army, instructing him to explore and take the territory to the south, or
what is now Chile. He was unable to accomplish the task. In 1540 Pizarro
sent another expedition under Pedro Valdivia, whom fortune favored and
who penetrated to what is now the city of Santiago, which he founded in
1541. For more than 100 years the warlike Araucanian Indians made
repeated attacks on settlers in this territory, the Spaniards having
great difficulty in conquering them. A treaty of peace was concluded in
1640.
When the revolutionary movement in South America started against Spain,
Chile on September 18, 1810, declared her independence, and became the
scene of much fighting, finally on April 5, 1818, defeating forever
Spanish power and becoming absolutely independent.
A republican form of government was adopted, the executive power being
vested in a President, and the legislative in two houses, a Senate and a
Chamber of Deputies.
The Republic of Chile has 292,580 square miles, with a ragged coast line
of 2,627 miles, and varies in width from 90 to 248 miles. It is bordered
on the north by Peru, the east by Bolivia and Argentine, the south and
west by the Pacific Ocean.
Two almost parallel ranges of mountains, the Cordillera de la Costa and
the Andes, run from north to south, with a valley over 500 miles long
and 40 wide spread between them. In this chain of mountains are more
than 30 extinct volcanoes from 11,700 to 21,340 feet in height.
Owing to its extreme length Chile possesses many climates. To the north
it is dry and hot, the central portion being decidedly temperate with
changing seasons, almost like California, while in the south the
temperature gets lower, and rains increase. To the extreme south there
is much snow and cold with but little vegetation.
[Illustration:
Valparaiso
]
There are practically no negroes in the 3,500,000 of Chile’s population.
Some writers estimate that 25 per cent. of the inhabitants are Germans,
or of German descent, this nation having many business men and large
colonies in the Republic, especially toward the south and around
Valdivia. Perhaps 50 per cent. are descendants of the Araucanian Indians
by the early Spanish explorers. There is a large percentage of English;
it is estimated that in Valparaiso, a city of 250,000, there are at
least 20,000 Anglo-Saxons. The French and Italian colonies are also
quite numerous.
Chile ranks third in South America in her railways, possessing a total
of 3800 miles, nearly 2000 of which are owned by the Government. A
longitudinal railway, designed to run practically the length of the
country—2132 miles—from north to south, is in process of construction.
It will be connected with the coast and the hinterland by roads crossing
it at right angles, and is designed to develop the entire country and to
be of strategic value in transporting troops. Two new trans-Andean roads
are contemplated in addition to the one now running from Los Andes to
Mendoza, one to operate about 300 miles north of Santiago—the other to
cross 400 miles to the south of the capital. Other lines from the
smaller ports to the longitudinal road are proposed, in all over 3000
miles being projected. Of the roads maintained by the government, it
might be said that they are run at a great annual loss, a condition
which may operate materially against the country’s prosperity at some
near date. Many of the privately owned roads are used only in connection
with the nitrate industry.
Chile has many small rivers varying from 25 to 150 miles in length
arising in the mountains and rushing to the sea. Most of them are dry a
greater part of the year, but during the rainy season become raging
torrents. With the exception of a few in the southern part of the
country, they are not navigable, but by a proper system of conserving
and storing their water might be made useful for generating power or
light.
Her extensive coast line gives Chile 59 ports on the Pacific, most of
which are open roadsteads and at certain times of the year positively
dangerous, loading and unloading of vessels being done by means of
lighters, ships being obliged to lie from one to two miles off the land.
The principal ports from north to south in the order named are Arica,
Pisagua, Iquiqui, Tocopilla, Antofagasta, Taltal, Caldera, Carrizal,
Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Talcahuano, Coronel, Valdivia, Puerto Monte,
Ancud, and Punta Arenas, the most southerly city on this continent and
one of the big fur markets of the world.
Chile is to-day spending millions of dollars on the modernization of her
leading ports so as to properly safeguard life and property, but it will
be years before this work is finished.
Primarily the wealth of Chile comes from her nitrate beds and her mining
possibilities. There are about $150,000,000 invested in the nitrate
industry alone—$55,000,000 being English and $51,000,000 local. American
capital is little represented in this line. The exports in 1913 amounted
to 60,500,000 _quintals_, a _quintal_ being 101.41 pounds; the value in
money was $98,239,569. Iodine is one of the by-products in the
manufacture of nitrate, and is controlled by a combination or trust,
$1,876,277 worth being exported last year, the United States taking 183
tons, England 65 tons and the remainder of Europe 264 tons.
The nitrate beds run a distance of 450 miles south of the Camarones
River, at an altitude of 4000 to 5000 feet and from 10 to 20 miles
inland. Many theories have been advanced as to these deposits, the one
generally accepted being that these fields were once the bottom of some
sea elevated by a titanic upheaval. The beds vary in width from a half
to five miles, and the “caliche” or strata of earth bearing the nitrate
is usually covered by sand and dirt varying from a few inches to 10
feet. This is blown out by dynamite, separated by washing and boilings
from foreign matter, then bagged and shipped. A more desolate spot than
a nitrate “officina,” as these reduction plants are called, would be
hard to imagine. No trees or vegetation are to be seen and even water
has to be carried for miles in cars for operating the machinery and for
other uses. Authorities differ as to the extent of the deposits, some
alleging they will be worked out in 20 years, while others claim there
is sufficient supply available for 200 years. Nitrate is used
extensively in the arts, for manufacturing gunpowder and explosives and
for a fertilizer in agriculture.
Copper is found in great profusion, $7,947,307 worth being exported last
year. One of the largest copper mines is owned by the Braden Copper
Company, an American concern. In 1913 its average daily production was
30 tons of bar copper. Machinery is being installed which is intended to
double this output. Chile at one time contributed one-third of the
world’s supply of this metal and mineralogists state that there are yet
great bodies of high grade ore awaiting the discoverer.
Coal is found throughout the south of Chile, one coal field alone being
estimated to contain 1,862,000,000 tons. Over $7,500,000 is invested in
this enterprise.
Iron ore of excellent quality and freeness from sulphur is found in
large quantities. An American company is largely interested in
developing this market, and contemplates investing $6,000,000 in their
property.
There are silver and gold, deposits of salt and borax, as well as
cobalt, nickel, mercury bearing ores, tungsten, zinc, graphite, sulphur
and alum. All of these await proper development as they exist in paying
quantities.
Much of the territory, which resembles California in scenery, climate
and formation, is given over to agriculture. Over 600,000 tons of wheat
were harvested in 1912 with 71,000 tons of barley, 50,000 tons of oats
and 40,000 tons of corn. Some authorities claim Chile to be the fourth
largest wine producing country of the world, most of its vintage being
consumed locally.
Stock raising is increasing, especially to the south, where sheep are
profitably grazed. The latest census gives the number of cattle at
1,900,000, sheep 5,000,000 and goats 300,000. Much wool from three to
four-inch staple is produced, last year 20,563,833 pounds being
exported. Dairying is rapidly growing. Bee culture is becoming a
permanent industry, there being 90,000 hives in Chile in 1913. Much
honey and wax are exported.
There are millions of acres of virgin forests of valuable hard woods in
the south, the north being a barren, treeless country. The chief trees
are the Chilean oak, the rauli, elm, cypress, pine, cherry, laurel and
of late the eucalyptus is being propagated extensively.
Some industries such as shoe factories, canneries, breweries,
distilleries, sugar refineries, cracker bakeries, and the like exist but
their products are for local consumption.
The fruits of Chile, such as the cherry, peach, pear, apple, nectarine,
plum, apricot and melon, are the equal of ours. Inasmuch as the seasons
here are reversed, these luscious fruits would reach our markets during
winter, and this could be developed into a profitable trade.
Chile exports nitrate of soda (nitrate), copper, iodine, wheat, borate
of lime, iron, gold, silver, wool, hides, woods, honey, and wax.
She imports bottles, cars and rolling stock, cement, cotton goods,
glassware, iron and steel manufactures, such as wire, nails, pipes,
corrugated iron, hardware, tools, locomotives, mining and agricultural
machinery, mineral waters, paper, petroleum, rice, sacks, tinned salmon,
thread, tea, woolen goods, shoes, and hats.
Chilean money is unstable and fluctuates from day to day, the paper
_peso_ or dollar being worth from 17 to 36 cents, according to
variations in exchange. A gold _peso_ exists fictitiously for trade
purposes, being estimated at 18 pence or 36 cents U. S. gold. When this
mark “$” is followed by the word _oro_ the amount is understood to be
gold. If however this abbreviation is used “m/c” it means “moneda
corriente” or the paper money.
Chile has for a long time talked of changing its currency and making it
staple. The sooner this is done the better for the country. Such a
movement has been greatly retarded by men who have made money due to the
fluctuations in currency.
Both the English and Germans have large interests here, and as a
consequence do the bulk of the exporting and importing business with
Chile. Imports in 1913 were $122,075,994 as against $139,878,201 of
exports. India shipped to Chile $3,500,000 worth of jute bags for
nitrate in 1913, and stands seventh in the list of countries sending
goods here, the United States being third with $16,806,341 to its credit
as against England’s $38,616,886 and Germany’s $33,189,070.
Commercial travelers are not required to pay a license. The authorities
are very liberal about admitting samples.
The following cities are worth visiting for trade purposes:
_Population_
Santiago 400,000
Valparaiso 250,000
Iquiqui 50,000
Concepcion 50,000
Chillon 45,000
Antofagasta 35,000
Punta Arenas 20,000
Talcahuano 16,000
Valdivia 16,000
Coquimbo 12,000
Chile may be reached by taking any line from New York to Buenos Aires,
then crossing via the Trans-Andean road to Santiago or Valparaiso, or by
any line of steamers sailing for Colon, thence via train to Panama from
where English, German, Chilean or Peruvian steamers sail weekly,
touching at all the leading coast ports. There are also English and
German ships direct from Europe, which pass through Smythe Channel on
the southwest coast of Chile and touch at all its ports on both the
outward and return voyage.
VII
BOLIVIA
Bolivia, the fourth largest of the South American republics, extending
over an area of 708,195 square miles, is without a seacoast, having lost
control of her ports on the Pacific Ocean as a result of the war between
Peru and Chile. This country occupies as much territory as all of the
states east of the Mississippi, excepting those of New England, or is as
large as the combined areas of California, Washington, Oregon, Idaho,
Arizona, Utah and Nevada, and is bounded on the north and east by
Brazil, the south by Paraguay, Argentine and Chile, while her western
boundary is made up by Peru and Chile.
After Pizarro discovered Peru, he organized an expedition, explored
Bolivia, and annexed it to the Spanish crown, which controlled its
destinies until all of Latin America revolted against the home
government. In 1809 the Spanish authorities were deposed and
independence declared in 1825, as a result of the Battle of Ayacucho,
fought on Dec. 9, 1824, when the Spanish forces were totally defeated.
Simon Bolivar, the hero of the rebellion against Spain, drafted its
constitution which provided for a President, two Vice-Presidents, and
two houses of Congress—composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.
Although Bolivia is entirely within the Tropic Zone, it is blessed with
a variety of climates, due chiefly to its altitude. There are two
seasons, the rainy from December to May and the dry covering the
remainder of the year.
Owing to some gigantic convulsion of Nature, ages ago, what evidently
was the bottom of the ocean was forced upward, and now forms an enormous
plateau over 500 miles in length, covering more than 60,000 square
miles, at an average altitude of 12,000 feet. This is a comparatively
barren stretch of land with little vegetation, but is extremely rich in
mineral deposits.
Running north and south, and at the east and west sides of this vast
plateau are two ranges of the Andes, the distance between them being
about 85 miles. In addition to these main ranges are many others which
criss-cross the country in numerous directions. In but few, if any,
countries of the world is there to be found such a wealth of scenery,
Bolivia possessing three of the highest peaks in this hemisphere, namely
Illampu, Sorata and Illimani, the sentinel of La Paz, whose snowcovered
peak towers into space 22,500 feet.
As may be surmised the climate in the plateau and mountain regions is
cool and invigorating most of the year, but extremely warm in the
summer, while as the land descends toward Brazil and the upper Amazon
region it becomes milder until it reaches tropic warmth.
On account of the high altitude of Bolivia, the traveler generally has
attacks of what is known locally as “puno” or “sirroche”—or in plain
English, mountain sickness, owing to the rarity of the atmosphere. While
it is exceedingly unpleasant and may cause palpitation of the heart,
shortness of breath, bleeding at the nose and ears, and other
disagreeable symptoms, it seldom results fatally. Rest until acclimated
and the use, under a physician’s direction, of some heart stimulant, are
all that is necessary to restore the patient to his normal state. Stout
persons are apt to suffer more than others and should exert themselves
as little as possible. Compressed oxygen is carried in most of the
passenger trains to give immediate relief in case of danger from
mountain sickness, the train crew being instructed as to its
administration.
The population of Bolivia is estimated at 2,300,000, but no census has
ever been taken, and it is doubtful if it has more than 1,500,000
inhabitants. Fully fifty per cent. of its people are docile,
full-blooded Indians, living the most primitive life and speaking their
own dialect with a few head men familiar with Spanish, which is the
official or state tongue. The Beni, or white Indians of Bolivia, are a
rather warlike race and have maintained their tribal laws, the control
of their lands and customs, independent of all attempts to subjugate
them. In fact, the Bolivians stand in awe of them. There are about
500,000 “cholos,” the native term for half-castes or mixed breeds,
250,000 whites of Spanish descent and perhaps 10,000 foreigners,—that is
Americans and Europeans engaged in business.
Bolivia has been the scene of a remarkable railway development
encouraged by the government. There are to-day about 900 miles of road
in actual operation, about 400 miles in the process of construction and
nearly 2,500 miles, plans and estimates for the completion of which are
under consideration.
These railways maintain three arteries of commerce with the Pacific
coast from the interior, and reach the ocean via Lake Titicaca at
Mollendo, Peru; at Antofagasta, and also at Arica in Chile, the last
named being the shortest and most direct route from the coast to the
capital at La Paz, a distance of 274 miles, and only recently completed,
requiring about 14 hours for the journey. To go to La Paz via Mollendo,
or via Antofagasta is much longer in distance, requiring two days’ time,
but repays the traveller in the magnificence of the scenery encountered
all along the line.
Roads are in process of construction from Potosi to Sucre, in order to
afford an outlet for the products of the mines located in this vicinity,
and from Uyuni to Tupiza near the border line of Argentine, so that
direct communication can be had with this country as well as Chile and
Peru. Other roads are being built from Oruro to Banderani and Oruro and
Cochabamba, also from La Paz to Yungas, from Yungas to Puerto Panda and
from Cochabamba to Chimon. The government also intends building roads
from Yacuiba to Santa Cruz, and thence to Puerto Saurez. Connecting
lines will be built to the famous Mamore-Madeira R. R. in Brazil.
There is a perfect net work of rivers in Bolivia, located chiefly in the
northeast and southeastern sections, many of which are navigable for
light draught vessels and lighters. It is estimated that the Paraguay,
Beni, Itenes, Mamore, Pilcomayo, Paragua, and other streams give a total
water transportation of more than 11,000 miles. These streams, however,
can be used more advantageously as commerce carriers toward Brazil,
Paraguay and Argentine than to the West Coast countries. Various
projects have been suggested for dredging them and providing locks so as
to develop the territory drained by them, but it is doubtful if the next
century will see this work started, although it is feasible.
Lake Titicaca is the highest body of navigable water in the world, the
steamers which operate on it having been brought from Europe in sections
and erected on its banks. It is one of the largest lakes in this
hemisphere, covering an area of more than 4,000 square miles and being
160 miles long and 30 wide. While the steamers which ply on its surface
carry passengers, they also bring all of the freight into or leaving the
country via the port of Mollendo in Peru.
Bolivia may rightly be called the mineral storehouse of the world, for
locked within the heart of her many mountains are untold riches, the
tons which she has contributed to the universe being microscopic in
proportion to what remains. Her inexhaustible dried lakes of borax and
salt, glistening like snow in the pure air of the high elevation, have
been scraped for centuries without apparently reducing their supply.
There are many rich deposits of gold, silver, copper, tin, antimony,
bismuth, borax, zinc, wolfram and coal.
In the production of tin, Bolivia ranks second, the chief producer being
the Malay Peninsula. Tin forms about 70 per cent. of the total export of
Bolivia, amounting in value to over $23,000,000, Great Britain taking
about 90 per cent. of the output of the mines and selling it to the
other nations of the world. There are yet enormous unworked deposits of
this metal in this land.
[Illustration:
_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood_
Lake Titicaca at Puno, Peru, with native balsas in the foreground.
Balsas, which are made of reeds lashed together, are used for
carrying freight and passengers
]
Bolivia is one of the largest bismuth producing countries of the world
and the third in the production of copper, and is rich in antimony and
wolfram. In 1912, the latest available authentic data, she exported the
following amount of metals:
Antimony $ 26,615
Bismuth 784,183
Copper 1,311,156
Gold 23,039
Silver 1,676,704
Tin 23,289,732
Wolfram 114,847
Zinc 129,243
If the forests of Bolivia as well as the territory sloping toward Brazil
were more accessible, much of value would be added to its products. This
land is especially adapted for grazing and agriculture as well as the
growth of medicinal plants and trees.
In 1912, Bolivia exported rubber to the value of over $6,000,000.
It gives to the pharmacopœia the following drugs: aconite, arnica,
belladona, some camphor, cocaine, digitalis, ipecac, jalap, quinine,
quassia, sarsaparilla, tamarind, tolu and valerian.
Cabinet woods, such as ebony, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and cedar
are to be found in great profusion. Fruits of the tropical and temperate
zones flourish. Coffee and cocoa are largely grown.
Bolivia is one of the few countries of the world without a national
debt, a remarkable condition of affairs, more especially for a Latin
American country, and its monetary system is on a gold basis, the unit
being the _boliviano_, worth about 39 cents in our currency.
English capital is largely invested in the various mines and railways
but the greater portion of the mercantile business, especially in the
crude drug line, is in the hands of Germans, who shipped to the
Fatherland over 83,000 pounds of the 100,000 pounds of quinine exported
last year.
In 1913 Bolivia exported tin, rubber, silver, copper, bismuth, cocoa,
wolfram, zinc, lead, hides, alpaca-wool, medicinal and crude drugs to
the value of $36,551,390. Her imports during the same time were
$20,600,000, comprising iron, steel and railway building materials,
textiles, machinery, arms and ammunition, foodstuffs, toilet goods,
glass ware, and medicines.
Bolivia is one of the countries where the travelling salesman is sure to
be obliged to pay a tax; the porters, hotel employes and others
assisting, on a commission basis, of course, the person who has this
concession. The fee which amounts to about $115 can often be
“side-stepped” by arrangement with the local merchant with whom you may
desire to establish a connection. Under no circumstances let it be known
that you are a travelling man until you have perfected your plans with
regard to this problem.
The following cities should be visited:
_Population_
La Paz (the capital) 85,000
Cochabamba 35,000
Sucre 30,000
Potosi 28,000
Oruro 25,000
Santa Cruz 20,670
Tarija 10,000
Tupiza 5,000
Bolivia may be reached via the three cities referred to, namely
Mollendo, Antofagasta and Arica, these places being ports of call for
all vessels. Both the Peruvian and Chilean steamship companies, as well
as the European lines, touch here also. It is to be expected that some
of the larger lines from New York will arrange a service passing through
the Panama Canal and calling at these places, thereby saving the long
trip around the Horn, or the trans-shipping at Colon and Panama.
VIII
PERU
Recent archæological finds warrant some authorities in claiming Peru to
have been the home of a highly civilized and cultured people 25,000
years before Christ. The race which inhabited the land then were the
Chumus, the progenitors of the Incas, whom Pizarro found when his
expedition arrived in Peru from Panama in 1532. The Incas had a
socialistic form of government, were able engineers, good surgeons,
noted agriculturists and really a wonderful people. The treatment of
this docile and intellectual nation by the invading Spaniards is one of
the darkest pages of history.
Francisco Pizarro founded Lima, the capital of Peru, in 1535, was
appointed by the Crown governor of the newly acquired territory and was
assassinated in front of his palace in 1541.
The great wealth which Peru, through her rich mines, contributed to
Spain, warranted that country in making this possession a viceroyalty,
the viceroy at one time governing all Spanish possessions in South
America from Lima.
The movement for independence from Spanish control, started early in the
last century, found many adherents in Peru and after several reverses
the yoke of Spain was thrown off July 28, 1821, a congress organized in
1822, representing a republican form of government and the first
president inaugurated in 1823.