Man understanding one who possesses the Wealth and Good things of this
World, and by Happy the Enjoyment of the Proper Good of Man. We compare
the two Terms Riches and Happiness together, to discern if they be so
much one and the same, that what is affirm’d of the one may be laid of
the other; but we find they are not. For if Riches and Happiness were
terms Convertible, then all who are Happy must be Rich, and all who are
Rich must be Happy, to affirm the last of which is to beg the Question,
and the contrary appears by the following Argument, which makes use of
_Satisfaction with ones own Condition_ for the middle Idea or Common
Measure.
He who is Happy is satisfied with his Condition and free from Anxious
Cares and Solicitude (for these proceeding from the want of Good, he
who enjoys his proper Good cannot be subject to them.) But Riches do
not free us from Anxieties and Solicitude, they many times encrease
them, Therefore to be Rich and to be Happy are not one and the same
thing.
Again, If there are some who are Happy and yet not Rich, then Riches
and Happiness are two distinct things. But a Good Poor Man is Happy (in
the Enjoyment of GOD who is better to him than Thousands of Gold and
Silver,) therefore Riches and Happiness are to be distinguish’d.
We may further consider, that if the Enjoyment of Riches can make a Man
Happy according to our Notion of Happiness, they must be his Proper
Good. Now if we compare the Idea of Riches with that which we have of
Man, we shall find in the former nothing but what’s Material, External
and Adventitious, but our Idea of the latter represents to us somewhat
that Thinks, and so is of an Immaterial and more noble Nature, a Nature
altogether different from the former, and much more excellent and
Superior to it; and by Consequence the less Noble cannot be the Good of
the more, nor a Body or an Extended Substance, the Proper Good of the
Mind, a Spiritual or Thinking Substance. So that upon the whole matter
we find, that we cannot affirm a Man is Happy because he is Rich,
neither can we deny it; Riches consider’d absolutely in themselves,
neither make a Man Happy nor hinder him from being so. They Contribute
to his Happiness or they Obstruct it according to the Use he makes of
’em.
As for the Common Rules of Disputation they do more frequently Intangle
than Clear a Question, nor is it worth while to know any more of them
than may help to guard us from the Sophistry of those who use them,
and assist us in the managing an Argument fairly, so long as it is
Tenable, and till we are driven from it by the meer dint of Truth. To
be able to hold an Argument Right or Wrong may pass with some perhaps
for the Character of a Good Disputant, which yet I think it is not,
but must by no means be allow’d to be that of a Rational Person; it
belongs to such to detect as soon as may be the Fallacies of an ill
one, and to establish Truth with the Clearest Evidence. For indeed
Truth not Victory is what we shou’d contend for in all Disputes, it
being more Glorious to be Overcome by her than to Triumph under the
Banners of Error. And therefore we pervert our Reason when we make it
the Instrument of an Endless Contention, by seeking after Quirks and
Subtilties, abusing Equivocal Terms, and by practising the rest of
those little Arts every Sophister is full of, which are of no service
in the discovery of Truth, all they can do is to Ward off an Opponents
blow, to make a Noise and raise a Dust, that so we may escape in the
Hurry, our Foil being undiscover’d.
It were endless to reckon up all the Fallacies we put on our selves
and endeavour to obtrude on others. On our selves in the first place,
for however we may be pleas’d in the Contemplation of our own Craft
or to use those softer Names we are apt to give it, our Acuteness and
Ingenuity; who ever attempts to impose on others is first impos’d on
himself, he is cheated by some of those grand Deceivers, the World,
the Flesh, and the Devil, and made to believe that Vain-glory, Secular
Interest, Ambition or perhaps Sensuality or Revenge, or any the like
contemptible Appetites are preferable to Integrity and Truth.
[Sidenote: _Art of Thinking_ Pt. 3. Ch. 19, 20.]
Neither is it necessary to reduce the most usual Sophisms to general
Heads, since that’s already very well perform’d in a Book to which
I’de rather refer you, than be at the trouble of Transcribing, having
nothing to add but this, that if I be not mistaken, all the false
Arguings enumerated there, and what others you may happen to meet
with may be discover’d and avoided by the Rules already given, and do
indeed proceed, so far as they relate to the Understanding, from the
Non-observation of some of ’em.
But it is to little purpose to guard our selves against the Sophisms of
the Head, if we lie open to those of the Heart. One irregular Passion
will put a greater Obstacle between us and Truth, than the brightest
Understanding and clearest Reasonings can easily remove. This every
one of us is apt to discern in others, but we’re blind to it in our
selves. We can readily say that it is Pride or Obstinacy, Interest
or Passion or in a word Self-love that keeps our Neighbour from
Conviction, but all this while imagine our own Hearts are very clear of
’em, tho’ more Impartial Judges are of another Mind.
I wish there were no Reason to think that there are some who attempt to
maintain an Opinion which they know to be false, or at least which they
have cause to suspect, and therefore industriously avoid what wou’d
manifest their Error. ’Tis hop’d however that the greatest part of the
Disputers of the World are not of this number, and that the reason why
they offer their Neighbours Sophistical Arguments, is because they
are not aware of it themselves; That what makes them so Positive is
their firm persuasion that they are acted only by a Zeal for GOD, an
honest Constancy and Stanch Integrity, tho at the very same time quite
different Motives move them under these Appearances.
And indeed he must be an extraordinary good Man, a Wonder scarce
produc’d in an Age, who has no Irregular Passion stirring; Who
receives no Manner of Tincture from Pride and Vitious Self-Love,
to which all are so prone, and which hide themselves under so many
disguises; Who is got above the World its Terrors and Allurements,
has laid up his Treasure in Heaven, and is fully Contented with his
Present Circumstances, let them be what they will, having made them
the boundaries of his Desires; who knows how to live on a Little very
happily and therefore receives no Bias from his own Conveniency, nor is
weigh’d down by the dead Weight of his Appetites and Interests; which
ought to be the Temper of every Person who wou’d find out Truth, and
who desires to make a Right Judgment in all things.
We all pretend to this it’s true, and think our selves Injur’d if
it be not believ’d that we are Disinteress’d and free from Passion,
that no Humour or Private End, nothing but an honest Zeal for Truth
gives warmth to our Discourses; and yet it often happens that e’re we
Conclude them, we give just occasion to have it thought, that how large
soever our Knowlege in other things may be, we are not well acquainted
with our own Hearts. All which consider’d, how confidently soever we’re
perswaded of our own Integrity, tho we think we have penetrated to the
very bottom of our Hearts, it wou’d not be amiss to suspect our selves
sometimes, and to fear a Bias, even at the very instant we take care to
avoid one.
For Truth being but One, and the Rational Faculties not differing
in Kind but in Degree, tho there may be different Measures of
Understanding, there could not be such Contradictions in Mens Opinions
as we find there are, even in those who examin as well as in those
who do not, were they acted only by the Love of Truth, and did not
Self-Love perswade them that they shall find their own particular
account by such an Opposition. I wou’d not be so understood as if I
thought that in all Controversies one side must needs be Criminal,
if not by Wilfully Opposing Truth, yet at least by an indulgence of
such unmortifi’d Passions as estrange them from her. No, without doubt
great allowances are to be made on the score of Education, Capacity,
the Leisure, and Opportunity of Information we have had. But this we
may venture to say, that had we but a Modest Opinion of our selves,
believing it as possible for us as for those who contradict us to be
mistaken, did we behave our selves answerable to such a belief; were
we seriously convinc’d that nothing is so much our Interest as a
readiness to admit of Truth, from what ever Hand it comes, greatest
part of our Disputes wou’d have a better Issue than we generally find.
At least if we cou’d not be to happy as to Convince one another, our
Contests wou’d be manag’d with more Temper and Moderation, wou’d not
conclude in such a breach of Charity, or at best in such a Coldness for
each other, as they usually do.
If we consider wisely we shall find it to be our Present Interest as
well as our Future, to do that in Reality which all of us Pretend to,
that is, to Search after and to Follow Truth. And to do it with all
that Candor and Ingenuity which becomes a true Philosopher as well
as a good Christian, making use of no Arguments but what we really
believe, and giving them up contentedly when we meet with stronger.
Our _Present Interest_, which is that which weighs most with the
generality, and to which we make all other considerations give place;
For what is it we Contend for? They who have such little Souls as to
bait at any thing beneath the highest End, make Reputation their Aim,
and with it that Authority and Wealth which usually attends it. But
now Reputation cannot be acquir’d, at least not a lasting one, by
Fallacious Reasonings; we may perhaps for a while get a Name by them
amongst unwary Persons, but the World grows too quick-sighted to be
long impos’d on. If a Love of Truth do not, yet Envy and Emulation
will set other heads a Work to discover our Ignorance or Fraud, they
are upon the same Design, and will not suffer us to go away with the
Prize undeservedly. And besides, with how ill an Aspect must he needs
appear who does not Reason fairly, and by consequence, how unlike is
he to gain on those who hear him? There are but three Causes to which
false Arguments can be refer’d, Ignorance, Rashness, or Design, and the
being suspected for any one of these hinders us very much in acquiring
that Reputation, Authority or Preferment we desire. I must confess were
we sure the Fallacy wou’d not be detected, and that we shou’d not lie
under Suspicion of it, we might gain our point; for provided the Paint
do not rub off, good Colouring may serve a present turn as well as a
true Complection: But there is little reason to hope for this, because
of what was just now mention’d, and for other Reasons that might be
added.
Now what can be more provoking than the Idea we have of a Designing
Person? of one who thinks his own Intellectuals so strong and ours
so weak, that he can make us swallow any thing, and lead us where
he pleases? such an one seems to have an Intention to reduce us to
the vilest Slavery, the Captivation of our Understandings, which we
justly reckon to be the highest Insolence. And since every one puts in
for a share of Sense, and thinks he has no reason to complain of the
distribution of it, whoever supposes that another has an over-weaning
Opinion of his own, must needs think that he undervalues his Neighbours
Understanding, and will certainly repay him in his own Coin, and deny
him those advantages he seems to arrogate.
The most we can say for our selves when the weakness of our Arguments
comes to be discover’d, is that we were mistaken thro Rashness
or Ignorance, which tho more pardonable than the former, are no
recommending Qualities. If we argue falsly and know not that we
do so, we shall be more pittied than when we do, but either way
disappointed. And if we have added Rash Censures of those who are not
of our Mind, Pride or Positiveness to our Errors as we cannot so
handsomely Retreat so neither will so fair a Quarter be allow’d as
those who Argue with Meekness, Modesty and Charity may well expect.
So that when we have cast up our Account and estimated the Present
Advantages that false Arguings bring us, I fear what we have got by
a Pretence to Truth, won’t be found to countervail the loss we shall
sustain by the Discovery that it was no more. Which may induce us (if
other Considerations will not) to be wary in receiving any Proposition
ourselves; and restrain us from being forward to impose our Sentiments
on others.
After all, ’tis a melancholy reflection that a great part of
Mankind stand in need of Arguments drawn from so low a Motive as
Worldly Interest, to persuade them to that to which they have much
greater inducements. It is strange that we shou’d need any other
considerations besides the bare performance of our Duty, and those
unspeakable advantages laid up for all such as do it sincerely,
hereafter. When we have the Approbation of GOD and the infinite Rewards
he has propos’d to those who study to recommend themselves to him,
for our Encouragement, how low are we sunk if the Applause of Men and
the little Trifles which they can bestow weigh any thing with us! I
am therefore almost asham’d of proposing so mean a consideration, but
the degeneracy of the Age requir’d it, and they who perhaps at first
follow Truth as the Jews did once, for the Loaves only, may at last be
attracted by its own Native Beauties.
[Sidenote: L’art de Penser, p. 22.]
§. V. As Nature teaches us Logic, so does it instruct us in Rhetoric
much better than Rules of Art, which if they are good ones are nothing
else but those Judicious Observations which Men of Sense have drawn
from Nature, and which all who reflect on the Operations of their own
Minds will find out ’emselves. The common Precepts of Rhetoric may
teach us how to reduce Ingenious ways of speaking to a certain Rule,
but they do not teach us how to Invent them, this is Natures work and
she does it best; there is as much difference between Natural and
Artificial Eloquence as there is between Paint and True Beauty. So that
as a good Author well observes, all that’s useful in this Art, “is the
avoiding certain evil ways of Writing and Speaking, and above all an
Artificial and Rhetorical Stile compos’d of false Thoughts, Hyperboles
and forc’d Figures which is the greatest fault in Rhetoric.”
I shall not therefore recommend under the name of Rhetoric an Art
of speaking floridly on all Subjects, and of dressing up Error and
Impertinence in a quaint and taking garb; any more than I did that
Wrangling which goes by the name of Logic, and which teaches to dispute
_for_ and _against_ all Propositions indefinitely whether they are
True or False. It is an abuse both of Reason and Address to press’em
into the Service of a Trifle or an Untruth; and a mistake to think
that any Argument can be rightly made, or any Discourse truly Eloquent
that does not illustrate and inforce Truth. For the design of Rhetoric
is to remove those Prejudices that lie in the way of Truth, to Reduce
the Passions to the Government of Reason; to place our Subject in a
Right Light, and excite our Hearers to a due consideration of it.
And I know not what exactness of Method, pure and proper Language,
Figures, insinuating ways of Address and the like signify, any farther
than as they contribute to the Service of Truth by rendring our
Discourse Intelligible, Agreeable and Convincing. They are indeed very
serviceable to it when they are duly managed, for Good Sense loses much
of its efficacy by being ill express’d, and an ill stile is nothing
else but the neglect of some of these, or over doing others of ’em.
Obscurity, one of the greatest faults in Writing, does commonly
proceed from a want of Meditation, for when we pretend to teach others
what we do not understand our selves, no wonder that we do it at a
sorry rate. ’Tis true, Obscurity is sometimes design’d, to conceal an
erroneous opinion which an Author dares not openly own, or which if it
be discover’d he has a mind to evade. And sometimes even an honest and
good Writer who studies to avoid may insensibly fall into it, by reason
that his Ideas being become familiar to himself by frequent Meditation,
a long train of ’em are readily excited in his mind, by a word or two
which he’s us’d to annex to them; but it is not so with his Readers who
are perhaps strangers to his Meditations, and yet ought to have the
very same Idea rais’d in theirs that was in the Authors mind, or else
they cannot understand him. If therefore we desire to be intelligible
to every body, our Expressions must be more plain and explicit than
they needed to be if we writ only for our selves, or for those to whom
frequent Discourse has made our Ideas familiar.
Not that it is necessary to express at length all the Process our Mind
goes thro in resolving a Question, this wou’d spin out our Discourse
to an unprofitable tediousness, the Operations of the Mind being much
more speedy than those of the Tongue or Pen. But we shou’d fold up our
Thoughts so closely and neatly, expressing them in such significant
tho few words, as that the Readers Mind may easily open and enlarge
them. And if this can be done with facility we are Perspicuous as well
as Strong, if with difficulty or not at all, we’re then perplext and
Obscure Writers.
Scarce any thing conduces more to Clearness, the great Beauty of
writing, than Exactness of Method; nor perhaps to Persuasion, for by
putting every thing in its proper place with due Order and Connexion,
the Readers Mind is gently led where the Writer wou’d have it. Such a
Stile is Easy without Softness, Copious as that signifies the omission
of nothing necessary, yet not Wordy and Tedious; nor stuft with
Nauseous Repetitions, which they who do not Think before they Write and
dispose their Matter duly, can scarce avoid. The Method of Thinking has
been already shewn, and the same is to be observ’d in Writing, which if
it be what it ought; is nothing else but the communicating to others
the result of our frequent and deep Meditations, in such a manner as
we judge most effectual to convince them of those Truths which we
believe. Always remembring that the most natural Order is ever best;
that we must first prepare their minds by removing those Prejudices and
Passions which are in our way, and then propose our Reasons with all
the Clearness and Force, with all the Tenderness and Good-Nature we can.
[Sidenote: _Lock_ of Hum. Und. B. 3. Ch. 7.]
And since the Clearness and Connexion as well as the Emphasis and
Beauty of a Discourse depends in a great measure on a right use of the
Particles, whoever wou’d Write well ought to inform themselves nicely
in their Proprieties. an _And_, a _The_, a _But_, a _For_, &c. do very
much perplex the Sense when they are misplac’d, and make the Reader
take it many times quite otherwise than the Writer meant it. But this
is not a place to say all that this Subject deserves; they who wou’d
have much in a little, may consult an Ingenious Author who has touch’d
upon’t, and from thence take hints to observe how these little words
are applied in good Authors, and how themselves may best use them to
express the several Postures of their own Minds.
In a word, I know not a more compendious way to good Speaking and
Writing, than to chuse out the most excellent in either as a Model
on which to form our selves. Or rather to imitate the Perfections of
all, and avoid their mistakes; for few are so perfect as to be without
fault, and few so bad as to have nothing good in them. A true Judgment
distinguishes, and neither rejects the Good for the sake of the Bad,
nor admits the Bad because of the Good that is mingled with it. No sort
of Style but has its excellency and is liable to defect: If care be
not taken the Sublime which subdues us with Nobleness of Thought and
Grandeur of Expression, will fly out of sight and by being Empty and
Bombast become contemptible. The Plain and Simple will grow Dull and
Abject; the Severe dry and Rugged, the Florid vain and impertinent. The
Strong instead of rousing the Mind will distract and intangle it by
being Obscure; even the Easy and Perspicuous if it be too diffuse, or
ever delicate tires us instead of pleasing. Good Sense is the principal
thing without which all our polishing is of little Worth, and yet if
Ornament be wholly neglected very few will regard us. Studied and
artificial periods are not natural enough to please, they shew too much
solicitude about what does not deserve it, and a loose and careless
Style declares too much contempt of the Public. Neither Reason nor Wit
entertain us if they are driven beyond a certain pitch, and Pleasure it
self is offensive if it be not judiciously dispenc’d.
Every Author almost has some beauty or blemish remarkable in his Style
from whence it takes its name; and every Reader has a peculiar tast
of Books as well as Meats. One wou’d have the Subject exhausted,
another is not pleas’d if somewhat be not left to enlarge on in his
own Meditations. This affects a Grave that a Florid Style; One is for
Easiness, a second for Plainness, a third for Strength, and a fourth
for Politeness. And perhaps the great secret of Writing is the mixing
all these in so just a proportion that every one may tast what he likes
without being disgusted by its contrary. And may find at once that by
the Solidity of the Reason, the purity and propriety of Expression, and
insinuating agreeableness of Address, his Understanding is Enlightned,
his Affections subdued and his Will duly regulated.
This is indeed the true End of Writing, and it wou’d not be hard for
every one to judge how well they had answer’d it, wou’d they but lay
aside Self-Love, so much of it at least, as makes them partial to their
own Productions. Did we consider our own with the same Severity, or
but Indifferency that we do anothers Writing, we might pass a due
Censure on it, might discern what Thought was Crude or ill exprest,
what Reasoning weak, what passage superfluous, where we were flat and
dull, where extravagant and vain, and by Criticizing on our selves do
a greater kindness to the World than we can in making our Remarques on
others. Nor shou’d we be at a loss, if we were Impartial, in finding
out Methods to Inform, Persuade and Please; for Human Nature is for the
most part much alike in all, and that which has a good effect on us,
will generally speaking have the same on others. So that to guess what
success we are like to have, we need only suppose our selves in the
place of those we Address to, and consider how such a Discourse wou’d
operate on us, if we had their Infirmities and Thoughts about us.
And if we do so I believe we shall find, there’s nothing more improper
than Pride and Positiveness, nor any thing more prevalent than an
innocent compliance with their weakness: Such as pretends not to
dictate to their Ignorance, but only to explain and illustrate what
they did or might have known before if they had consider’d it, and
supposes that their Minds being employ’d about some other things was
the reason why they did not discern it as well as we. For Human Nature
is not willing to own its Ignorance; Truth is so very attractive,
there’s such a natural agreement between our Minds and it, that we care
not to be thought so dull as not to be able to find out by our selves
such obvious matters. We shou’d therefore be careful that nothing pass
from us which upbraids our Neighbours Ignorance, but study to remove’t
without appearing to take notice of it, and permit’em to fancy if they
please, that we believe them as Wise and Good as we endeavour to make
them. By this we gain their Affections which is the hardest part of our
Work, excite their Industry and infuse a new Life into all Generous
Tempers, who conclude there’s great hopes they may with a little pains
attain what others think they Know already, and are asham’d to fall
short of the good Opinion we have entertain’d of ’em.