Sumerians, their origin and civilization_The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 06 of 12)

Summer on the Mediterranean rainless, i. 159 _sq._

—— called Aphrodite, ii. 41

—— festival of Adonis, i. 226, 232 _n._

Sun, temple of the, at Baalbec, i. 163;

Adonis interpreted as the, 228;

the Nativity of the, at the winter solstice, 303 _sqq._;

Osiris interpreted as the, ii. 120 _sqq._;

called “the eye of Horus,” 121;

worshipped in Egypt, 122, 123 _sqq._;

the power of regeneration ascribed to the, 143 _n._ 4;

salutations to the rising, 193

—— and earth, annual marriage of, i. 47 _sq._

—— -god annually married to Earth-goddess, i. 47 _sq._;

the Egyptian, ii. 123 _sqq._;

hymns to the, 123 _sq._

—— -goddess of the Hittites, i. 133 _n._

—— the Unconquered, Mithra identified with, i. 304

Superiority of the goddess in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. 201

_sq._;

of goddesses over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, 202 _sqq._;

legal, of women over men in ancient Egypt, 214

Supplementary days, five, in the Egyptian year, ii. 6;

in the ancient Mexican year, 28 _n._ 3;

in the old Iranian year, 67, 68

Supreme gods in Africa, ii. 165, 173 _sq._, 174, 186, with note 5, 187

_n._ 1, 188 _sq._, 190

_Swastika_, i. 122 _n._ 1

Sweden, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250;

Midsummer bride and bridegroom in, 251;

kings of, answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. 220;

marriage custom in, to ensure the birth of a boy, 262

“Sweethearts of St. John” in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._

Swine not eaten by people of Pessinus, i. 265;

not eaten by worshippers of Adonis, 265;

not allowed to enter Comana in Pontus, 265.

_See also_ Pigs

Sword, girls married to a, i. 61

Sycamore, effigy of Osiris placed on boughs of, ii. 88, 110;

sacred to Osiris, 110

Syene (Assuan), inscriptions at, ii. 35 _n._ 1

Symbolism, coarse, of Osiris and Dionysus, ii. 112, 113

Symmachus, on the festival of the Great Mother, i. 298

Syracuse, the Blue Spring at, i. 213 _n._ 1

Syria, Adonis in, i. 13 _sqq._;

“holy men” in, 77 _sq._;

hot springs resorted to by childless women in, 213 _sqq._;

subject to earthquakes, 222 _n._ 1;

the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303;

turning money at the new moon in, ii. 149

Syrian god Hadad, i. 15

—— peasants believe that women can conceive without sexual intercourse, i.

—— women apply to saints for offspring, i. 109

—— writer on the reasons for assigning Christmas to the twenty-fifth of

December, i. 304 _sq._

Tâ-uz (Tammuz), mourned by Syrian women in Harran, i. 230

Taanach, burial of children in jars at, i. 109 _n._ 1

Tacitus as to German observation of the moon, ii. 141

Taenarum in Laconia, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 _n._ 2

Talaga Bodas, volcano in Java, i. 204

Talbot, P. Amaury, on self-mutilation, i. 270 _n._ 1

Talismans, crowns and wreaths as, ii. 242 _sq._

Tamarisk, sacred to Osiris, ii. 110 _sq._

Tami, the, of German New Guinea, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198

Tamil temples, dancing-girls in, i. 61

Tamirads, diviners, i. 42

Tammuz, i. 6 _sqq._;

equivalent to Adonis, 6 _n._ 1;

his worship of Sumerian origin, 7 _sq._;

meaning of the name, 8;

“true son of the deep water,” 8, 246;

laments for, 9 _sq._;

the month of, 10 _n._ 1, 230;

mourned for at Jerusalem, 11, 17, 20;

as a corn-spirit, 230;

his bones ground in a mill and scattered to the wind, 230

—— and Ishtar, i. 8 _sq._

Tangkul Nagas of Assam, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 57 _sqq._

Tanjore, dancing-girls at, i. 61

Tantalus murders his son Pelops, i. 181

Tark, Tarku, Trok, Troku, syllables in names of Cilician priests, i. 144;

perhaps the name of a Hittite deity, 147;

perhaps the name of the god of Olba, 148, 165

Tarkimos, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

Tarkondimotos, name of two Cilician kings, i. 145 _n._ 2

Tarkuaris, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145;

priestly king of Olba, 145

Tarkudimme or Tarkuwassimi, name on Hittite seal, i. 145 _n._ 2

Tarkumbios, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

Tarsus, climate and fertility of, i. 118;

school of philosophy at, 118;

Sandan and Baal at, 142 _sq._, 161;

priesthood of Hercules at, 143;

Fortune of the City on coins of, 164;

divine triad at, 171

——, the Baal of, i. 117 _sqq._, 162 _sq._

——, Sandan of, i. 124 _sqq._

_Tat_ or _tatu_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar

Tate, H. R., on serpent-worship, i. 85

Tattoo-marks of priests, i. 74 _n._ 4

Taurians of the Crimea, their use of the heads of prisoners, i. 294

_Taurobolium_ in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 _sqq._;

or _Tauropolium_, 275 _n._ 1

Taurus mountains, i. 120

Tears of Isis thought to swell the Nile, ii. 33;

rain thought to be the tears of gods, 33

Tegea, tombstones at, i. 87

Telamon, father of Teucer, i. 145

Tell-el-Amarna letters, i. 16 _n._ 5, 21 _n._ 2, 135 _n._;

the new capital of King Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1, 124, 125

Tell Ta’annek (Taanach), burial of children in jars at, i. 109 _n._ 1

Tempe, the Vale of, ii. 240

Temple-tombs of kings, ii. 161 _sq._, 167 _sq._, 170 _sqq._, 174, 194

_sq._

Temples of dead kings, ii. 161 _sq._, 167 _sq._, 170 _sqq._, 194 _sq._

Tenggereese of Java sacrifice to volcano, i. 220

Tentyra (Denderah), temple of Osiris at, ii. 86

Ternate, the sultan of, his sacrifice of human victims to a volcano, i.

220

Tertullian on the fasts of Isis and Cybele, i. 302 _n._ 4;

on the date of the Crucifixion, 306 _n._ 5

Teshub or Teshup, name of Hittite god, i. 135 _n._, 148 _n._

Teso, the, of Central Africa, medicine-men dressed as women among the, ii.

257

Testicles of rams in the rites of Attis, i. 269 _n._;

of bull used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276

Têt, New Year festival in Annam, ii. 62

_Tet_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar

Teti, king of Egypt, ii. 5

Teucer, said to have instituted human sacrifice, i. 146

—— and Ajax, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 _sq._, 148, 161

Teucer, son of Tarkuaris, priestly king of Olba, i. 151, 157

——, son of Telamon, founds Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145

——, son of Zenophanes, high-priest of Olbian Zeus, i. 151

Teucrids, dynasty at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145

Teutonic year reckoned from October 1st, ii. 81

Thargelion, an Attic month, ii. 239 _n._ 1

Theal, G. McCall, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. 176

_sq._

Theban priests, their determination of the solar year, ii. 26

Thebes in Boeotia, stone lion at, i. 184 _n._ 3;

festival of the Laurel-bearing at, ii. 241

—— in Egypt, temple of Ammon at, i. 72;

the Memnonium at, ii. 35 _n._;

the Valley of the Kings at, 90

Theias, a Syrian king, i. 43 _n._ 4;

father of Adonis, 55 _n._ 4

Theism late in human history, ii. 41

Theocracy in the Pelew Islands, tendency to, ii. 208

Theopompus on the names of the seasons, ii. 41

Thera, worship of the Mother of the Gods in, i. 280 _n._ 1

Thermopylae, the Spartans at, i. 197 _n._ 1;

the hot springs of, 210 _sqq._

Thesmophoria, i. 43 _n._ 4;

sacrifice to serpents at the, 88;

pine-cones at the, 278;

fast of the women at the, ii. 40 _sq._

Thetis and her infant son, i. 180

Thirty years, the Sed festival held nominally at intervals of, ii. 151

Thonga, Bantu tribe of South Africa, their belief in serpents as

reincarnations of the dead, i. 82;

their presentation of infants to the moon, ii. 144 _sq._;

worship of the dead among the, 180 _sq._

—— chiefs buried secretly, ii. 104 _sq._

Thongs, legends as to new settlements enclosed by, ii. 249 _sq._

Thoth, Egyptian god of wisdom, ii. 7, 17;

teaches Isis a spell to restore the dead to life, 8;

restores the eye of Horus, 17

Thoth, the first month of the Egyptian year, ii. 36, 93 _sqq._

Thracian villages, custom at Carnival in, ii. 99 _sq._

Threshing corn by oxen, ii. 45

Threshold, burial of infants under the, i. 93 _sq._

Thucydides on military music, i. 196 _n._ 3;

on the sailing of the fleet for Syracuse, 226 _n._ 4

Θύειν distinguished from ἐναγίζειν, i. 316 _n._ 1

Thunder and lightning, sacrifices to, i. 157;

the Syrian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Hittite god of, 163 _sq._

—— -god of the Hittites, with a bull and an axe as his emblems, i. 134

_sqq._

—— totem, i. 101

Thunderbolt, as emblem of Hittite god, i. 134, 136;

as divine emblem, 163

—— and ears of corn, emblem of god Hadad, i. 163

Thurston, Edgar, on dancing-girls in India, i. 62

Thyatira, hero Tyrimnus at, i. 183 _n._

Thymbria, sanctuary of Charon at, i. 205

Tiberius, the Emperor, persecuted the Egyptian religion, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Tibullus, on the rising of Sirius, ii. 34 _n._ 1

Tiele, C. P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 _n._ 1;

on the death of Saracus, 174 _n._ 2;

on Isis, ii. 115;

on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2

Tiger’s ghost, deceiving a, ii. 263

Tiglath-Pileser III., king of Assyria, i. 14, 16, 163 _n._ 3

Tii, Egyptian queen, mother of Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1

Tille, A., on beginning of Teutonic winter, ii. 81 _n._ 3

Timber felled in the waning of the moon, ii. 133, 135 _sq._, 137

Timor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 197

Timotheus, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4

Tiru-kalli-kundram, dancing-girls at, i. 61

Titane, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81

_Tobolbel_, in the Pelew Islands, ii. 266

Tod, J., on rites of goddess Gouri, i. 241 _sq._

Todas of the Neilgherry Hills, custom as to the pollution of death

observed by sacred dairyman among the, ii. 228

Togo-land, West Africa, the Ewe people of, i. 282 _n._ 2;

the Ho tribe of, ii. 104

Tomb of Midas, i. 286;

of Hyacinth, 314

Tombs of the kings of Uganda, ii. 168 _sq._;

of kings sacred, 194 _sq._

Tongans, their theory of an earthquake, i. 200 _sq._

Tongue of sacrificial ox cut out, ii. 251 _sq._

Tonquin, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 62

Tophet, at Jerusalem, i. 177

Toradjas of Central Celebes, their theory of rain, ii. 33

Torres Straits Islands, worship of animal-shaped heroes in the, i. 139

_n._ 1;

death-dances in the, ii. 53 _n._ 2

Totemism in Kiziba, ii. 173, 174 _n._ 1

Toulon, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 _sq._

Town, charm to protect a, ii. 249 _sqq._

Tozer, H. F., on Mount Argaeus, i. 191

Traditions of kings torn in pieces, ii. 97 _sq._

Tralles in Lydia, i. 38

Transference of Egyptian festivals from one month to the preceding month,

ii. 92 _sqq._

Transformation of men into women, attempted, in obedience to dreams, ii.

255 _sqq._;

of women into men, attempted, 255 _n._ 1

Transition from mother-kin to father-kin, ii. 261 _n._ 3

Transylvania, harvest customs among the Roumanians and Saxons of, i. 237

_sq._

Travancore, dancing-girls in, i. 63 _sqq._

Treason, old English punishment of, i. 290 _n._ 2

Tree decked with bracelets, anklets, etc., i. 240;

soul of a, in a bird, ii. 111 _n._ 1

—— of life in Eden, i. 186 _n._ 4

—— -bearers (_Dendrophori_) in the worship of Cybele and Attis, i. 266

_n._ 2, 267

—— -spirit, Osiris as a, ii. 107 _sqq._

Trees, spirit-children awaiting birth in, i. 100;

sacrificial victims hung on, 146;

represented on the monuments of Osiris, ii. 110 _sq._;

felled in the waning of the moon, 133, 135 _sq._, 137;

growing near the graves of dead kings revered, 162, 164

—— and rocks, Greek belief as to birth from, i. 107 _n._ 1

Triad, divine, at Tarsus, i. 171

Trident, emblem of Hittite thunder-god, i. 134, 135;

emblem of Indian deity, 170

Tristram, H. B., on date of the corn-reaping in Palestine, i. 232 _n._

Trobriands, the, i. 84

Trokoarbasis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

Trokombigremis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

“True of speech,” epithet of Osiris, ii. 21

Trumpets, blowing of, in the rites of Attis, i. 268

Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, dedicated men and women among

the, i. 69 _sq._;

ordeal of chastity among the, 115 _n._ 2;

their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66 _n._ 2

_Tubilustrium_ at Rome, i. 268 _n._ 1

Tulava, sacred prostitution in, i. 63

Tully River, in Queensland, belief of the natives as to conception without

sexual intercourse, i. 102

Tum of Heliopolis, an Egyptian sun-god, ii. 123

Turner, George, on sacred stones, i. 108 _n._ 1

“Turquoise, Mistress of,” at Sinai, i. 53

Tusayan Indians, their custom at planting, i. 239

Tuscany, volcanic district of, i. 208 _n._ 1

Tusser, Thomas, on planting peas and beans, ii. 134

Twin, the navel-string of the King of Uganda called his Twin, ii. 147

Twins, precautions taken by women at the graves of, i. 93 _n._ 1

Two-headed deity, i. 165 _sq._

Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 _n._ 1

Tybi, an Egyptian month, ii. 93 _n._ 2

Tylon or Tylus, a Lydian hero, i. 183;

his death and resurrection, 186 _sq._

Tylor, Sir Edward B., on fossil bones as a source of myths, i. 157 _sq._;

on names for father and mother, 281

Typhon slays Hercules, i. 111;

Corycian cave of, 155 _sq._;

his battle with the gods, 193, 194

—— and Zeus, battle of, i. 156 _sq._

——, or Set, the brother of Osiris, ii. 6;

murders Osiris, 7 _sq._;

and mangles his body, 10;

interpreted as the sun, 129.

_See also_ Set

Tyre, Melcarth at, i. 16;

burning of Melcarth at, 110 _sq._;

festival of “the awakening of Hercules” at, 111;

king of, his walk on stones of fire, 114 _sq._

——, kings of, their divinity, i. 16;

as priests of Astarte, 26

Tyrimnus, axe-bearing hero at Thyatira, i. 183 _n._

Tyrol, feast of All Souls in the, ii. 73 _sq._

Tyropoeon, ravine at Jerusalem, i. 178

Ucayali River, the Conibos of the, i. 198;

their greetings to the new moon, ii. 142

Uganda, the country of the Baganda, ii. 167;

temples of the dead kings of, 167, 168 _sq._, 170 _sqq._;

human sacrifices offered to prolong the lives of the kings of, 223

_sqq._

_See also_ Baganda

Uncle, dead, worshipped, ii. 175

——, maternal, in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 _n._ 1

Uncleanness caused by contact with the dead, ii. 227 _sqq._

Unconquered Sun, Mithra identified with the, i. 304

Unis, king of Egypt, ii. 5

Unkulunkulu, “the Old-Old-one,” the first man in the traditions of the

Zulus, ii. 182

Unnefer, “the Good Being,” a title of Osiris, ii. 12

“Unspoken water” in marriage rites, ii. 245 _sq._

Upsala, human sacrifices in the holy grove at, i. 289 _sq._, ii. 220;

the reign of Frey at, 100

Up-uat, Egyptian jackal-god, ii. 154

Uranus castrated by Cronus, i. 283

Uri-melech or Adom-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14

Usirniri, temple of, at Busiris, ii. 151

Valesius, on the standard Egyptian cubit, ii. 217 _n._ 1

Vallabha, an Indian sect, men assimilated to women in the, ii. 254

Valley of Hinnom, sacrifices to Moloch, in the, i. 178

—— of the Kings at Thebes, ii. 90

—— of Poison, in Java, i. 203 _sq._

Vancouver Island, the Ahts of, ii. 139 _n._ 1

Vapours, worship of mephitic, i. 203 _sqq._

Varro, on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. 230 _sq._, 236 _n._ 1;

his derivation of _Dialis_ from Jove, 230 _n._ 2;

on Salacia, 233;

on Fauna or the Good Goddess, 234 _n._ 4

Vase-painting of Croesus on the pyre, i. 176

Vatican, worship of Cybele and Attis on the site of the, i. 275 _sq._

Vegetable and animal life associated in primitive mind, i. 5

Vegetation, mythical theory of the growth and decay of, i. 3 _sqq._;

annual decay and revival of, represented dramatically in the rites of

Adonis, 227 _sqq._;

gardens of Adonis charms to promote the growth of, 236 _sq._, 239;

Midsummer fires and couples in relation to, 250 _sq._;

Attis as a god of, 277 _sqq._;

Osiris as a god of, ii. 112, 126, 131, 158

“Veins of the Nile,” near Philae, ii. 40

Venus, the planet, identified with Astarte, i. 258, ii. 35

—— and Vulcan, ii. 231

Venus, the bearded, in Cyprus, ii. 259 _n._ 3

Vernal festival of Adonis, i. 226

Verrall, A. W., on the _Anthesteria_, i. 235 _n._ 1

Vertumnus and Pomona, ii. 235 _n._ 6

Vestal Virgin, mother of Romulus and Remus, ii. 235

—— Virgins, rule as to their election, ii. 244

Vicarious sacrifices for kings, ii. 220 _sq._

Vicarious and nutritive types of sacrifice, ii. 226

Victims, sacrificial, hung on trees, i. 146

Victoria Nyanza Lake, Mukasa the god of the, ii. 257

Victory, temple of, on the Palatine Hill at Rome, i. 265

Viehe, Rev. G., on the worship of the dead among the Herero, ii. 187 _n._

Vine, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. 7, 112

Vintage festival, Oschophoria, at Athens, ii. 258 _n._ 6

—— rites at Athens, ii. 238

Violets sprung from the blood of Attis, i. 267

Virbius or Dianus at Nemi, i. 45

Virgin, the Heavenly, mother of the Sun, i. 303

—— birth of Perseus, i. 302 _n._ 4

—— Mary and Isis, ii. 118 _sq._

—— Mother, the Phrygian Mother Goddess as a, i. 281

—— mothers, tales of, i. 264;

of gods and heroes, 107

Virginity, sacrifice of, i. 60;

recovered by bathing in a spring, 280

Virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain food, i. 96

Virility, sacrifice of, in the rites of Attis and Astarte, i. 268 _sq._,

270 _sq._;

other cases of, 270 _n._ 2

Vitrolles, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248

Viza, in Thrace, Carnival custom at, ii. 91

Volcanic region of Cappadocia, i. 189 _sqq._

—— religion, i. 188 _sqq._

Volcanoes, the worship of, i. 216 _sqq._;

human victims thrown into, 219 _sq._

Vosges, the Upper, rule as to the shearing of sheep in, ii. 134 _n._ 3

—— Mountains, feast of All Souls in the, ii. 69

Votiaks of Russia, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 76 _sq._

Voyage in boats of papyrus in the rites of Osiris, ii. 88

Vulcan, the fire-god, father of Caeculus, ii. 235

——, the husband of Maia or Majestas, ii. 232 _sq._;

his Flamen, 232

—— and Venus, ii. 231

Wabisa, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. 174

Wabondei, of Eastern Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of

the dead, i. 82;

their rule as to the cutting of posts for building, ii. 137

Wachsmuth, C., on Easter ceremonies in the Greek Church, i. 254

Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, ii.

143

Wahehe, a Bantu tribe of German East Africa, the worship of the dead among

the, ii. 188 _sqq._;

their belief in a supreme god Nguruhe, 188 _sq._

Wailing of women for Adonis, i. 224

Wajagga of German East Africa, their way of appeasing ghosts of suicides,

i. 292 _n._ 3;

their human sacrifices at irrigation, ii. 38

Wales, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79

Wallachia, harvest custom in, i. 237

Wamara, a worshipful dead king, ii. 174

Waning of the moon, theories to account for the, ii. 130;

time for felling timber, 135 _sqq._

War, sacrifice of a blind bull before going to, ii. 250 _sq._

—— -dance of king before the ghosts of his ancestors, ii. 192

Warner, Mr., on Caffre ideas about lightning, ii. 177 _n._ 1

Warramunga of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the

dead, i. 100;

their tradition of purification by fire, 180 _n._ 2

Warts supposed to be affected by the moon, ii. 149

Water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._;

marvellous properties attributed to, at Midsummer (the festival of St.

John), 246 _sqq._;

prophetic, drunk on St. John’s Eve, 247

—— of Life, i. 9

Waterbrash, a Huzul cure for, ii. 149 _sq._

Wave accompanying earthquake, i. 202 _sq._

Weaning of children, belief as to the, in Angus, ii. 148

Weavers, caste of, i. 62

Weeks, Rev. J. H., on inconsistency of savage thought, i. 5 _n._;

on the names for the supreme god among many tribes of Africa, ii. 186

_n._ 5

_Wellalaick_, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. 74

Wen-Ammon, Egyptian traveller, i. 14, 75 _sq._

West, Oriental religions in the, i. 298 _sqq._

Westermann, D., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. 165

Whalers, their bodies cut up and used as charms, ii. 106

Wheat forced for festival, i. 243, 244, 251 _sq._, 253

—— and barley, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. 7;

discovered by Isis, 116

Whip made of human skin used in ceremonies for the prolongation of the

king’s life, ii. 224, 225

Whitby, All Souls’ Day at, ii. 79

White, Rev. G. E., on dervishes of Asia Minor, i. 170

White, Miss Rachel Evelyn (Mrs. Wedd), on the position of women in ancient

Egypt, ii. 214 _n._ 1, 216 _n._ 1

White the colour of Upper Egypt, ii. 21 _n._ 1

—— birds, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162

—— bull, soul of a dead king incarnate in a, ii. 164

—— Crown of Upper Egypt, ii. 20, 21 _n._ 1;

worn by Osiris, 87

—— roses dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226

Whydah, King of, his worship of serpents, i. 67;

serpents fed at, 86 _n._ 1

Wicked after death, fate of the, in Egyptian religion, ii. 14

Widow-burning in Greece, i. 177 _n._ 3

Widowed Flamen, the, ii. 227 _sqq._

Wiedemann, Professor A., on Wen-Ammon, i. 76 _n._ 1;

on the Egyptian name of Isis, ii. 50 _n._ 4

Wigtownshire, harvest custom in, i. 237 _n._ 4

Wiimbaio tribe of South-Eastern Australia, their medicine-men, i. 75 _n._

Wilkinson, Sir J. G., on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. 91 _n._ 3

Wilson, C. T., and R. W. Felkin, on the worship of the dead kings of

Uganda, ii. 173 _n._ 2

Winckler, H., his excavations at Boghaz-Keui, i. 125 _n._, 135 _n._

Winged deities, i. 165 _sq._

—— disc as divine emblem, i. 132

Winnowing-fans, ashes of human victims scattered by, ii. 97, 106

Winter called Cronus, ii. 41

—— sleep of the god, ii. 41

—— solstice reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303;

Egyptian ceremony at the, ii. 50

Wissowa, Professor G., on introduction of Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 267

_n._;

on Orcus, ii. 231 _n._ 5;

on Ops and Consus, 233 _n._ 6;

on the marriage of the Roman gods, 236 _n._ 1

Wives of dead kings sacrificed at their tombs, ii. 168

Wives, human, of gods, i. 61 _sqq._, ii. 207;

in Western Asia and Egypt, 70 _sqq._

Wiwa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. 193

Wogait, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without cohabitation,

i. 103

Woman feeding serpent in Greek art, i. 87 _sq._;

as inspired prophetess of a god, ii. 257

Woman’s dress assumed by men to deceive dangerous spirits, ii. 262 _sq._

Women pass through holed stones as cure for barrenness, i. 36, with _n._

impregnated by dead saints, 78 _sq._;

impregnated by serpents, 80 _sqq._;

fear to be impregnated by ghosts, 93;

impregnated by the flower of the banana, 93;

excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 113 _n._ 1;

their high importance in the social system of the Pelew Islanders, ii.

205 _sqq._;

the cultivation of the staple food in the hands of women (Pelew

Islands), 206 _sq._;

their social importance increased by the combined influence of

mother-kin and landed property, 209;

their legal superiority to men in ancient Egypt, 214;

impregnated by fire, 235;

priests dressed as, 253 _sqq._;

dressed as men, 255 _n._ 1, 257;

excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 258 _n._ 5;

dressed as men at marriage, 262 _sqq._;

dressed as men at circumcision, 263.

_See also_ Barrenness, Childless, _and_ Sacred Women

—— as prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._;

inspired by gods, 207

——, living, regarded as the wives of dead kings, ii. 191, 192;

reputed the wives of gods, 207

Women’s hair, sacrifice of, i. 38

_Wororu_, man supposed to cause conception in women without sexual

intercourse, i. 105

Worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. 174

_sqq._;

among the Khasis of Assam, 203

—— of the dead perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, i.

233 _sqq._;

among the Bantu tribes, ii. 174 _sqq._

—— of dead kings and chiefs in Africa, ii. 160 _sqq._;

among the Barotse, 194 _sq._;

an important element in African religion, 195 _sq._

—— of hot springs, i. 206 _sqq._

—— of mephitic vapours, i. 203 _sqq._

—— of volcanoes, i. 216 _sqq._

Worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure fruit-trees and to stop up

wells, ii. 111

“Wounds between the arms” of Hebrew prophets, i. 74 _n._ 4

“—— of the Naaman,” Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226

Wreaths as amulets, ii. 242 _sq._

Wünsch, R., on the _Anthesteria_, i. 235 _n._ 1;

on modern survivals of festivals of Adonis, 246;

on Easter ceremonies in the Greek church, 254 _n._

Wyse, W., ii. 35 _n._ 1, 51 _n._ 1

Xenophanes of Colophon on the Egyptian rites of mourning for gods, ii. 42,

Yam, island of Torres Straits, heroes worshipped in animal forms in, i.

139 _n._ 1

Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, prostitution of unmarried girls in, ii.

265 _sq._

Yarilo, a personification of vegetation, i. 253

Year, length of the solar, determined by the Theban priests, ii. 26

——, the fixed Alexandrian, ii. 28, 49, 92

——, the Celtic, reckoned from November 1st, ii. 81

——, the Egyptian, a vague year, not corrected by intercalation, ii. 24

_sq._

—— of God, a Sothic period, ii. 36 _n._ 2;

began with the rising of Sirius, 35

——, the old Iranian, ii. 67

——, the Julian, ii. 28

——, the Teutonic, reckoned from October 1st, ii. 81

Yehar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14

Yehaw-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14

Ynglings, a Norse family, descended from Frey, ii. 100

Yombe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, their sacrifice of first-fruits

to the dead, ii. 191

Youth restored by the witch Medea, i. 180 _sq._

Yucatan, calendar of the Indians of, ii. 28 _n._

Yukon River in Alaska, ii. 51

Yungman tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i.

101

Yuruks, pastoral people of Cilicia, i. 150 _n._ 1

Zambesi, the Barotse of the, ii. 193

Zas, name of priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 155

Zechariah, on the mourning of or for Hadadrimmon, i. 15 _n._ 4;

on wounds of prophet, 74 _n._ 4

Zekar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14

_Zend-Avesta_, on the Fravashis, ii. 67 _sq._

Zenjirli in Syria, Hittite sculptures at, i. 134;

statue of horned god at, 163

Zer, old Egyptian king, his true Horus name Khent, ii. 20 _n._ 1, 154.

_See_ Khent

Zerka, river in Moab, i. 215 _n._ 1

Zeus, god of Tarsus assimilated to, i. 119, 143;

Cilician deity assimilated to, 144 _sqq._, 148, 152;

the flower of, 186, 187;

identified with Attis, 282;

castrates his father Cronus, 283;

the father of dew, ii. 137;

the Saviour of the City, at Magnesia on the Maeander, 238

——, Corycian, priests of, i. 145, 155;

temple of, 155

—— and Hecate at Stratonicea in Caria, i. 270 _n._ 2, 227

——, Labrandeus, the Carian, i. 182

——, Olbian, ruins of his temple at Olba, i. 151;

his cave or chasm, 158 _sq._;

his priest Teucer, 159;

a god of fertility, 159 _sqq._

——, Olybrian, i. 167 _n._ 1

—— Papas, i. 281 _n._ 2

Zeus and Typhon, battle of, i. 156 _sq._, 160

Zimmern, H., on Mylitta, i. 37 _n._ 1

Zimri, king of Israel, burns himself, i. 174 _n._ 2, 176

Zion, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Moriah, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Zoroastrian fire-worship in Cappadocia, i. 191

Zulu medicine-men or diviners, i. 74 _n._ 4, 75;

their charm to fertilize fields, ii. 102 _sq._

Zulus, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 84;

their observation of the moon, ii. 134 _sq._;

the worship of the dead among the, 182 _sqq._;

their sacrifice of a bull to prolong the life of the king, 222

FOOTNOTES

M1 Osiris the Egyptian counterpart of Adonis and Attis.

M2 The myth of Osiris. The Pyramid Texts.

1 See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12-20; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di

Mitologia Egizia_ (Turin, 1881-1884), vol. ii. pp. 692 _sqq._; A.

Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_ (Tübingen,

N.D.), pp. 365-369; _id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_2 (Berlin,

1909), pp. 38 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_

(Münster i. W. 1890), pp. 109 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the

Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp. 207 _sqq._; G. Maspero,

_Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 172

_sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London,

1904), ii. 123 _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_

(London, 1911), i. 1 _sqq._

2 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient

Egypt_ (London, 1912), pp. vii. _sq._, 77 _sqq._, 84 _sqq._, 91

_sqq._ Compare _id._, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London,

1908), p. 68; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 116

_sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_

(London, 1911), i. 100 _sqq._ The first series of the texts was

discovered in 1880 when Mariette’s workmen penetrated into the

pyramid of King Pepi the First. Till then it had been thought by

modern scholars that the pyramids were destitute of inscriptions.

The first to edit the Pyramid Texts was Sir Gaston Maspero.

M3 The Pyramid Texts intended to ensure the blissful immortality of

Egyptian kings.

3 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient

Egypt_, pp. 91 _sq._ Among the earlier works referred to in the

Pyramid Texts are “the chapter of those who ascend” and “the chapter

of those who raise themselves up” (J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ p.

85). From their titles these works would seem to have recorded a

belief in the resurrection and ascension of the dead.

M4 The story of Osiris in the Pyramid Texts.

4 This has been done by Professor J. H. Breasted in his _Development

of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 18 _sqq._

M5 Osiris a son of the earth-god and the sky-goddess.

5 In Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12, we must clearly read ἑβδομηκοστὸν

δεύτερον with Scaliger and Wyttenbach for the ἑβδομηκοστόν of the

MSS.

6 Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann’s note; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der

mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i.

94 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_,

pp. 468 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de

l’Orient Classique_, i. 208 _sq._

7 The birth of the five deities on the five supplementary days is

mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 13. 4) as well as by Plutarch

(_Isis et Osiris_, 12). The memory of the five supplementary days

seems to survive in the modern Coptic calendar of Egypt. The days

from the first to the sixth of Amshir (February) are called “the

days outside the year” and they are deemed unlucky. “Any child

begotten during these days will infallibly be misshapen or

abnormally tall or short. This also applies to animals so that

cattle and mares are not covered during these days; moreover, some

say (though others deny) that neither sowing nor planting should be

undertaken.” However, these unlucky days are not the true

intercalary days of the Coptic calendar, which occur in the second

week of September at the end of the Coptic year. See C. G.

Seligmann, “Ancient Egyptian Beliefs in Modern Egypt,” _Essays and

Studies presented to William Ridgeway_ (Cambridge, 1913), p. 456. As

to the unluckiness of intercalary days in general, see _The

Scapegoat_, pp. 339 _sqq._

M6 Osiris introduces the cultivation of corn and of the vine. His

violent death. Isis searches for his body.

8 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13; Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, 17, 20;

Tibullus, i. 7. 29 _sqq._

9 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13 _sq._

M7 She takes refuge in the papyrus swamps. Isis and her infant son

Horus.

10 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 366;

_id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), p. 40; A.

Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp.

213 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 487

_sq._, ii. 206-211; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_

(London, 1911), i. 92-96, ii. 84, 274-276. These incidents of the

scorpions are not related by Plutarch but are known to us from

Egyptian sources. The barbarous legend of the begetting of Horus by

the dead Osiris is told in unambiguous language in the Pyramid

Texts, and it is illustrated by a monument which represents the two

sister goddesses hovering in the likeness of hawks over the god,

while Hathor sits at his head and the Frog-goddess Heqet squats in

the form of a huge frog at his feet. See J. H. Breasted,

_Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 28, with

note 2; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_,

i. 280. Harpocrates is in Egyptian _Her-pe-khred_, “Horus the child”

(A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 223).

Plutarch, who appears to distinguish him from Horus, says that

Harpocrates was begotten by the dead Osiris on Isis, and that he was

born untimely and was weak in his lower limbs (_Isis et Osiris_,

19). Elsewhere he tells us that Harpocrates “was born, incomplete

and youthful, about the winter solstice along with the early flowers

and blossoms” (_Isis et Osiris_, 65).

M8 The body of Osiris floats to Byblus, where it is recovered by Isis.

The body of Osiris dismembered by Typhon, and the pieces recovered

by Isis. Diodorus Siculus on the burial of Osiris.

11 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8, 18.

12 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.

13 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. Compare Hippolytus, _Refutatio

omnium haeresium_, v. 7, p. 142, ed. L. Duncker and F. G.

Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1859).

14 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21. 5-11; compare _id._, iv. 6. 3; Strabo,

xvii. 1. 23, p. 803.

M9 The various members of Osiris treasured as relics in various parts

of Egypt.

15 H. Brugsch, “Das Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra,” _Zeitschrift für

ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, xix. (1881) pp. 77 _sqq._;

V. Loret, “Les fêtes d’Osiris au mois de Khoiak,” _Recueil de

Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l’Archéologie Égyptiennes et

Assyriennes_, iii. (1882) pp. 43 _sqq._; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario

di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 697 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots

zweites Buch_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 584 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion

der alten Ägypter_, p. 115; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient

Egyptians_, pp. 215 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches

Leben im Altertum_, pp. 367 _sq._

16 J. Rendel Harris, _The Annotators of the Codex Bezae_ (London,

1901), p. 104, note 2, referring to Dulaure.

M10 Osiris mourned by Isis and Nephthys.

17 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), pp. 39 _sq._;

E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 59

_sqq._

18 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 211.

M11 Being brought to life again, Osiris reigns as king and judge of the

dead in the other world. The confession of the dead.

19 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 39 _sq._; G. Maspero,

_Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 176; E. A.

Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 140, 262; _id._,

_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 70-75, 80-82. On Osiris

as king of the dead see Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 79.

20 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904),

pp. 8, 17, 18.

21 On Osiris as judge of the dead see A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der

alten Ägypter_, pp. 131 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient

Egyptians_, pp. 248 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des

Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 187 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge,

_The Book of the Dead_2 (London, 1909), i. pp. liii. _sqq._; _id._,

_The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 141 _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the

Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 305 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische

Religion_,2 pp. 116 _sqq._

_ 22 The Book of the Dead_, ch. cxxv. (vol. ii. pp. 355 _sqq._ of

Budge’s translation; P. Pierret, _Le Livre des Morts_, Paris, 1882,

pp. 369 _sqq._); R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_,

pp. 788 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp.

132-134; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 249 _sqq._;

G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_,

i. 188-191; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 117-121; E. A.

Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 337 _sqq._;

J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient

Egypt_, pp. 297 _sqq._

23 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 121. Compare A. Wiedemann,

_Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 134 _sq._; _id._, _Religion of

the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 253.

24 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 254; E. A.

Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 305 _sqq._;

G. Maspero, _op. cit._ i. 194 _sq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische

Religion_,2 pp. 121 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the

Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 97 _sq._, 100 _sqq._; E. Lefébure, “Le

Paradis Egyptien,” _Sphinx_, iii. (Upsala, 1900) pp. 191 _sqq._

M12 The fate of the wicked.

25 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 249. Compare

A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 117, 121; E. A. Wallis

Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 317, 328.

M13 In the resurrection of Osiris the Egyptians saw a pledge of their

own immortality.

26 G. Maspero, “Le rituel du sacrifice funéraire,” _Études de

Mythologie et d’Archéologie Égyptiennes_ (Paris, 1893-1912), i. 291

_sq._

27 G. Maspero, _op. cit._ pp. 300-316. Compare A. Wiedemann, _Die

Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 123 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the

Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 234 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Book of

the Dead_2 (London, 1909), i. pp. iiii. _sqq._; _id._, _The Gods of

the Egyptians_, ii. 126, 140 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection_, i. 66 _sqq._, 101 _sq._, 176, 305, 399 _sq._; A.

Moret, _Du Caractère religieux de la Royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris,

1902), p. 312; _id._, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and

London, 1912), pp. 91 _sqq._; _id._, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris,

1913), pp. 37 _sqq._ “In one of the ceremonies of the ‘Opening of

the Mouth’ the deceased was temporarily placed in a bull’s skin,

which was probably that of one of the bulls which were offered up

during the celebration of the service. From this skin the deceased

obtained further power, and his emergence from it was the visible

symbol of his resurrection and of his entrance into everlasting life

with all the strength of Osiris and Horus” (E. A. Wallis Budge,

_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 400).

M14 Every dead Egyptian identified with Osiris.

28 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 416; J.

H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 149 _sq._;

Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 31.

Under the earlier dynasties only kings appear to have been

identified with Osiris.

29 A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 40.

30 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 111-113. However, in later

times the body with which the dead came to life was believed to be a

spiritual, not a material body; it was called _sāhu_. See E. A.

Wallis Budge, _The Book of the Dead_,2 i. pp. lvii. _sqq._; _id._,

_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 123 _sq._

M15 Combat between Set and Horus, the brother and the son of Osiris, for

the crown of Egypt.

31 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19 and 55; A. Erman, _Aegypten und

aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 368; _id._, _Die ägyptische

Religion_,2 pp. 41 _sq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten

Ägypter_, p. 114; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp.

214 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient

Classique_, i. 176-178; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection_, i. 62 _sq._, 64, 89 _sqq._, 309 _sqq._

M16 The legend of their contest may be a reminiscence of dynastic

struggles.

_ 32 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 290 _sqq._

M17 Osiris represented as a king in tradition and art. The tomb of

Osiris at Abydos.

33 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 217. For

details see E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection_, i. 30 _sqq._

34 J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908),

p. 61; _id._, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient

Egypt_, p. 38; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection_, i. 37, 67, 81, 210, 212, 214, 290, ii. 1, 2, 8-13,

82-85; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 21, 23, 110; A.

Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 289; Ed. Meyer,

_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 70, 96, 97. It appears to be

now generally held that the original seat of the worship of Osiris

was at Busiris, but that at Abydos the god found a second home,

which in time eclipsed the old one in glory. According to Professors

Ed. Meyer and A. Erman, the god whom Osiris displaced at Abydos was

Anubis.

35 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches

Leben im Altertum_, p. 417; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient

Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 148 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des

Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 209; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the

Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 68 _sq._, ii. 3.

M18 The tombs of the old kings at Abydos. The tomb of King Khent

identified with the tomb of Osiris. The sculptured effigy of Osiris.

The hawk the crest of the earliest dynasties.

36 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 125.

37 J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 43, 50 _sq._

The excavations were begun by E. Amélineau and continued by W. M.

Flinders Petrie (Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p.

119). See E. Amélineau, _Le Tombeau d’Osiris_ (Paris, 1899); W. M.

Flinders Petrie, _The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_, Part

ii. (London, 1901). The excavations of the former have been

criticized by Sir Gaston Maspero (_Études de Mythologie et

d’Archéologie Égyptiennes_, vi. (Paris, 1912) pp. 153-182).

38 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 119, 124; E. A.

Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 8. The

place is now known by the Arabic name of Umm al-Ka’âb or “Mother of

Pots” on account of the large quantity of pottery that has been

found there.

39 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 119, 125, 127,

128, 129, 209. The king’s Horus name has sometimes been read Zer,

but according to Professor Meyer (_op. cit._ p. 128) and Dr. Budge

(_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 83) the true reading is

Khent (Chent). The king’s personal name was perhaps Ka (Ed. Meyer,

_op. cit._ p. 128).

40 E. Amélineau, _Le Tombeau d’Osiris_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 107-115; W.

M. Flinders Petrie, _The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_,

Part ii. (London, 1901) pp. 8 _sq._, 16-19, with the frontispiece

and plates lx. lxi.; G. Maspero, _Études de Mythologie et

d’Archéologie Égyptiennes_ (Paris, 1893-1912), vi. 167-173; J. H.

Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 50

_sq._, 148; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection_, ii. 8-10, 13, 83-85. The tomb, with its interesting

contents, was discovered and excavated by Monsieur E. Amélineau. The

masses, almost the mountains, of broken pottery, under which the

tomb was found to be buried, are probably remains of the vessels in

which pious pilgrims presented their offerings at the shrine. See E.

Amélineau, _op. cit._ pp. 85 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ pp.

51, 148. The high White Crown, worn by Osiris, was the symbol of the

king’s dominion over Upper Egypt; the flat Red Crown, with a high

backpiece and a projecting spiral, was the symbol of his dominion

over Lower Egypt. On the monuments the king is sometimes represented

wearing a combination of the White and the Red Crown to symbolize

his sovereignty over both the South and the North. White was the

distinctive colour of Upper, as red was of Lower, Egypt. The

treasury of Upper Egypt was called “the White House”; the treasury

of Lower Egypt was called “the Red House.” See Ed. Meyer,

_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 103 _sq._; J. H. Breasted,

_History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 34 _sq._, 36,

41.

41 A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 159-162, with

plate iii. Compare Victor Loret, “L’Égypte au temps du totémisme,”

_Conférences faites au Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque de Vulgarisation_,

xix. (Paris, 1906) pp. 179-186. Both these writers regard the hawk

as the totem of the royal clan. This view is rejected by Prof. Ed.

Meyer, who, however, holds that Horus, whose emblem was the hawk,

was the oldest national god of Egypt (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2

i. 2. pp. 102-106). He prefers to suppose that the hawk, or rather

the falcon, was the emblem of a god of light because the bird flies

high in the sky (_op. cit._ p. 73; according to him the bird is not

the sparrow-hawk but the falcon, ib. p. 75). A similar view is

adopted by Professor A. Wiedemann (_Religion of the Ancient

Egyptians_, p. 26). Compare A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2

pp. 10, 11. The native Egyptian name of Hawk-town was Nechen, in

Greek it was Hieraconpolis (Ed. Meyer, _op. cit._ p. 103). Hawks

were worshipped by the inhabitants (Strabo, xvii. 1. 47, p. 817).

42 According to the legend the four sons of Horus were set by Anubis to

protect the burial of Osiris. They washed his dead body, they

mourned over him, and they opened his cold lips with their fingers.

But they disappeared, for Isis had caused them to grow out of a

lotus flower in a pool of water. In that position they are sometimes

represented in Egyptian art before the seated effigy of Osiris. See

A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 43; E. A. Wallis Budge,

_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 40, 41, 327.

M19 The association of Osiris with Byblus.

43 See above, pp. 9 _sq._

44 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 16

_sq._

45 Cyril of Alexandria, _In Isaiam_, lib. ii. Tomus iii. (Migne’s

_Patrologia Graeca_, lxx. 441).

M20 The date of a festival sometimes furnishes a clue to the nature of

the god.

M21 The year of the Egyptian calendar a vague or movable one.

46 As to the Egyptian calendar see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der

mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i.

93 _sqq._; Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient

Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 368 _sqq._; R. Lepsius, _Die

Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. (Berlin, 1849) pp. 125 _sqq._; H.

Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_ (Leipsic, 1891), pp. 347-366; A. Erman,

_Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 468 _sq._; G.

Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i.

207-210; Ed. Meyer, “Aegyptische Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der

königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, pp. 2 _sqq._;

_id._, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der

königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907, pp. 3 _sqq._;

_id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._;

F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen

Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) pp. 150 _sqq._

47 Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann’s note; Geminus, _Elementa

Astronomiae_, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, 1898);

Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10.

48 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, pp. 106 _sqq._, ed. C. Manitius.

M22 Thus the official calendar was divorced from the natural calendar,

which is marked by the course of the seasons.

49 Diodorus Siculus, i. 50. 2; Strabo, xvii. i. 46, p. 816. According

to H. Brugsch (_Die Ägyptologie_, pp. 349 _sq._), the Egyptians

would seem to have denoted the movable year of the calendar and the

fixed year of the sun by different written symbols. For more

evidence that they were acquainted with a four years’ period,

corrected by intercalation, see R. Lepsius, _Chronologie der

Aegypter_, i. 149 _sqq._

50 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius. The

same writer further (p. 108) describes as a popular Greek error the

opinion that the Egyptian festival of Isis coincided with the winter

solstice. In his day, he tells us, the two events were separated by

an interval of a full month, though they had coincided a hundred and

twenty years before the time he was writing.

_ 51 Scholia in Caesaris Germanici Aratea_, p. 409, ed. Fr. Eyssenhardt,

in his edition of Martianus Capella (Leipsic, 1866).

M23 Attempt of Ptolemy III. to reform the Egyptian calendar by

intercalation.

52 Copies of the decree in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek have been

found inscribed on stones in Egypt. See Ch. Michel, _Recueil

d’Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), pp. 415 _sqq._, No. 551;

W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic,

1903-1905), vol. i. pp. 91 _sqq._, No. 56; J. P. Mahaffy, _The

Empire of the Ptolemies_ (London, 1895), pp. 205 _sqq._, 226 _sqq._

The star mentioned in the decree is the Dog-star (Sirius). See

below, pp. 34 _sqq._

53 W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. i.

pp. 140 _sqq._, No. 90, with note 25 of the editor.

M24 Institution of the fixed Alexandrian year by the Romans.

54 On the Alexandrian year see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen

und technischen Chronologie_, i. 140 _sqq._ That admirable

chronologer argued (pp. 153-161) that the innovation was introduced

not, as had been commonly supposed, in 25 B.C., but in 30 B.C., the

year in which Augustus defeated Mark Antony under the walls of

Alexandria and captured the city. However, the question seems to be

still unsettled. See F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und

technischen Chronologie_, i. 226 _sqq._, who thinks it probable that

the change was made in 26 B.C. For the purposes of this study the

precise date of the introduction of the Alexandrian year is not

material.

55 In demotic the fixed Alexandrian year is called “the year of the

Ionians,” while the old movable year is styled “the year of the

Egyptians.” Documents have been found which are dated by the day and

the month of both years. See H. Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_, pp. 354

_sq._

56 L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 149-152. Macrobius thought that the

Egyptians had always employed a solar year of 365-¼ days (_Saturn._

i. 12. 2, i. 14. 3). The ancient calendar of the Mexicans resembled

that of the Egyptians except that it was divided into eighteen

months of twenty days each (instead of twelve months of thirty days

each), with five supplementary days added at the end of the year.

These supplementary days (_nemontemi_) were deemed unlucky: nothing

was done on them: they were dedicated to no deity; and persons born

on them were considered unfortunate. See B. de Sahagun, _Histoire

générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite par D.

Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 50, 164; F. S. Clavigero,

_History of Mexico_ (London, 1807), i. 290. Unlike the Egyptian

calendar, however, the Mexican appears to have been regularly

corrected by intercalation so as to bring it into harmony with the

solar year. But as to the mode of intercalation our authorities

differ. According to the positive statement of Sahagun, one of the

earliest and best authorities, the Mexicans corrected the deficiency

of their year by intercalating one day in every fourth year, which

is precisely the correction adopted in the Alexandrian and the

Julian calendar. See B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp. 286 _sq._, where

he expressly asserts the falsehood of the view that the bissextile

year was unknown to the Mexicans. This weighty statement is

confirmed by the practice of the Indians of Yucatan. Like the

Aztecs, they reckoned a year to consist of 360 days divided into 18

months of 20 days each, with 5 days added so as to make a total of

365 days, but every fourth year they intercalated a day so as to

make a total of 366 days. See Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses

de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp. 202 _sqq._ On the other hand the

historian Clavigero, who lived in the eighteenth century, but used

earlier authorities, tells us that the Mexicans “did not interpose a

day every four years, but thirteen days (making use here even of

this favourite number) every fifty-two years; which produces the

same regulation of time” (_History of Mexico_, Second Edition,

London, 1807, vol. i. p. 293). However, the view that the Mexicans

corrected their year by intercalation is rejected by Professor E.

Seler. See his “Mexican Chronology,” in _Bulletin 28_ of the Bureau

of American Ethnology (Washington, 1904), pp. 13 _sqq._; and on the

other side Miss Zelia Nuttall, “The Periodical Adjustments of the

Ancient Mexican Calendar,” _American Anthropologist_, N.S. vi.

(1904) pp. 486-500.

M25 In Egypt the operations of husbandry are dependent on the annual

rise and fall of the Nile.

57 Herodotus, ii. 36, with A. Wiedemann’s note; Diodorus Siculus, i.

14-1, i. 17. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 57 _sq._, xviii. 60; Sir J.

Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_

(London, 1878), ii. 398, 399, 418, 426 _sq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten

und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 577 _sqq._; A. de Candolle,

_Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 354 _sq._, 369,

381; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient

Classique_, i. 66.

58 Herodotus, ii. 14; Diodorus Siculus, i. 36; Strabo, xvii. 1. 3, pp.

786-788; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 167-170; Seneca, _Natur.

Quaest._ iv. 2. 1-10; E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern

Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), pp. 17 _sq._, 495 _sqq._; A.

Erman, _op. cit._ pp. 21-25; G. Maspero, _op. cit._ i. 22 _sqq._

However, since the Suez Canal was cut, rain has been commoner in

Lower Egypt (A. H. Sayce on Herodotus, ii. 14).

59 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_,

i. 22-26; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_,

p. 23. According to Lane (_op. cit._ pp. 17 _sq._) the Nile rises in

Egypt about the summer solstice (June 21) and reaches its greatest

height by the autumnal equinox (September 22). This agrees exactly

with the statement of Diodorus Siculus (i. 36. 2). Herodotus says

(ii. 19) that the rise of the river lasted for a hundred days from

the summer solstice. Compare Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 57, xviii. 167;

Seneca, _Nat. Quaest._ iv. 2. 1. According to Prof. Ginzel the Nile

does not rise in Egypt till the last week of June (_Handbuch der

mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 154). For ancient

descriptions of Egypt in time of flood see Herodotus, ii. 97;

Diodorus Siculus, i. 36. 8 _sq._; Strabo, xvii. 1. 4, p. 788;

Aelian, _De natura animalium_, x. 43; Achilles Tatius, iv. 12;

Seneca, _Natur. Quaest._ iv. 2. 8 and 11.

M26 Irrigation, sowing, and harvest in Egypt.

60 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient

Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 365 _sq._; E. W. Lane, _Manners and

Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), pp. 498

_sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient

Classique_, i. 23 _sq._, 69. The last-mentioned writer says (p. 24)

that the dams are commonly cut between the first and sixteenth of

July, but apparently he means August.

61 Sir J. D. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ ii. 398 _sq._; Prof. W. M. Flinders

Petrie, cited above, vol. i. p. 231, note 3. According to Pliny

(_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 60) barley was reaped in Egypt in the sixth

month from sowing, and wheat in the seventh month. Diodorus Siculus,

on the other hand, says (i. 36. 4) that the corn was reaped after

four or five months. Perhaps Pliny refers to Lower, and Diodorus to

Upper Egypt. Elsewhere Pliny affirms (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 169) that

the corn was sown at the beginning of November, and that the reaping

began at the end of March and was completed in May. This certainly

applies better to Lower than to Upper Egypt.

M27 The events of the agricultural year were probably celebrated with

religious rites.

M28 Mourning for Osiris at midsummer when the Nile begins to rise.

62 Pausanias, x. 32. 18.

63 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 278.

64 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, _De Bare’e-sprekende Toradjas van

Midden-Celebes_ (Batavia, 1912), i. 273. The more civilized Indians

of tropical America, who practised agriculture and had developed a

barbaric art, appear to have commonly represented the rain-god in

human form with tears streaming down from his eyes. See T. A. Joyce,

“The Weeping God,” _Essays and Studies presented to William

Ridgeway_ (Cambridge, 1913), pp. 365-374.

65 This we learn from inscriptions at Silsilis. See A. Moret, _Mystères

Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 180.

66 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley

and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 495 _sq._

M29 Sirius regarded as the star of Isis. The rising of Sirius marked the

beginning of the sacred Egyptian year. The observation of the

gradual displacement of Sirius in the calendar led to the

determination of the true length of the solar year.

67 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen

Chronologie_, i. 124 _sqq._; R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der

Aegypter_, i. 168 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen

und technischen Chronologie_, i. 190 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, “Nachträge

zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss.

Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), pp. 11 _sq._;

_id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 28 _sq._, 99 _sqq._ The

coincidence of the rising of Sirius with the swelling of the Nile is

mentioned by Tibullus (i. 7. 21 _sq._) and Aelian (_De natura

animalium_, x. 45). In later times, as a consequence of the

precession of the equinoxes, the rising of Sirius gradually diverged

from the summer solstice, falling later and later in the solar year.

In the sixteenth and fifteenth century B.C. Sirius rose seventeen

days after the summer solstice, and at the date of the Canopic

decree (238 B.C.) it rose a whole month after the first swelling of

the Nile. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 130; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._

i. 190; Ed. Meyer, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” pp. 11

_sq._ According to Censorinus (_De die natali_, xxi. 10), Sirius

regularly rose in Egypt on the twentieth of July (Julian calendar);

and this was true of latitude 30° in Egypt (the latitude nearly of

Heliopolis and Memphis) for about three thousand years of Egyptian

history. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 128-130. But the date of the

rising of the star is not the same throughout Egypt; it varies with

the latitude, and the variation within the limits of Egypt amounts

to seven days or more. Roughly speaking, Sirius rises nearly a whole

day earlier for each degree of latitude you go south. Thus, whereas

near Alexandria in the north Sirius does not rise till the

twenty-second of July, at Syene in the south it rises on the

sixteenth of July. See R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ i. 168 _sq._; F. K.

Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 182 _sq._ Now it is to be remembered that the

rising of the Nile, as well as the rising of Sirius, is observed

earlier and earlier the further south you go. The coincident

variation of the two phenomena could hardly fail to confirm the

Egyptians in their belief of a natural or supernatural connexion

between them.

68 Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 4; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 21, 22, 38,

61; Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 24; Scholiast on Apollonius

Rhodius, ii. 517; Canopic decree, lines 36 _sq._, in W.

Dittenberger’s _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. i. p.

102, No. 56 (lines 28 _sq._ in Ch. Michel’s _Recueil d’Inscriptions

Grecques_, p. 417, No. 551); R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia

Egizia_, pp. 825 _sq._ On the ceiling of the Memnonium at Thebes the

heliacal rising of Sirius is represented under the form and name of

Isis (Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient

Egyptians_, London, 1878, iii. 102).

69 Porphyry and the Canopic decree, _ll.cc._; Censorinus, _De die

natali_, xviii. 10, xxi. 10. In inscriptions on the temple at Syene,

the modern Assuan, Isis is called “the mistress of the beginning of

the year,” the goddess “who revolves about the world, near to the

constellation of Orion, who rises in the eastern sky and passes to

the west perpetually” (R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 826). According

to some, the festival of the rising of Sirius and the beginning of

the sacred year was held on the nineteenth, not the twentieth of

July. See Ed. Meyer, “Ägyptische Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der

königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, pp. 22 _sqq._;

_id._, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der

königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907, pp. 7 _sqq._;

_id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._

_ 70 Eudoxi ars astronomica, qualis in charta Aegyptiaca superest_, ed.

F. Blass (Kiliae, 1887), p. 14, οἱ δὲ ἀσ[τρο]λ[ό]γοι καὶ οἱ

ἱερογραμμ[ατεῖς] χ[ρῶν]ται ταῖς κατὰ σελή[ν]ἠ[ν] ἡμ[έ]ραις καὶ

ἄγουσι πανδημ[ι]κὰς ἕ[ορ]τας τινὰς μὲν ὡς ἐνομί[σθ]ἠ τὰ δὲ

καταχυτήρια καὶ κυνὸς ἀνατολὴν καὶ σεληναῖα κατὰ θεό[ν],

ἀναλεγόμενοι τὰς ἡμέρας ἐκ τῶν Αἰγυπτίων. This statement of Eudoxus

or of one of his pupils is important, since it definitely proves

that, besides the shifting festivals of the shifting official year,

the Egyptians celebrated other festivals, which were dated by direct

observation of natural phenomena, namely, the annual inundation, the

rise of Sirius, and the phases of the moon. The same distinction of

the fixed from the movable festivals is indicated in one of the

Hibeh papyri, but the passage is unfortunately mutilated. See _The

Hibeh Papyri_, part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt

(London, 1906), pp. 145, 151 (pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W.

Wyse). The annual festival in honour of Ptolemy and Berenice was

fixed on the day of the rising of Sirius. See the Canopic decree, in

W. Dittenberger’s _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, No. 56

(vol. i. pp. 102 _sq._).

The rise of Sirius was carefully observed by the islanders of Ceos,

in the Aegean. They watched for it with arms in their hands and

sacrificed on the mountains to the star, drawing from its aspect

omens of the salubrity or unhealthiness of the coming year. The

sacrifice was believed to secure the advent of the cool North winds

(the Etesian winds as the Greeks call them), which regularly begin

to blow about this time of the year, and mitigate the oppressive

heat of summer in the Aegean. See Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ ii.

516-527, with the notes of the Scholiast on vv. 498, 526;

Theophrastus, _De ventis_, ii. 14; Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._

vi. 3. 29, p. 753, ed. Potter; Nonnus, _Dionys._ v. 269-279;

Hyginus, _Astronomica_, ii. 4; Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 57. 130;

M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 6-8; C.

Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_

(Breslau, 1885), pp. 96 _sqq._ On the top of Mount Pelion in

Thessaly there was a sanctuary of Zeus, where sacrifices were

offered at the rising of Sirius, in the height of the summer, by men

of rank, who were chosen by the priest and wore fresh sheep-skins.

See [Dicaearchus,] “Descriptio Graeciae,” _Geographi Graeci

Minores_, ed. C. Müller, i. 107; _Historicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_,

ed. C. Müller, ii. 262.

71 Above, pp. 24 _sq._

72 We know from Censorinus (_De die natali_, xxi. 10) that the first of

Thoth coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius on July 20

(Julian calendar) in the year 139 A.D. Hence reckoning backwards by

Sothic periods of 1460 solar years we may infer that Sirius rose on

July 20th (Julian calendar) in the years 1321 B.C., 2781 B.C., and

4241 B.C.; and accordingly that the civil or vague Egyptian year of

365 days was instituted in one of these years. In favour of

supposing that it was instituted either in 2781 B.C. or 4241 B.C.,

it may be said that in both these years the rising of Sirius nearly

coincided with the summer solstice and the rising of the Nile;

whereas in the year 1321 B.C. the summer solstice, and with it the

rising of the Nile, fell nineteen days before the rising of Sirius

and the first of Thoth. Now when we consider the close causal

connexion which the Egyptians traced between the rising of Sirius

and the rising of the Nile, it seems probable that they started the

new calendar on the first of Thoth in a year in which the two

natural phenomena coincided rather than in one in which they

diverged from each other by nineteen days. Prof. Ed. Meyer decides

in favour of the year 4241 B.C. as the date of the introduction of

the Egyptian calendar on the ground that the calendar was already

well known in the Old Kingdom. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 125

_sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 192 _sqq._; Ed. Meyer,

“Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl.

Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), pp. 11

_sq._; _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98

_sqq._ When the fixed Alexandrian year was introduced in 30 B.C.

(see above, pp. 27 _sq._) the first of Thoth fell on August 29,

which accordingly was thenceforth reckoned the first day of the year

in the Alexandrian calendar. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 153 _sqq._

The period of 1460 solar or 1461 movable Egyptian years was

variously called a Sothic period (Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ i.

21. 136, p. 401 ed. Potter), a Canicular year (from _Canicula_, “the

Dog-star,” that is, Sirius), a heliacal year, and a year of God

(Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10). But there is no evidence

or probability that the period was recognized by the Egyptian

astronomers who instituted the movable year of 365 days. Rather, as

Ideler pointed out (_op. cit._ i. 132), it must have been a later

discovery based on continued observations of the heliacal rising of

Sirius and of its gradual displacement through the whole length of

the official calendar. Brugsch, indeed, went so far as to suppose

that the period was a discovery of astronomers of the second century

A.D., to which they were led by the coincidence of the first of

Thoth with the heliacal rising of Sirius in 139 A.D. (_Die

Ägyptologie_, p. 357). But the discovery, based as it is on a very

simple calculation (365 × 4 = 1460), could hardly fail to be made as

soon as astronomers estimated the length of the solar year at 365-¼

days, and that they did so at least as early as 238 B.C. is proved

conclusively by the Canopic decree. See above, pp. 25 _sq._, 27. As

to the Sothic period see further R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der

Aegypter_, i. 165 _sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 187 _sqq._

For the convenience of the reader I subjoin a table of the Egyptian

months, with their dates, as these fell, (1) in a year when the

first of Thoth coincided with July 20 of the Julian calendar, and

(2) in the fixed Alexandrian year.

Egyptian Months, Sothic Year beginning July 20, Alexandrian Year.

1 Thoth, 20 July, 29 August

1 Phaophi, 19 August, 28 September

1 Atbyr, 18 September, 28 October

1 Khoiak, 18 October, 27 November

1 Tybi, 17 November, 27 December

1 Mechir, 17 December, 26 January

1 Phamenoth, 16 January, 25 February

1 Pharmuthi, 15 February, 27 March

1 Pachon, 17 March, 26 April

1 Payni, 16 April, 26 May

1 Epiphi, 16 May, 25 June

1 Mesori, 15 June, 25 July

1 Supplementary, 15 July, 24 August

See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 143 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i.

200.

73 The Canopic decree (above, p. 27) suffices to prove that the

Egyptian astronomers, long before Caesar’s time, were well

acquainted with the approximately exact length of the solar year,

although they did not use their knowledge to correct the calendar

except for a short time in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. With

regard to Caesar’s debt to the Egyptian astronomers see Dio Cassius,

xliii. 26; Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 14. 3, i. 16. 39; L. Ideler,

_Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 166

_sqq._

M30 Ceremonies observed in Egypt at the cutting of the dams early in

August. The Bride of the Nile. Sacrifices offered by savages at the

cutting of dams.

74 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley

and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 499 _sq._

75 Bruno Gutmann, “Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,”

_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913) pp. 484 _sq._

76 Hon. K. R. Dundas, “Notes on the tribes inhabiting the Baringo

District, East Africa Protectorate,” _Journal of the Royal

Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 54.

M31 Modern Egyptian ceremony at the cutting of the dams.

77 E. W. Lane, _op. cit._ pp. 500-504; Sir Auckland Colvin, _The Making

of Modern Egypt_ (London, 1906), pp. 278 _sq._ According to the

latter writer, a dressed dummy was thrown into the river at each

cutting of the dam.

78 Seneca, _Naturales Quaestiones_, iv. 2. 7. The cutting of the dams

is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 36. 3), and the festival on

that occasion (τὰ καταχυτήρια) is noticed by Eudoxus (or one of his

pupils) in a passage which has already been quoted. See above, p.

35, note 2.

79 Sir Auckland Colvin, _l.c._

M32 The sowing of the seed in November. Plutarch on the mournful

character of the rites of sowing. The sadness of autumn.

80 Τῆς Ἀχαίας. Plutarch derives the name from ἄχος, “pain,” “grief.”

But the etymology is uncertain. It has lately been proposed to

derive the epithet from ὀχή, “nourishment.” See M. P. Nilsson,

_Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), p. 326. As to the vaults

(μέγαρα) of Demeter see Pausanias, ix. 8. 1; Scholiast on Lucian,

_Dial. Meretr._ ii. pp. 275 _sq._, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906).

81 In antiquity the Pleiades set at dawn about the end of October or

early in November. See L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und

technischen Chronologie_, i. 242; Aug. Mommsen, _Chronologie_

(Leipsic, 1883), pp. 16, 27; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen

und Römer,” in Iwan Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen

Altertumswissenschaft_, i.1 (Nördlingen, 1886) pp. 558, 585.

82 Τὰς παρουσίας τῶν ἀναγκαίων καί ἀποκρύψεις.

83 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69-71. With the sleep of the Phrygian

gods we may compare the sleep of Vishnu. The toils and anxieties of

the Indian farmer “are continuous, and his only period of

comparative rest is in the heavy rain time, when, as he says, the

god Vishnu goes to sleep, and does not wake till October is well

advanced and the time has come to begin cutting and crushing the

sugar-cane and boiling down the juice” (W. Crooke, _Natives of

Northern India_, London, 1907, p. 159).

M33 Plutarch’s view that the worship of the fruits of the earth sprang

from a verbal misunderstanding.

84 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 77.

M34 His theory is an inversion of the truth: for fetishism is the

antecedent, not the corruption, of theism. Lamentations of the

savage for the animals and plants which he kills and eats.

M35 Respect shown by savages for the fruits and the animals which they

eat.

_ 85 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 204 _sqq._

86 C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Stlatlum Indians of

British Columbia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv.

(1905) pp. 140 _sq._

M36 Thus the lamentations of the sower become intelligible.

87 Psalm cxxvi. 5 _sq._ Firmicus Maternus asks the Egyptians (_De

errore profanarum religionum_, ii. 7), “_Cur plangitis fruges terrae

et crescentia lugetis semina?_”

M37 Lamentations of the Egyptian corn-reapers.

88 As to the Egyptian modes of reaping and threshing see Sir J.

Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_

(London, 1878), ii. 419 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches

Leben im Altertum_, pp. 572 _sqq._

89 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2.

90 Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7;

Athenaeus, xiv. 11 _sq._, pp. 618-620. As to these songs see

_Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 214 _sqq._

91 H. Brugsch, _Adonisklage und Linoslied_ (Berlin, 1852), p. 24,

corrected by A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 336. As to

the lamentations for Osiris see above, p. 12.

M38 Similar ceremonies observed by the Cherokee Indians in the

cultivation of the corn. The Old Woman of the corn and the laments

for her death.

92 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the

Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1900), pp. 423 _sq._ I do

not know what precisely the writer means by “the last working of the

crop” and “the first working of the corn.”

_ 93 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 180 _sqq._

94 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 46.

M39 Lamentations of Indians at cutting sacred wood.

95 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 25.

M40 Arab ceremony of burying “the old man” at harvest.

96 A. Jaussen, “Coutumes Arabes,” _Revue Biblique_, 1er avril 1903, p.

258; _id._, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris 1908), pp.

252 _sq._

M41 With the adoption of the Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. the Egyptian

festivals ceased to rotate through the natural year.

97 Thus with regard to the Egyptian month of Athyr he tells us that the

sun was then in the sign of the Scorpion (_Isis et Osiris_, 13),

that Athyr corresponded to the Athenian month Pyanepsion and the

Boeotian month Damatrius (_op. cit._ 69), that it was the month of

sowing (_ib._), that in it the Nile sank, the earth was laid bare by

the retreat of the inundation, the leaves fell, and the nights grew

longer than the days (_op. cit._ 39). These indications agree on the

whole with the date of Athyr in the Alexandrian calendar, namely

October 28-November 26. Again, he says (_op. cit._ 43) that the

festival of the beginning of spring was held at the new moon of the

month Phamenoth, which, in the Alexandrian calendar, corresponded to

February 24-March 26. Further, he tells us that a festival was

celebrated on the 23rd of Phaophi after the autumn equinox (_op.

cit._ 52), and in the Alexandrian calendar Phaophi began on

September 28, a few days after the autumn equinox. Once more, he

observes that another festival was held after the spring equinox

(_op. cit._ 65), which implies the use of a fixed solar year. See G.

Parthey in his edition of Plutarch’s _Isis et Osiris_ (Berlin,

1850), pp. 165-169.

98 H. Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_, p. 355.

M42 The sufferings of Osiris displayed as a mystery at Sais. The

illumination of houses throughout Egypt on the night of the festival

suggests that the rite was a Feast of All Souls.

99 Herodotus, ii. 170.

100 Herodotus, ii. 129-132.

101 Herodotus, ii. 41, with Prof. A. Wiedemann’s note (_Herodots zweites

Buch_, pp. 187 _sqq._); Diodorus Siculus, i. 11. 4; Aelian, _De

natura animalium_, x. 27; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19 and 39.

According to Prof. Wiedemann “the Egyptian name of the cow of Isis

was _ḥes-t_, and this is one of the rare cases in which the name of

the sacred animal agrees with that of the deity.” _Hest_ was the

usual Egyptian form of the name which the Greeks and Romans

represented as Isis. See R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia

Egizia_, pp. 813 _sqq._

102 In this form she is represented on a relief at Philae pouring a

libation in honour of the soul of Osiris. See E. A. Wallis Budge,

_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 8. She is similarly

portrayed in a bronze statuette, which is now in the Louvre. See G.

Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l’Art dans l’Antiquité_, i.

(Paris, 1882) p. 60, fig. 40.

103 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 52. The interpretation is accepted by

Prof. A. Wiedemann (_Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 482).

104 Herodotus, ii. 62. In one of the Hibeh papyri (No. 27, lines

165-167) mention is made of the festival and of the lights which

were burned throughout the district. See _The Hibeh Papyri_, part

i., ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (London, 1906), p. 149

(pointed out to me by Mr. W. Wyse). In the papyrus the festival is

said to have been held in honour of Athena (_i.e._ Neith), the great

goddess of Sais, who was there identified with Isis. See A.

Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 77 _sq._; _id._,

_Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 140 _sq._

105 In the period of the Middle Kingdom the Egyptians of Siut used to

light lamps for the dead on the last day and the first day of the

year. See A. Erman, “Zehn Vorträge aus dem mittleren Reich,”

_Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, xx. (1882)

p. 164; _id._, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp.

434 _sq._

M43 Annual festival of the dead among the Esquimaux. The lighting of the

lamps for the dead. Annual festivals of the dead among the Indians

of California. Annual festivals of the dead among the Choctaws and

Pueblo Indians.

106 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual

Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp.

363 _sqq._

107 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 328, 355,

356, 384.

108 Kostromitonow, “Bemerkungen über die Indianer in Ober-Kalifornien,”

in K. F. v. Baer and Gr. v. Helmersen’s _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des

russischen Reiches_, i. (St. Petersburg, 1839) pp. 88 _sq._ The

natives of the western islands of Torres Straits used to hold a

great death-dance at which disguised men personated the ghosts of

the lately deceased, mimicking their characteristic gait and

gestures. Women and children were supposed to take these mummers for

real ghosts. See A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge

Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904)

pp. 252-256; _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the

Dead_, i. 176 _sqq._

109 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 437 _sq._

110 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii.

95 _sq._

111 T. G. S. Ten Broeck, in H. R. Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the

United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 78. The Pueblo village

to which the writer particularly refers is Laguna.

M44 Annual festival of the dead among the Miztecs of Mexico.

112 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique

et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 23 _sq._; H. H.

Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876),

ii. 623. Similar customs are still practised by the Indians of a

great part of Mexico and Central America (Brasseur de Bourbourg,

_op. cit._ iii. 24, note 1).

113 “Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan àson évêque,” _Bulletin de la

Société de Géographie_ (Paris), IIme Série, ii. (1834) p. 179.

M45 Annual festival of the dead in Sumba.

114 S. Roos, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van taal, land en volk op het

eiland Soemba,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van

Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. (1872) pp. 63-65.

M46 Annual festival of the dead in Kiriwina. Festival of the dead among

the Sea Dyaks of Borneo.

115 Rev. S. B. Fellows, quoted by George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and

Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. 237.

116 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_

(London, 1911), pp. 216-218. For another and briefer account of this

festival see _The Scapegoat_, p. 154.

M47 Annual festival of the dead among the Nagas of Manipur.

117 Rev. Wm. Pettigrew, “Kathi Kasham, the ‘Soul Departure’ feast as

practised by the Tangkkul Nagas, Manipur, Assam,” _Journal and

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, N.S. vol. v. 1909

(Calcutta, 1910), pp. 37-46; T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of

Manipur_ (London, 1911), pp. 153-158.

M48 Annual festival of the dead among the Oraons of Bengal.

118 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,” _Memoirs

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906),

p. 136. Compare Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and

Superstition of the Orāōs,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) pp. 12 _sq._ According to

the latter writer the pots containing the relics of the dead are

buried, not in the sand of the river, but in a pit, generally

covered with huge stones, which is dug for the purpose in some field

or grove.

M49 Annual festival of the dead in Bilaspore.

119 E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 18. According

to Mr. W. Crooke, the Hindoo Feast of Lamps (_Diwálî_) seems to have

been based on “the idea that on this night the spirits of the dead

revisit their homes, which are cleaned and lighted for their

reception.” See W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of

Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 295 _sq._

M50 Annual festival of the dead among the Bghais and Hkamies.

120 Rev. F. Mason, D.D., “Physical Character of the Karens,” _Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, Part ii. pp. 29 _sq._ Lights

are not mentioned by the writer, but the festival being nocturnal we

may assume that they are used for the convenience of the living as

well as of the dead. In other respects the ceremonies are typical.

121 R. F. St. Andrew St. John, “A Short Account of the Hill Tribes of

North Aracan,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii.

(1873) p. 238. At this festival the dead are apparently not supposed

to return to the houses.

M51 Annual festival of the dead in Cambodia.

122 E. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 59; A.

Leclère, _Le Buddhisme au Cambodge_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 374-376. The

departure of the souls is described only by the latter writer.

Compare E. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances

superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions

et Reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 205 _sq._

123 Mariny, _Relation nouvelle et curieuse des royaumes de Tunquin et de

Lao_ (Paris, 1666), pp. 251-253.

M52 Annual festival of the dead in Annam.

124 Le R. P. Cadière, “Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So’n,”

_Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902)

pp. 376-379; P. d’Enjoy, “Du droit successoral en Annam,” etc.,

_Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Ve Série, iv.

(1903) pp. 500-502; E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp.

372-375.

M53 Annual festival of friendless ghosts in Annam.

125 E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 254 _sq._; Paul Giran,

_Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), pp. 258 _sq._ According

to the latter writer the offerings to the vagrant souls are made on

the first and last days of the month, while sacrifices of a more

domestic character are performed on the fifteenth.

M54 Annual festivals of the dead in Cochinchina, Siam and Japan.

126 L. E. Louvet, _La Cochinchine religieuse_ (Paris, 1885), pp.

149-151.

_ 127 The Scapegoat_, pp. 149 _sqq._

M55 Annual festivals of the dead among the Chewsurs and Armenians.

128 C. v. Hahn, “Religiöse Anschauungen und Totengedächtnisfeier der

Chewsuren,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) pp. 211 _sq._

129 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 23

_sq._

M56 Annual festivals of the dead in Africa.

130 Fred. E. Forbes, _Dahomey and the Dahomans_ (London, 1851), ii. 73.

Compare John Duncan, _Travels in Western Africa_ (London, 1847), i.

125 _sq._; A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave

Coast_ (London, 1890), p. 108. The Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold

Coast and Ashantee celebrate an annual festival of eight days in

honour of the dead. It falls towards the end of August. The

offerings are presented to the departed at their graves. See A. B.

Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887),

pp. 227 _sq._; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchâtel, 1908),

pp. 136, 138. According to the latter writer the festival is

celebrated at the time of the yam harvest.

131 W. Munzinger, _Ostafrikanische Studien_ (Schaffhausen, 1864), p.

473.

_ 132 The Scapegoat_, pp. 136 _sq._

M57 Annual festivals of the dead among peoples of the Aryan stock.

Annual festival of the dead (the Fravashis) among the old Iranians.

Annual festival of the dead among the Persians.

133 On the worship of the dead, and especially of ancestors, among Aryan

peoples, see W. Caland, _Über Totenverehrung bei einigen der

indo-germanischen Völker_ (Amsterdam, 1888); O. Schrader,

_Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901),

pp. 21 _sqq._; _id._, _s.v._ “Aryan Religion,” in Dr. J. Hastings’s

_Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, ii. (Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 16

_sqq._

134 As to the Iranian calendar see W. Geiger, _Altiranische Kultur im

Altertum_ (Erlangen, 1882), pp. 314 _sqq._; as to the Iranian

worship of the sainted dead (the Fravashis) see _id._ pp. 286 _sqq._

As to the annual festival of the dead (Hamaspathmaedaya) see W.

Caland, _Über Totenverehrung bei einigen der indo-germanischen

Völker_ (Amsterdam, 1888), pp. 64 _sq._; N. Söderblom, _Les

Fravashis_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 4 _sqq._; J. H. Moulton, _Early

Zoroastrianism_ (London, 1913), pp. 256 _sqq._ All these writers

agree that the Fravashis of the _Zend-Avesta_ were originally the

souls of the dead. See also James Darmesteter, _Zend-Avesta_, Part

ii. (Oxford, 1883) p. 179: “The Fravashi is the inner power in every

being that maintains it and makes it grow and subsist. Originally

the Fravashis were the same as the _Pitris_ of the Hindus or the

_Manes_ of the Latins, that is to say, the everlasting and deified

souls of the dead; but in course of time they gained a wider domain,

and not only men, but gods and even physical objects, like the sky

and the earth, etc., had each a Fravashi.” Compare _id._, _Ormazd et

Ahriman_ (Paris, 1877), pp. 130 _sqq._; N. Söderblom, _La Vie Future

d’après Le Mazdéisme_ (Paris, 1901), pp. 7 _sqq._ A different view

of the original nature of the Fravashis was taken by C. P. Tiele,

according to whom they were essentially guardian spirits. See C. P.

Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_ (Gotha, 1896-1903), ii.

256 _sqq._

_ 135 The Zend-Avesta_, translated by James Darmesteter, Part ii.

(Oxford, 1883) pp. 192 _sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.

xxiii.).

136 Albiruni, _The Chronology of Ancient Nations_, translated and edited

by Dr. C. Edward Sachau (London, 1879), p. 210. In the _Dinkard_, a

Pahlavi work which seems to have been composed in the first half of

the ninth century A.D., the festival is spoken of as “those ten days

which are the end of the winter and termination of the year, because

the five Gathic days, among them, are for that purpose.” By “the

five Gathic days” the writer means the five supplementary days added

at the end of the twelfth month to complete the year of 365 days.

See _Pahlavi Texts_ translated by E. W. West, Part iv. (Oxford,

1892) p. 17 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxxvii.).

M58 Feast of All Souls in Brittany and other parts of France.

137 A. le Braz, _La Légende de la Morten Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893),

pp. 280-287. Compare J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_

(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 283 _sqq._

138 L. F. Sauvé, _Le folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 295

_sq._

139 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_

(Saintes, 1891), p. 76. As to the observance of All Souls’ Day in

other parts of France see A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes

et contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 22-24; Ch.

Beauquier, _Les mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 123-125.

M59 Feast of All Souls in Belgium.

140 Above, p. 52.

141 W. Crooke, _The Natives of Northern India_ (London, 1907), p. 219.

142 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), ii.

236-240; _id._, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 229 _sq._

M60 Feast of All Souls in Lechrain.

143 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855),

pp. 198-200.

M61 Soul-cakes and All Souls’ Day in Southern Germany.

144 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_

(Leipsic, 1863), p. 330. As to these cakes (called “souls”) in

Swabia see E. Meyer, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus

Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 452, § 174; Anton Birlinger,

_Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862),

ii. 167 _sq._ The cakes are baked of white flour, and are of a

longish rounded shape with two small tips at each end.

145 Adalbert Kuhn, _Mythologische Studien_, ii. (Gütersloh, 1912) pp. 41

_sq._, citing F. Schönwerth, _Aus der Oberpfalz_, i. 283.

M62 Feast of All Souls in Bohemia.

146 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_

(Prague, N.D.), pp. 493-495.

147 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_

(Prague, 1905), p. 97.

M63 Feast of All Souls in Moravia.

148 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_

(Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 330.

M64 Feast of All Souls in the Tyrol and Baden.

149 Ignaz V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meiningen des Tiroler

Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 176-178.

150 Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck,

1867), p. 238.

151 Elard Hugo Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_

(Strasburg, 1900), p. 601.

M65 Annual festivals of the dead among the Letts and Samagitians.

152 P. Einhorn, “Historia Lettica,” in _Scriptores Rerum Livonicarum_,

ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 587, 598, 630 _sq._, 645 _sq._ See

also the description of D. Fabricius in his “Livonicae Historiae

compendiosa series,” _ib._ p. 441. Fabricius assigns the custom to

All Souls’ Day.

153 J. Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in

_Magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-literärischen Gesellschaft_,

xiv. 1. (Mitau, 1868), p. 92.

154 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.

Petersburg, 1876), pp. 366 _sq._; Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten

abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg,

1854), p. 89.

M66 Festival of the dead in Russia.

155 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_2 (London, 1872), pp.

321 _sq._ The date of the festival is not mentioned. Apparently it

is celebrated at irregular intervals.

M67 Annual festivals of the dead among the Votiaks of Russia.

156 M. Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 145.

157 J. Wasiljev, _Übersicht über die heidnischen Gebräuche, Aberglauben

und Religion der Wotjäken_ (Helsingfors, 1902), pp. 34 _sq._

(_Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne_, xviii.). As to the Votiak

clans see the same work, pp. 42-44.

M68 Feast of All Souls in the Abruzzi.

158 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890),

pp. 180-182. Mr. W. R. Paton writes to me (12th December 1906): “You

do not mention the practice[s] on the modern Greek feast τῶν ψυχῶν

(in May) which quite correspond. The κόλυβα is made in every house

and put on a table laid with a white tablecloth. A glass of water

and a taper are put on the table, and all is left so for the whole

night. Our Greek maid-servant says that when she was a child she

remembers seeing the souls come and partake. Almost the same rite is

practised for the κόλυβα made on the commemoration of particular

dead.”

M69 Soul-cakes on All-Souls’ Day in England. “Souling Day” in

Shropshire.

159 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 393.

160 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),

p. 23.

161 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_

(London, 1883), p. 381. The writers record (pp. 382 _sqq._) some of

the ditties which were sung on this occasion by those who begged for

soul-cakes.

162 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, i. 392, 393; W.

Hone, _Year Book_ (London, N.D.), col. 1288; T. F. Thiselton Dyer,

_British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 405, 406, 407, 409; J.

Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_ (London, 1882),

p. 251; Elizabeth Mary Wright, _Rustic Speech and Folk-lore_

(Oxford, 1913), p. 300.

163 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), p. 255. See also T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular

Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 410, who, quoting Pennant as his

authority, says that the poor people who received soul-cakes prayed

God to bless the next crop of wheat.

_ 164 County Folk-lore_, vol. ii. _North Riding of Yorkshire, York, and

the Ainsty_ (London, 1901), quoting George Young, _A History of

Whitby and Streoneshalth Abbey_ (Whitby, 1817), ii. 882.

165 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 410.

166 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in John

Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 666.

M70 Feast of All Souls among the Indians of Ecuador.

167 Dr. Rivet, “Le Christianisme et les Indiens de la République de

l’Équateur,” _L’Anthropologie_, xvii. (1906) pp. 93 _sq._

M71 The nominally Christian feast of All Souls on Nov. 2 appears to be

an old Celtic festival of the dead adopted by the Church in 998 A.D.

Institution of the Feast of All Souls by the Abbot of Clugny.

168 See above, pp. 53, 55, 62, 65.

169 Sir John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp.

460, 514 _sq._; _id._, “Celtae and Galli,” _Proceedings of the

British Academy, 1905-1906_ (London, N.D.), p. 78; _Balder the

Beautiful_, i. 224 _sq._

170 K. Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, iv. (Berlin, 1900) pp. 379

_sq._ The first of October seems to have been a great festival among

the Saxons and also the Samagitians. See Widukind, _Res gestae

Saxonicae_, i. 12 (Migne’s _Patrologia Latina_, cxxxvii. 135); M. A.

Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in S. Grynaeus’s _Novus

Orbis Regionum ac Insularum veteribus incognitarum_ (Bâle, 1532), p.

520. I have to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for pointing out these

two passages to me. Mr. A. Tille prefers to date the Teutonic winter

from Martinmas, the eleventh of November. See A. Tille, _Die

Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht_ (Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 23 _sqq._;

O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_

(Strasburg, 1901), p. 395.

171 A. J. Binterim, _Die vorzüglichsten Denkwürdigkeiten der

Christ-Katholischen Kirche_, v. 1 (Mayence, 1829), pp. 493 _sq._; J.

J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _Real-Encyclopädie für protestantische

Theologie und Kirche_,2 i. (Leipsic, 1877), pp. 303 _sq._; W. Smith

and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London,

1875-1880), i. 57 _sq._

M72 The feast of All Saints on Nov. 1 seems also to have displaced a

heathen festival of the dead.

172 A. J. Binterim, _op. cit._ v. 1, pp. 487 _sqq._; J. J. Herzog und G.

F. Plitt, _op. cit._ i. p. 303; W. Smith and S. Cheetham,

_Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, i. 57. In the last of these

works a passage from the _Martyrologium Romanum Vetus_ is quoted

which states that a feast of Saints (_Festivitas Sanctorum_) on the

first of November was celebrated at Rome. But the date of this

particular Martyrology is disputed. See A. J. Binterim, _op. cit._

v. 1, pp. 52-54.

173 J. J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _op. cit._ i. 304. A similar attempt

to reform religion by diverting the devotion of the people from the

spirits of their dead appears to have been made in antiquity by the

doctors of the Persian faith. For that faith “in its most finished

and purest form, in the _Gathas_, does not recognize the dead as

objects worthy of worship and sacrifice. But the popular beliefs

were too firmly rooted, and the Mazdeans, like the sectaries of many

other ideal and lofty forms of religion, were forced to give way. As

they could not suppress the worship and get rid of the primitive and

crude ideas involved in it, they set about the reform in another

way: they interpreted the worship in a new manner, and thus the

worship of the dead became a worship of the gods or of a god in

favour of the loved and lost ones, a pious commemoration of their

names and their virtues.” See N. Söderblom, _Les Fravashis_ (Paris,

1899), pp. 6 _sq._ The _Gathas_ form the oldest part of the

_Zend-Avesta_. James Darmesteter, indeed, in his later life startled

the learned world by a theory that the _Gathas_ were a comparatively

late work based on the teaching of Philo of Alexandria. But this

attempt of a Jew to claim for his race the inspiration of the

Persian scriptures has been coldly received by Gentile scholars. See

J. H. Moulton, _Early Zoroastrianism_ (London, 1913), pp. 8 _sqq._

M73 Festival of the death and resurrection of Osiris in the month of

Athyr. The finding of Osiris.

174 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39. As to the death of Osiris on the

seventeenth of Athyr see _ib._ 13 and 42. Plutarch’s statement on

this subject is confirmed by the evidence of the papyrus Sallier

IV., a document dating from the 19th dynasty, which places the

lamentation for Osiris at Sais on the seventeenth day of Athyr. See

A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; _id._, _Die Religion

der alten Ägypter_, p. 112; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient

Egyptians_, pp. 211 _sq._

175 See above, p. 50.

176 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39. The words which I have translated

“vegetable mould” are γῆν κάρπιμον, literally, “fruitful earth.” The

composition of the image was very important, as we shall see

presently.

177 Lactantius, _Divin. Institut._, i. 21; _id._, _Epitome Inst. Divin._

23 (18, ed. Brandt and Laubmann). The description of the ceremony

which Minucius Felix gives (_Octavius_, xxii. 1) agrees closely

with, and is probably copied from, that of Lactantius. We know from

Appian (_Bell. Civ._ iv. 6. 47) that in the rites of Isis a priest

personated Anubis, wearing a dog’s, or perhaps rather a jackal’s,

mask on his head; for the historian tells how in the great

proscription a certain Volusius, who was on the condemned list,

escaped in the disguise of a priest of Isis, wearing a long linen

garment and the mask of a dog over his head.

178 The suggestion is due to Prof. A. Wiedemann (_Herodots zweites

Buch_, p. 261).

179 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2. Herodotus

tells (ii. 61) how the Carians cut their foreheads with knives at

the mourning for Osiris.

180 In addition to the writers who have been already cited see Juvenal,

viii. 29 _sq._; Athenagoras, _Supplicatio pro Christianis_, 22, pp.

112, 114, ed. J. C. T. Otto (Jena, 1857); Tertullian, _Adversus

Marcionem_, i. 13; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 10.

M74 The great Osirian inscription at Denderah.

181 W. Smith, _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, ii. 1127.

182 For complete translations of the inscription see H. Brugsch, “Das

Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra,” _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache

und Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 77-111; V. Loret, “Les fêtes

d’Osiris au mois de Khoiak,” _Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la

Philologie et à l’Archéologie Égyptiennes et Assyriennes_, iii.

(1882) pp. 43-57, iv. (1883) pp. 21-33, v. (1884) pp. 85-103. On the

document and the festivals described in it see further A.

Mariette-Pacha, _Dendérah_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 334-347; J. Dümichen,

“Die dem Osiris im Denderatempel geweihten Räume,” _Zeitschrift für

ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, 1882, pp. 88-101; H.

Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_ (Leipsic,

1885-1888), pp. 616-618; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia

Egizia_, pp. 725-744; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262;

_id._, “Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 113; E. A.

Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 128 _sq._; _id._,

_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 21 _sqq._; Miss Margaret

A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), pp. 27 _sq._

M75 The rites of Osiris in the month of Khoiak represented the god as

dead, dismembered, and then reconstituted by the union of his

scattered limbs.

183 R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 727.

184 H. Brugsch, in _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und

Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 80-82; A. Wiedemann, in _Le Muséon_,

N.S. iv. (1903) p. 113. The corn used in the making of the images is

called barley by Brugsch and Miss M. A. Murray (_l.c._), but wheat

(_blé_) by Mr. V. Loret.

185 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 99, 101.

186 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 82 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p.

728; Miss Margaret A. Murray, _op. cit._ p. 27.

187 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 90 _sq._, 96 _sq._, 98; R. V. Lanzone,

_op. cit._ pp. 743 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the

Egyptians_, ii. 128. According to Lanzone, the ploughing took place,

not on the first, but on the last day of the festival, namely, on

the thirtieth of Khoiak; and that certainly appears to have been the

date of the ploughing at Busiris, for the inscription directs that

there “the ploughing of the earth shall take place in the Serapeum

of _Aa-n-beḥ_ under the fine Persea trees on the last day of the

month Khoiak” (H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 84).

188 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, p. 28; H.

Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 83, 92. The headless human image in the cow

may have stood for Isis, who is said to have been decapitated by her

son Horus, and to have received from Thoth a cow’s head as a

substitute. See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20; G. Maspero,

_Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 177; Ed.

Meyer, _s.v._ “Isis,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und

röm. Mythologie_, ii. 366.

189 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 92 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp.

738-740; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; Miss M. A.

Murray, _op. cit._ p. 35. An Egyptian calendar, written at Sais

about 300 B.C., has under the date 26 Khoiak the following entry:

“Osiris goes about and the golden boat is brought forth.” See _The

Hibeh Papyri_, Part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt

(London, 1906), pp. 146, 153. In the Canopic decree “the voyage of

the sacred boat of Osiris” is said to take place on the 29th of

Khoiak from “the sanctuary in the Heracleum” to the Canopic

sanctuary. See W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones

Selectae_, No. 56 (vol. i. pp. 105, 108). Hence it would seem that

the date of this part of the festival varied somewhat in different

places or at different times.

190 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 99; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the

Egyptians_, ii. 129; compare Miss Margaret A. Murray, _op. cit._ p.

28, who refers the ceremony to the twenty-fifth of Khoiak.

191 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 94, 99; A. Mariette-Pacha, _Dendérah_,

pp. 336 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 744. Mariette supposed

that after depositing the new image in the sepulchre they carried

out the old one of the preceding year, thus setting forth the

resurrection as well as the death of the god. But this view is

apparently not shared by Brugsch and Lanzone.

M76 The resurrection of Osiris represented on the monuments.

192 A. Mariette-Bey, _Dendérah_, iv. (Paris, 1873) plates 65, 66, 68,

69, 70, 71, 72, 88, 89, 90; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia

Egizia_, pp. 757 _sqq._, with plates cclxviii.-ccxcii.; E. A. Wallis

Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 131-138; _id._, _Osiris and

the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 31 _sqq._

193 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621; R.

V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, plate cclxi.; A.

Wiedemann, “L’Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112;

E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 58.

According to Prof. Wiedemann, the corn springing from the god’s body

is barley. Similarly in a papyrus of the Louvre (No. 3377) Osiris is

represented swathed as a mummy and lying on his back, while stalks

of corn sprout from his body. See R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp. 801

_sq._, with plate ccciii. 2; A. Wiedemann, “L’Osiris végétant,” _Le

Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112.

194 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 8, p. 162 ed. L.

Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1859). See _Spirits of the

Corn and of the Wild_, i. 38 _sq._

195 Prof. A. Erman rightly assumes (_Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 234)

that the images made in the month of Khoiak were intended to

germinate as a symbol of the divine resurrection.

M77 Corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris buried with the dead to ensure their

resurrection.

196 A. Wiedemann, “L’Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p.

111; _Egyptian Exploration Fund Archaeological Report, 1898-1899_,

pp. 24 _sq._; A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and

London, 1912), p. 94, with plate xi.; _id._, _Mystères Égyptiens_

(Paris, 1913), p. 41.

197 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, in _Egyptian Exploration Fund

Archaeological Report, 1902-1903_, p. 5.

198 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 28 _sq._

199 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _A Second Series of the Manners and

Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1841), ii. 300, note §.

The writer seems to have doubted whether these effigies represented

Osiris. But the doubt has been entirely removed by subsequent

discoveries. Wilkinson’s important note on the subject is omitted by

his editor, S. Birch (vol. iii. p. 375, ed. 1878).

200 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 209 _sq._

M78 The festivals of Osiris in the months of Athyr and Khoiak seem to

have been substantially the same.

201 See above, pp. 24 _sq._, 27 _sq._, 49 _sq._

M79 The old festival of Khoiak may have been transferred to Athyr when

the Egyptians adopted the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C.

M80 The transference would be intelligible if we suppose that in 30 B.C.

the dates of all the Egyptian festivals were shifted backward by

about a month in order to restore them to their natural places in

the calendar.

202 So it was reckoned at the time. But, strictly speaking, Thoth in

that year began on August 31. The miscalculation originated in a

blunder of the ignorant Roman pontiffs who, being charged with the

management of the new Julian calendar, at first intercalated a day

every third, instead of every fourth, year. See Solinus,

_Collectanea_, i. 45-47 (p. 15, ed. Th. Mommsen, Berlin, 1864);

Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 14. 13 _sq._; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der

mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 157-161.

203 Theoretically the shift should have been 40, or rather 42 days, that

being the interval between July 20 and August 29 or 31 (see the

preceding note). If that shift was actually made, the calendar date

of any festival in the old vague Egyptian year could be found by

adding 40 or 42 days to its date in the Alexandrian year. Thus if

the death of Osiris fell on the 17th of Athyr in the Alexandrian

year, it should have fallen on the 27th or 29th of Khoiak in the old

vague year; and if his resurrection fell on the 19th of Athyr in the

Alexandrian year, it should have fallen on the 29th of Khoiak or the

1st of Tybi in the old vague year. These calculations agree nearly,

but not exactly, with the somewhat uncertain indications of the

Denderah calendar (above, p. 88), and also with the independent

evidence which we possess that the resurrection of Osiris was

celebrated on the 30th of Khoiak (below, pp. 108 _sq._). These

approximate agreements to some extent confirm my theory that, with

the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year, the dates of the

official Egyptian festivals were shifted from their accidental

places in the calendar to their proper places in the natural year.

Since I published in the first edition of this book (1906) my theory

that with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. the

Egyptian festivals were shifted about a month backward in the year,

Professor Ed. Meyer has shown independent grounds for holding “that

the festivals which gave rise to the later names of the (Egyptian)

months were demonstrably held a month later in earlier ages, under

the twentieth, eighteenth, indeed partly under the twelfth dynasty;

in other words, that after the end of the New Kingdom the festivals

and the corresponding names of the months were displaced one month

backwards. It is true that this displacement can as yet be proved

for only five months; but as the names of these months and the

festivals keep their relative position towards each other, the

assumption is inevitable that the displacement affected not merely

particular festivals but the whole system equally.” See Ed. Meyer,

_Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 3 _sqq._

(_Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften vom

Jahre 1907_). Thus it is possible that the displacement of the

festivals by a month backward in the calendar took place a good deal

earlier than I had supposed. In the uncertainty of the whole

question I leave my theory as it stood.

204 If the results of the foregoing inquiry be accepted, the

resurrection of Osiris was regularly celebrated in Egypt on the 15th

of November from the year 30 B.C. onward, since the 15th of November

corresponded to the 19th of Athyr (the resurrection day) in the

fixed Alexandrian year. This agrees with the indications of the

Roman Rustic Calendars, which place the resurrection (_heuresis_,

that is, the discovery of Osiris) between the 14th and the 30th of

November. Yet according to the calendar of Philocalus, the official

Roman celebration of the resurrection seems to have been held on the

1st of November, not on the 15th. How is the discrepancy to be

explained? Th. Mommsen supposed that the festival was officially

adopted at Rome at a time when the 19th of Athyr of the vague

Egyptian year corresponded to the 31st of October or the 1st of

November of the Julian calendar, and that the Romans, overlooking

the vague or shifting character of the Egyptian year, fixed the

resurrection of Osiris permanently on the 1st of November. Now the

19th of Athyr of the vague year corresponded to the 1st of November

in the years 32-35 A.D. and to the 31st of October in the years

36-39; and it appears that the festival was officially adopted at

Rome some time before 65 A.D. (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, viii. 831

_sqq._). It is unlikely that the adoption took place in the reign of

Tiberius, who died in 37 A.D.; for he is known to have persecuted

the Egyptian religion (Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 85; Suetonius,

_Tiberius_, 36; Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ xviii. 3. 4); hence

Mommsen concluded that the great festival of Osiris was officially

adopted at Rome in the early years of the reign of Caligula, that

is, in 37, 38, or 39 A.D. See Th. Mommsen, _Corpus Inscriptionum

Latinarum_, i.2 Pars prior (Berlin, 1893), pp. 333 _sq._; H. Dessau,

_Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. p. 995, No. 8745. This

theory of Mommsen’s assumes that in Egypt the festivals were still

regulated by the old vague year in the first century of our era. It

cannot, therefore, be reconciled with the conclusion reached in the

text that the Egyptian festivals ceased to be regulated by the old

vague year from 30 B.C. onward. How the difference of date between

the official Roman and the Egyptian festival of the resurrection is

to be explained, I do not pretend to say.

M81 Osiris in one of his aspects a personification of the corn. Osiris a

child of Sky and Earth. The legend of the dismemberment of Osiris

points to the dismemberment of human beings, perhaps of the kings,

in the character of the corn-spirit.

205 See above, p. 48.

206 See above, p. 6.

207 See above, p. 7.

208 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166.

_ 209 The Dying God_, p. 250.

_ 210 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 236 _sqq._

211 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 33.

212 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. 5. The slaughter may have been performed by

the king with his own hand. On Egyptian monuments the king is often

represented in the act of slaying prisoners before a god. See A.

Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris,

1902), pp. 179, 224; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection_, i. 197 _sqq._ Similarly the kings of Ashantee and

Dahomey used often themselves to cut the throats of the human

victims. See A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold

Coast_ (London, 1887), p. 162; _id._, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of

the Slave Coast_ (London, 1890), pp. 125, 129.

M82 Roman and Greek traditions of the dismemberment of kings. Modern

Thracian pretence of killing a man, who is sometimes called a king,

for the good of the crops.

_ 213 Scholia in Caesaris Germanici Aratea_, in F. Eyssenhardt’s edition

of Martianus Capella, p. 408 (Leipsic, 1866).

214 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 56. 4. Compare Livy,

i. 16. 4; Florus, i. 1. 16 _sq._; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 27. Mr. A. B.

Cook was, I believe, the first to interpret the story as a

reminiscence of the sacrifice of a king. See his article “The

European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 324 _sq._ However,

the acute historian A. Schwegler long ago maintained that the

tradition rested on some very ancient religious rite, which was

afterwards abolished or misunderstood, and he rightly compared the

legendary deaths of Pentheus and Orpheus (_Römische Geschichte_,

Tübingen, 1853-1858, vol. i. pp. 534 _sq._). See further W. Otto,

“Juno,” _Philologus_, lxiv. (1905) pp. 187 _sqq._

_ 215 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 313 _sqq._

216 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 43 _sqq._, 1043 _sqq._; Theocritus, xxvi.;

Pausanias, ii. 2. 7; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1 _sq._;

Hyginus, _Fab._ 132 and 184. The destruction of Lycurgus by horses

seems to be mentioned only by Apollodorus. As to Pentheus see

especially A. G. Bather, “The Problem of the Bacchae,” _Journal of

Hellenic Studies_, xiv. (1904) pp. 244-263.

217 Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 165-205; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._

ii. 17 _sq._, p. 15 ed. Potter; Justin Martyr, _Apology_, i. 54;

Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6; Arnobius,

_Adversus Nationes_, v. 19. According to the Clementine

_Recognitiones_, x. 24 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, i. 1434)

Dionysus was torn in pieces at Thebes, the very place of which

Pentheus was king. The description of Euripides (_Bacchae_, 1058

_sqq._) suggests that the human victim was tied or hung to a

pine-tree before being rent to pieces. We are reminded of the effigy

of Attis which hung on the sacred pine (above, vol. i. p. 267), and

of the image of Osiris which was made out of a pine-tree and then

buried in the hollow of the trunk (below, p. 108). The pine-tree on

which Pentheus was pelted by the Bacchanals before they tore him

limb from limb is said to have been worshipped as if it were the god

himself by the Corinthians, who made two images of Dionysus out of

it (Pausanias, ii. 2. 7). The tradition points to an intimate

connexion between the tree, the god, and the human victim.

218 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 55. At Potniae in Boeotia a priest

of Dionysus is said to have been killed by the drunken worshippers

(Pausanias, ix. 8. 2). He may have been sacrificed in the character

of the god.

219 Lucian, _De saltatione_, 51; Plato, _Symposium_, 7, p. 179 D, E;

Pausanias, ix. 30. 5; Ovid, _Metam._ xi. 1-43; O. Gruppe, _s.v._

“Orpheus,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm.

Mythologie_, iii. 1165 _sq._ That Orpheus died the death of the god

has been observed both in ancient and modern times. See E. Rohde,

_Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903) ii. 118, note 2, quoting

Proclus on Plato; S. Reinach, “La mort d’Orphée,” _Cultes, Mythes et

Religions_, ii. (1906) pp. 85 _sqq._ According to Ovid, the

Bacchanals killed him with hoes, rakes, and mattocks. Similarly in

West Africa human victims used to be killed with spades and hoes and

then buried in a field which had just been tilled (J. B. Labat,

_Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_, Paris, 1732, i.

380). Such a mode of sacrifice points to the identification of the

human victim with the fruits of the earth.

220 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1.

221 R. M. Dawkins, “The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of

Dionysus,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxvi. (1906) pp. 191-206.

See further _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 25 _sqq._

M83 Norwegian tradition of the dismemberment of a king, Halfdan the

Black. Frey, the Scandinavian god of fertility, buried at Upsala.

222 Snorri Sturluson, _Heimskringla, Saga Halfdanar Svarta_, ch. 9. I

have to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for referring me to this

passage and translating it for me. See also _The Stories of the

Kings of Norway (Heimskringla)_, done into English by W. Morris and

E. Magnússon (London, 1893-1905), i. 86 _sq._ Halfdan the Black was

the father of Harold the Fair-haired, king of Norway (860-933 A.D.).

Professor Chadwick tells me that, though the tradition as to the

death and mutilation of Halfdan was not committed to writing for

three hundred years, he sees no reason to doubt its truth. He also

informs me that the word translated “abundance” means literally “the

produce of the season.” “Plenteous years” is the rendering of Morris

and Magnússon.

223 As to the descent of Halfdan and the Ynglings from Frey, see

_Heimskringla_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnússon, i.

23-71 (_The Saga Library_, vol. iii.). With regard to Frey, the god

of fertility, both animal and vegetable, see E. H. Meyer,

_Mythologie der Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 366 _sq._; P.

Hermann, _Nordische Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 206 _sqq._

_ 224 Heimskringla_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnússon, i.

4, 22-24 (_The Saga Library_, vol. iii.).

M84 Segera, a magician of Kiwai, said to have been cut up after death

and the pieces buried in gardens to fertilize them.

_ 225 Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 32 _sq._, from information supplied by

Dr. C. G. Seligmann.

M85 Apparently widespread custom of dismembering a king or magician and

burying the pieces in different parts of the kingdom.

M86 In this dismemberment a special virtue seems to have been ascribed

to the genital organs.

226 See above, p. 10.

227 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 291.

228 Above, p. 97.

229 Above, pp. 268 _sq._

M87 The Egyptian kings probably opposed the custom and succeeded in

abolishing it. Precautions taken to preserve the bodies of kings

from mutilation.

230 See my notes on Pausanias, i. 28. 7 and viii. 47. 5 (vol. ii. pp.

366 _sq._, vol. iv. pp. 433 _sq._).

231 R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_ (New York, 1901),

p. 116; C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 34 _sq._

232 Amos ii. 1.

233 Pausanias, i. 9. 7 _sq._

M88 Graves of kings and chiefs in Africa kept secret. Burial-place of

chiefs in Fiji kept secret. Graves of Melanesian magicians kept

secret.

234 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_

(London, 1861), pp. 18 _sq._

235 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 107.

236 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 449

_sq._ In West African jargon the word ju-ju means fetish or magic.

237 Father Porte, “Les reminiscences d’un missionnaire du Basutoland,”

_Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) pp. 311 _sq._ As to the

_Baloi_, see A. Merensky, _Beiträge zur Kenntniss Süd-Afrikas_

(Berlin, 1875), pp. 138 _sq._; E. Gottschling, “The Bawenda,”

_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 375. For

these two references I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland.

238 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchâtel,

1912-1913), i. 387 _sq._

239 Lorimer Fison, “Notes on Fijian Burial Customs,” _Journal of the

Anthropological Institute_, x. (1881) pp. 141 _sq._

240 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 269.

M89 Among the Koniags of Alaska the bodies of dead whalers were cut up

and used as talismans.

241 Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources

of Alaska_, p. 142. The account seems to be borrowed from H. J.

Holmberg, who adds that pains were taken to preserve the flesh from

decay, “because they believed that their own life depended on it.”

See H. J. Holmberg, “Über die Völker des russischen Amerika,” _Acta

Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) p. 391.

M90 Assimilation of human victims to the corn.

242 Above, p. 97.

243 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Herodotus, ii. 38.

244 Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_

(Berlin, 1878), ii. 639; _id._, _General History of the vast

Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens

(London, 1725-26), ii. 379 _sq._ (whose version of the passage is

inadequate). Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations

civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-59),

i. 327, iii. 525.

245 E. Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_ (Paris, 1874-75), p. 188.

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Sumerians, their origin and civilization, i. 7 _sq._