Isidro. The former, founded by Philip V., was
enriched in the reign of Charles III. by the accession of the library of
the cardinal Arquinto, purchased in Rome; and in the reign of his
successor, Charles IV., by several other libraries; and now amounts to
200,000 volumes. The Royal Library also contains many valuable
manuscripts, particularly Arabic; and a rich collection of coins and
medals, illustrative of Spanish history. The Spanish press has produced
some fine specimens of printing, which are preserved in this library,
particularly Don Quixotte and Sallust, both from the press of Ibarra.
Besides the library of San Isidro, which contains about 60,000 volumes,
there are some excellent libraries in the possession of private persons,
particularly the Duke of Osuna, the Duke of Infantado, and the Duke of
Medina Cœli: the latter of these was formerly open to the public; but so
great public spiritedness looking too much like liberalism, it is now
closed.
I have already spoken of the obstacles thrown in the way of knowledge,
by the regulations respecting the schools and academies; and the fetters
thrown upon education of every kind: these chiefly affect the rising
generation; but I may mention, as another cause of the backward state of
literature in Spain, _the tone of Spanish society_. Every Spanish house
has its _tertulia_; and every man, woman, girl, and boy, is a member of
one tertulia or another. The introduction to the tertulia begins at a
very early age. I have seen boys who, in any other country, would have
been in a school-room, or at play, present themselves regularly at the
tertulia, and throwing off the character of boys, act the part of
grown-up men. This necessity of resorting every night to the tertulia,
not only interferes greatly with habits of study, by employing much
valuable time,--but the preparatory education for the tertulia, if I may
so express myself, is of the most unimproving kind. The foundation of
the tertulia is gallantry,--here it is that the Spanish woman, after
having reaped a harvest of admiration on the Prado, retires to receive
that nearer homage which is prized still higher; and here it is that the
Spaniard makes his prelude to future conquest. Gallantry is the business
of every Spaniard’s life; his object in frequenting the tertulia, is to
practise it; and his principal study, therefore, is that frivolous and
gallant conversation that is essential in the first place to captivate
the attention of the Spanish woman. The Spanish ladies, with all their
agreeable wit and affability, are ignorant almost beyond belief; and in
a country where, more than any other in Europe, the society is
mixed,--the extreme ignorance of the female sex, and the channel into
which conversation must necessarily run every evening of every day
throughout the year, cannot fail to have its effect upon the mind, and
to act as a drawback upon the desire of knowledge, and literary
distinction.
I understand that female education begins to improve; and that besides
embroidery and music, a little history and geography are now taught in
the schools, but not in the convents; so that the highest classes, who
are mostly educated in the convents, are worse educated than the middle
classes. While in Madrid, I had the pleasure of being conducted to a
girl’s Lancastrian school by its directress, Donna Hurtado de Mendoza, a
lady every way worthy of the trust. During the time of the constitution,
there were also two Lancastrian schools for boys; but these were
suppressed upon the return of the king, who was prevailed upon, however,
to allow the school for girls to continue. In the Lancastrian school
there are at present 163 pupils, and the system pursued is precisely
similar to that followed in England; part of three days every week is
dedicated to instruction in the tenets of the Roman Catholic faith.
There is one fact I had nearly forgotten to mention,--a fact somewhat
opposed to the narrow policy of the government in its hostility to the
progress of literary knowledge. Eight young men, of promising abilities,
were lately sent by the Spanish government to different cities to study
the various branches of chemistry, with a liberal allowance from the
public purse; and his majesty’s gilder was also dispatched to England to
make inquiries as to the manner of gilding buttons, and gilding bronze,
with an allowance of 18,000 reals; and with another stipulation as to a
farther and much larger sum, to be put at his disposal for the purchase
of secrets.
In Spain, the education for the liberal professions is tedious and
strict, but not expensive. The course of study required of a barrister
includes no fewer than thirteen years, besides a previous knowledge of
Latin, in which the student is examined before entering any of the law
universities. The branches of study which occupy these thirteen years,
are, three years of philosophy, which consists of logic, physics,
metaphysics, and ethics; and in the first of these years, the outlines
of mathematics are taught; but this branch of study is never pursued
farther: after this course of philosophy, the theory of Roman law is
entered upon, which occupies two years; one year of Spanish law then
follows; next, Ecclesiastical law, which occupies two years; and this is
all that is required to take the degree of bachelor: but rhetoric,
theology, digest of law, and medicine, are required for a higher
degree. At the end of each year, examinations are gone through, before
granting certificates; and the whole of the instructions are in Latin,
excepting rhetoric and Spanish law. The philosophy used, is that of
Guebarra. The expense of instruction varies according to the university;
at Toledo it is all gratis; at Alcala it costs about 50_l._ per annum;
but many are admitted into the colegios, in which case the student is
put to no expense. These colegios are particular foundations, under the
patronage of certain great families. The education of an attorney
requires only an apprenticeship, and that the candidate should be
twenty-five years of age, and have a certificate of good morals; he has
also to pass one examination in law. Before any barrister, attorney, or
notary, be admitted to practice, he is obliged to swear that he will
defend the poor gratis. Thirty are appointed each year from each society
to defend the poor in civil cases; and every one is entitled to be put
upon the poor list who chooses to swear that he is not worth 4000 reals
(40_l._); and it is a curious fact, that, in criminal cases, the
prisoner is entitled to make choice of any barrister in Madrid to defend
him. In Spain they do not understand that celebrated legal fiction, so
implicitly believed by some sound heads in England, that the judge is
counsel for the prisoner. I learned that the course of justice, or in
plainer terms a legal process, is very expensive in Madrid; two-third
parts, at least, of every account being absorbed in court dues and
stamps.
The Spanish government is not unmindful of the lives and health of its
subjects; for medical is even more strict and tedious than legal
education.
There are three kinds of medical professors in Spain:--physicians,
medico-surgeons, and cirujanos romancistos.
The first of these, after a course of the usual regular scholastic
studies, go to the University, where they study anatomy, physiology,
pathology, and the different branches of medical education; in which
four years are employed. They then go through the hospitals, with
professors appointed for the purpose--note down the diseases and their
treatment, and submit their notes for revision, to the instructors;
this occupies two years: after which they undergo examinations upon the
theory and practice of medicine, before being admitted to practice.
The medico-surgeons profess both physic and surgery: they go through the
same studies as the physician, adding chirurgical pathology, midwifery,
clinica medica, and surgical practice; and are subject to examination
upon all these branches.
The third class, the _cirujanos romancistos_, are literally surgeons who
have not studied Latin, and are an inferior class. They are not required
to have the same classical education as the others; but must study, and
pass examinations in anatomy, physiology, chirurgical pathology,
operative surgery, and midwifery. Those belonging to this class of
medical practitioners, are forbidden, by a royal edict, from prescribing
for inward complaints.
Madrid does not want institutions for the alleviation of bodily
infirmity; there being no fewer than thirteen hospitals in the capital.
The principal of these are, the General Hospital, which is chiefly
supported by the receipts of the bull-fights; and the _Hospicio real de
San Fernando_, which is also a workhouse, and is supported by imposts
upon the entry of goods into the city. There is also an Hospital for
Illegitimate Children, which receives about 1200 yearly, nearly
one-third of the number being foundlings, and which is supported by the
lottery; an Orphan Hospital, which supports about 800 orphans; several
smaller orphan hospitals; and two lying-in hospitals.
There are also in Madrid, ten different institutions for philanthropic
purposes--the succour of the wretched, and the relief of the poor; among
these, _El Monte de Piedad_ deserves mention. It is a public
establishment, which lends money upon goods, which may be reclaimed at
any time during a year, or even longer, in particular cases, upon
repayment of the loan _without any interest_.
Madrid, I have mentioned in the former chapter, is supposed to contain
170,000 inhabitants; but this is partly conjecture,--no census having
been lately made. In the year 1790, there died in Madrid 5915 persons;
and 4897 were born: and in the year 1810, 3786 persons died; and 5282
were born. The following was the consumption of Madrid, in the year
1825: 230,000 sheep; 12,500 oxen; 70,000 hogs; 2,417,357 arrobas[A] of
charcoal; 13,245 arrobas of soap; 40,809 arrobas of oil; 800,000 bushels
of corn; 500,000 arrobas of wine; 50,000 arrobas of snow; 30,000 arrobas
of candles; and 18,000 bushels of salt: and supposing, as there is
reason to believe, that since that time the population of Madrid has
increased 5000, the addition of a thirty-fifth part to these sums, will
give nearly the present consumption of Madrid.
[A] An arroba is 25lbs. weight.
Madrid, although, with the exception of Constantinople, the most
interesting city in Europe to visit, owing to the perfect novelty of
scene which it presents even to him who has travelled through every
other country, would not be an agreeable permanent residence. It is not
like Paris, or Rome, or Vienna; in any of which cities a stranger may,
if he pleases, live nearly as he lived in his own country. In Madrid,
this is impossible; the hotels are execrable; boarding houses there are
none; and although a stranger may find lodgings, he will find Spanish
habits in them. Of the state of society, and of the diversions, I have
already given some idea. These possess much interest to a stranger, but
not any permanent attraction; so that after he has remained in Madrid
long enough to gratify his curiosity with the novel spectacle of a
people differing from all the rest of the world, in dress, habits,
amusements, modes of life, and modes of thinking, he will begin to feel
some desire to know what the world beyond Spain is doing; because of
this, he can know nothing within Spain. But let no traveller leave
Madrid to return to England. Seville and Granada lie beyond; and when
the Castiles have lost their attraction, Andalusia and its thousand
charms await him.
Before closing this chapter,--the last that has any reference to
Madrid,--let me give some information respecting the price of
provisions, &c.
The Spanish capital is probably the dearest capital in Europe; and this
cannot excite surprise, when it is considered that Madrid is situated in
the midst of a sterile country, where there is no pasture land, no
rivers, scarcely any gardens, and no communication with the sea, or with
any of the distant and more productive provinces. Notwithstanding these
drawbacks, the markets are well supplied; and all kinds of meat,
poultry, game, vegetables, and fruit, may be had of an excellent
quality: fish, and milk, are the only scarce articles. In the following
enumeration, the best quality of every article is understood; it is not
easy to render the prices with precision, into English money, because
they are generally reckoned in _quartos_; but if the reader recollects
that eight quartos are nearly 2¼_d._, one quarto being 18/64ths of a
penny, it will be no difficult calculation to bring the prices to
English value.
Beef, per lb. of 14 oz. 18 quartos. Veal, per lb. 30 quartos. Mutton,
per lb. 18 quartos. Pork, per lb. 20 quartos.
The price of fish cannot be stated with accuracy; it is never seen
excepting in winter, and the supply is so precarious, that it is
impossible to approach the truth.
Bread, of the first quality, is 14 quartos per lb.; the second quality
10.
Ordinary wine of La Mancha, 21 quartos.
A fine fowl, 6 reals (1_s._ 6_d._). A chicken, from 7_d._ to 10_d._ A
duck, from 1_s._ 8_d._ to 2_s._ 1_d._ A goose, 3_s._ 6_d._ A turkey,
from 4_s._ to 10_s._, according to the season. Turkeys, in Madrid, are
not sold in the markets, but are driven through the streets. I have
several times bought a small turkey for 3_s._ Pigeons, 1_s._ 6_d._ or
1_s._ 8_d._ a couple.
Coffee, 1_s._ 8_d._ per lb. Chocolate, 2_s._ 6_d._ per lb. Green tea,
10_s._ Black tea, 12_s._; but it is scarcely to be found. Sugar, 1_s._
8_d._, equal to English sugar at 11_d._ The natives use sugar at 10_d._;
but it is dirty and bad.
Goat’s milk 4_d._ a pint during summer,--half that price in winter;
cow’s milk is difficult to be had in summer,--in winter it is 3_d._ a
pint; Flanders butter 2_s._ 6_d._ per lb.; salted butter, from the
Asturias and Galicia, may also be had at 1_s._ 6_d._; but it is not
good.
Vegetables are rather dearer than in England, especially potatoes.
Fruit is always excellent and cheap. A melon, such as cannot be seen
either in France or England, costs 5_d._; these are the Valencia melons,
extremely pale, and of the most exquisite flavour. The finest Muscatel
grapes are 1½_d._ per lb.
I have mentioned in a former chapter, that the bread of Spain is,
without exception, excellent; and it is nowhere finer than in Madrid.
The finest, is called _pan de Majorca_; but this bread is made partly
with milk, and is not fitted for general use; the bread used by the
better classes, is the _pan Frances_, very ill named, because it is much
superior to any French bread. The lower orders, and many too among the
middle classes, use _pan Candeal_, in which there is no leaven, and no
salt.
I must not omit the mention of fuel; this is an expensive article in
winter to a stranger who is not accustomed to sit without a fire. The
American minister told me, that his fuel cost him 20_s._ per day in the
month of August.
There is only one thing in Madrid remarkably cheap; that is, the keep of
horses. From the same authority I may state, that the keep of a horse
does not exceed 20_l._ per annum. The usual food of horses is cut straw,
and a little barley; and it appears that they thrive well upon this
regimen: but in Spain, horses are lightly worked, no one travelling with
his own horses, but invariably with mules hired for the purpose.