[1] One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the first
in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed about
20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three very
large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill
villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these three
mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population was
estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools for the
children of operatives and carry on "welfare work" in these villages.
GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 4202;
(1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. It is served by two lines
of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an important coal centre, and
manufactures engines, iron and brass goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In
addition to its public school system, it has several private schools,
including St Mary's Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman
Catholic. About 3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of
Hanna's Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed by the
Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to have been the
first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on the 6th of April
1773, and the county courts continued to be held here until 1787.
Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately after the opening of
the state road, not far from the trail followed by General John Forbes
on his march to Fort Duquesne in 1758; it was made the county-seat in
1787, and was incorporated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick
(pop. in 1900, 901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg
(620) were merged with Greensburg.
See John N. Boucher's _History of Westmoreland County, Pa._ (3 vols.,
New York, 1906).
GREENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly known as
sandpipers, the _Totanus glottis_ of most ornithological writers. Some
exercise of the imagination is however needed to see in the dingy
olive-coloured legs of this species a justification of the English name
by which it goes, and the application of that name, which seems to be
due to Pennant, was probably by way of distinguishing it from two allied
but perfectly distinct species of _Totanus_ (_T. calidris_ and _T.
fuscus_) having red legs and usually called redshanks. The greenshank is
a native of the northern parts of the Old World, but in winter it
wanders far to the south, and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope,
in India and thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia.
It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance there
must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a woodcock, it is of a
much more slender build, and its long legs and neck give it a graceful
appearance, which is enhanced by the activity of its actions. Disturbed
from the moor or marsh, where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the
air, conspicuous by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries
flies round the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree,
if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits all
the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many other
_Limicolae_ indulge during the breeding-season--with certain variations,
however, that are peculiarly its own. It breeds in no small numbers in
the Hebrides, and parts of the Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to
Sutherland, as well as in the more elevated or more northern districts
of Norway, Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka. In
North America it is represented by two species, _Totanus semipalmatus_
and _T. melanoleucus_, there called willets, telltales or tattlers,
which in general habits resemble the greenshank of the Old World.
(A. N.)
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 75
m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) 7642 (4987 negroes); (1910)
9610. Greenville is served by the Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi
Valley railways, and by various passenger and freight steamboat lines on
the Mississippi river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta,
a rich cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost
exclusively connected with that staple. There are large warehouses,
compresses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. Old
Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county seat of
Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), and later
became the county-seat of Washington county. Much of the old town caved
into the river, and during the Civil War it was burned by the Federal
forces soon after the capture of Memphis. The present site was then
adopted. The town of Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was
chartered as a city.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237.
It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the
Cincinnati Northern railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is
situated about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a
large and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco.
It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and creamery
products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses. In the city is
a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there is a county Children's Home
and Infirmary. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.
Greenville occupies the site of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville
(built by General Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on
the 3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory over
the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the treaty of
Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of hostilities and
ceding to the United States a considerable portion of Ohio and a number
of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and Michigan (including the sites
of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and
Chicago), and the United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000
worth of goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500, for
ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares, the
Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies, the Miamis, the
Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river
tribe. Tecumseh lived at Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second
Indian treaty was negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H.
Harrison and Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the
Shawnees, the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United
States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white
settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town was laid
out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of the newly erected
county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in 1838 and chartered as a
city in 1887.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville county, South
Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. N.W. of Columbia, in
the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom
5414 were negroes; (1910, census) 15,741. It is served by the Southern,
the Greenville & Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina
railways. It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue
Ridge Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. It
is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing district.
Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has various other
manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron and fertilizers. The
total value of the factory products of the city in 1905 was $1,676,774,
an increase of 73.5% since 1900. The city is the seat of Furman
University, Chicora College for girls (1893; Presbyterian), and
Greenville Female College (1854; Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379
students, and which, besides the usual departments, has a conservatory
of music, a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture
and a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University (Baptist;
opened in 1852) grew out of the "Furman Academy and Theological
Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, and named in honour of
Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known Baptist clergyman of South
Carolina, whose son, James C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of
the University. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250
students, of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville was
laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and was first
chartered as a city in 1868.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, Texas, U.S.A.,
near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop.
(1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born and 1751 were negroes; (1910)
8850. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis
South-Western and the Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton
market, has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, and
other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural
district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. It is
the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in 1893, and 1 m. from
the city limits, in the village of Peniel (pop. 1908, about 500), a
community of "Holiness" people, are the Texas Holiness University
(1898), a Holiness orphan asylum and a Holiness press. Greenville was
settled in 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas
legislature granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission
government similar to that of Galveston.
GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long
Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the state, about 28 m. N.E. of
New York City. It contains a borough of the same name and the villages
of Cos Cob, Riverside and Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric
railway connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900)
12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of the borough
(1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, principally for New Yorkers.
Among the residents have been Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman,
the landscape painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder
of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches in the
township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. Murray
(1840-1904), called "Adirondack Murray," from his _Camp Life in the
Adirondack Mountains_ (1868), was once pastor. In the borough are a
public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; co-educational), the Brunswick
School for boys (1901), with which Betts Academy of Stamford was united
in 1908, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are belting,
woollens, tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are
shipped from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven
Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration of Long
Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid claim to Greenwich, and as New
Haven did nothing to assist the settlers, they consented to union with
New Netherland in 1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty
of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and the New
Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to Greenwich, but the
inhabitants of the town refused to submit to the New Haven Colony until
October 1656. Six years later Greenwich was one of the first towns of
the New Haven Colony to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered
severely during the War of Independence on account of the frequent
quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations of
bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York by the British in
1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 (February 25) and 1781
(December 5). There was also a strong loyalist sentiment. On the old
post-road in Greenwich is the inn, built about 1729, at which Israel
Putnam was surprised in February 1779 by a force under General Tryon;
according to tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone
steps. The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American
Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. The township
government of Greenwich was instituted in the colonial period. The
borough of Greenwich was incorporated in 1858.
See D. M. Mead, _History of the Town of Greenwich_ (New York, 1857).
GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by
Deptford. Pop. (1901) 95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a
river-frontage of 4-1/2 m., the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing
the Isle of Dogs on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich
side. Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the
Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs
(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street traffic,
crossing to a point between the East and West India Docks (see POPLAR).
The main thoroughfares from W. to E. are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill
Roads, the second representing the old high road through Kent, the Roman
Watling Street. Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred,
when it was a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).
The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the observatory.
Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became in 1873 a Royal Naval
College. Upon it or its site centre nearly all the historical
associations of the place. The noble buildings, contrasting strangely
with the wharves adjacent and opposite to it, make a striking picture,
standing on the low river-bank with a background formed by the wooded
elevation of Greenwich Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal
palace called Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as
early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, duke of
Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, who largely
improved the property and named it _Placentia_. It did not revert to the
crown till his death in 1447. It was the birthplace of Henry VIII.,
Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building
was enlarged by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief
residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the "Queen's
House" for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land from the crown "as of the
manor of East Greenwich" became at this time a recognized formula, and
occurs in a succession of American colonial charters from those of
Virginia in 1606, 1609 and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along
with other royal palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by
the Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of
Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of the
present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design which was
not further carried out. In its unfinished state it was assigned by the
patent of William and Mary to certain of the great officers of state, as
commissioners for its conversion into a hospital for seamen; and it was
opened as such in 1705. The building consists of four blocks. Behind a
terrace 860 ft. in length, stretching along the river side, are the
buildings erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs,
and in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; and
behind these buildings are on the west those of King William and on the
east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs. In the King William
range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the remains of Nelson lay in
state before their burial in St Paul's Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling
were painted by Sir James Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and
it is hung with portraits of the most distinguished admirals and
paintings of the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range
is the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson and of
Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal quadrangle
of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by Rysbrack, sculptured
out of a single block of marble taken from the French by Admiral Sir
George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey,
and there are various other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the
building was in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was
erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments of the
hospital were increased at various periods from bequests and forfeited
estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen were boarded within it, and 5000
or 6000 others, called out-pensioners, received stipends at various
rates out of its funds; but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the
Admiralty to grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such
of the inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another
act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory. It
was then devoted to the accommodation of the students of the Royal Naval
College, the Infirmary being granted to the Seamen's Hospital Society.
Behind the College is the Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons
of petty officers and seamen, are boarded.
To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), lying high,
and commanding extensive views over London, the Thames and the plain of
Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and laid out by
Charles II., and contains a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in
his time. In it is situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the
advancement of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact time
is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to the chief
towns throughout the country; British and the majority of foreign
geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A standard clock and
measures are seen at the entrance. A new building was completed in 1899,
the magnetic pavilion lying some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to
avoid the disturbance of instruments which would be occasioned by the
iron used in the principal building. South of the park lies the open
common of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in the
east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich Common.
At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known as the
whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony arose out of a
dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex shore of the Thames, by
the commissioners for engineering works carried out there in
1705-1720--a remarkable achievement for this period--to save the
lowlands from flooding. To one of these dinners Pitt was invited, and
was subsequently accompanied by some of his colleagues. Early in the
19th century the venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial
function, was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always
held here, was later celebrated regularly at the "Ship," an hotel of
ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet continued till 1868, was
revived in 1874-1880, and was held for the last time in 1894.
The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated to St
Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the Danes in 1012. In the
church Wolfe, who died at Quebec (1759), and Tallis, the musician, are
buried. A modern stained-glass window commemorates Wolfe.
The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. Two burgesses
were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented till the same
privilege was conferred on it in 1832. The borough council consists of a
mayor, five aldermen and thirty councillors.
GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist and man of letters,
was born in April 1830. He was one of three brothers--the others being
James and Charles--who all gained reputation as journalists. Frederick
started life in a printing house, but at an early age began to write in
periodicals. In 1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a
volume called _The Napoleon Dynasty_ (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote
several novels: _The Loves of an Apothecary_ (1854), _The Path of Roses_
(1859) and (with his brother James) _Under a Cloud_ (1860). To the
second number of the _Cornhill Magazine_ he contributed "An Essay
without End," and this led to an introduction to Thackeray. In 1862,
when Thackeray resigned the editorship of the _Cornhill_, Greenwood
became joint editor with G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole
editor, a post which he held until 1868. While at the _Cornhill_ he
wrote an article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray
might have intended to conclude his unfinished work _Denis Duval_, and
in its pages appeared _Margaret Denzil's History_, Greenwood's most
ambitious work of fiction, published in volume form in 1864. At that
time Greenwood had conceived the idea of an evening newspaper, which,
while containing "all the news proper to an evening journal," should,
for the most part, be made up "of original articles upon the many things
which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse the leisure
of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art, "and all the influences
which strengthen or dissipate society" were to be discussed by men whose
independence and authority were equally unquestionable. Canning's
_Anti-Jacobin_ and the _Saturday Review_ of 1864 were the joint models
Greenwood had before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and
the _Pall Mall Gazette_ (so named after Thackeray's imaginary paper in
_Pendennis_) was launched in February 1865, with Greenwood as editor.
Within a few years he had come to exercise a great influence on public
affairs. His views somewhat rapidly ripened from what was described as
philosophic Liberalism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain,
Mr Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a more
effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield had in
Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood that Beaconsfield
purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the Khedive Ismail; the
British government being ignorant, until informed by Greenwood, that the
shares were for sale and likely to be bought by France. It was
characteristic of Greenwood that he declined to publish the news of the
purchase of the shares in the _Pall Mall_ before the official
announcement was made.
Early in 1880 the _Pall Mall_ changed owners, and the new proprietor
required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood at once resigned his
editorship, but in May a new paper, the _St James's Gazette_, was
started for him by Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and
Greenwood proceeded to carry on in it the tradition which he had
established in the _Pall Mall_. At the _St James's_ Greenwood remained
for over eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon
political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone
administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of Lord
Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August 1888, owing to
disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. Steinkopff, who had bought
the _St James's_ at Greenwood's own suggestion. In January 1891
Greenwood brought out a weekly review which he named the _Anti-Jacobin_.
It failed, however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in
January 1892. In 1893 he published _The Lover's Lexicon_ and in 1894
_Imagination in Dreams_. He continued to express his views on political
and social questions in contributions to newspapers and magazines,
writing frequently in the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall_,
_Blackwood_, the _Cornhill_, &c. Towards the end of his life his
political views reverted in some respects to the Liberalism of his early
days.
In the words of George Meredith "Greenwood was not only a great
journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national interests were
always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable for securing for his
papers the services of the ablest writers of the day, and for the gift
of recognizing merit in new writers, such, for instance, as Richard
Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His instinct for capacity in others was as
sure as was his journalistic judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his
75th birthday, a dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen,
journalists, and men of letters (with John Morley--who had succeeded him
as editor of the _Pall Mall_--in the chair). In May 1907 he contributed
to _Blackwood_ an article on "The New Journalism," in which he drew a
sharp contrast between the old and the new conditions under which the
work of a newspaper writer is conducted. He died at Sydenham on the 14th
of December 1909.
See _Honouring Frederick Greenwood_, being a report of the speeches at
the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed, 1905);
"Birth and Infancy of the _Pall Mall Gazette_," an article contributed
by Greenwood to the _Pall Mall_ of the 14th of April 1897; "The
Blowing of the Trumpet" in the introduction to the _St James's_ (May
31, 1880); obituary notices in the _Athenaeum_ (Dec. 25, 1909) and
_The Times_ (Dec. 17, 1909).
GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and Separatist (the date and
place of his birth are unknown), entered as a sizar at Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge, on the 18th of March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A.
1581. Whether he was directly influenced by the teaching of Robert
Browne (q.v.), a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case
he held strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism
of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, at
Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been made deacon by
John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest by Thomas Cooper, bishop of
Lincoln; but ere long he renounced this ordination as "wholly unlawful."
Details of the next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the
recognized leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable
number had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood was
arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was committed to
the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default of bail for
conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some controversial tracts
in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner Henry Barrowe (q.v.). He is
understood to have been at liberty in the autumn of 1588; but this may
have been merely "the liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly
at large in September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the
Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) "An Answer to George
Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers." On the 5th of December he
was again arrested; and the following March was tried, together with
Barrowe, and condemned to death on a charge of "devising and circulating
seditious books." After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he
was hanged on the 6th of April 1593.
AUTHORITIES.--H. M. Dexter, _Congregationalism during the last three
hundred years_; _The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_; F. J.
Powicke, _Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam_; B. Brook,
_Lives of the Puritans_; C. H. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol.
ii.
GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist, the son of a
merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was educated at the
university of Edinburgh and for a time managed a mill of his father's at
Bury, and in 1832 began business on his own account. He entered with
ardour into the struggle for free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize
offered by the Anti-Corn Law League for the best essay on "Agriculture
and the Corn Laws." He was too much occupied with political, economical
and theological speculations to give undivided attention to his
business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. His
_Creed of Christendom_ was published in 1851, and in 1852 he contributed
no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. Disraeli
praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed a Commissionership of
Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 he was made Comptroller of the
Stationery Office. Besides contributions to periodicals he produced
several volumes of essays on political and social philosophy. The
general spirit of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best
known, _The Enigmas of Life_ (1872) and _Rocks Ahead_ (1874). They
represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, when
wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every public ill. Greg
was a man of deep moral earnestness of character and was interested in
many philanthropic works. He died at Wimbledon on the 15th of November
1881. His brother, ROBERT HYDE GREG (1795-1875), was an economist and
antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, SAMUEL GREG (1804-1876),
became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic efforts on behalf
of the working-people. PERCY GREG (1836-1889), son of William Rathbone
Greg, also wrote, like his father, on politics, but his views were
violently reactionary. His _History of the United States to the
Reconstruction of the Union_ (1887) is a polemic rather than a history.
GREGARINES (mod. Lat. _Gregarina_, from _gregarius_, collecting in a
flock or herd, _grex_) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa Ectospora,
in which a very high degree of morphological specialization and
cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently found. On the
other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly simple. Other
principal characters which distinguish Gregarines from allied Sporozoan
parasites are as follows:--The fully-grown adult (trophozoite) is always
"free" in some internal cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all
cases prior to sporulation two Gregarines (associates) become attached
to one another, forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a
common cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes
segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, primary
sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the resulting copula
(zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually a spore by the secretion
of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up
to form the germs (sporozoites).
Historical.
F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a Gregarine
parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no means certain. Much
later (1787) Cavolini described and figured an indubitable Gregarine
(probably the form now known as _Aggregata conformis_) from a Crustacean
(_Pachygrapsus_), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. Leon
Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came across several
species of these parasites, also considered them as allied to the worms
and proposed the generic name of _Gregarina_. The unicellular nature of
Gregarines was first realized by A. von Kolliker, who from 1845-1848
added considerably to our knowledge of the frequent occurrence and wide
distribution of these organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein
who demonstrated about this time the relation of the "pseudo-navicellae"
(spores) to the reproduction of the parasites.
[Illustration: From Wasielewswi's _Sporozoenkunde_, after Pfeiffer.
FIG. 1.--a, Transverse Section of Intestine of Mealworm, infected with
_Gregarina_ (_Clepsydrina_) _polymorpha_;[1] b, Part of a highly
magnified.]
Apart from the continually increasing number of known species, matters
remained at about this stage for many years. It is, in fact, only since
the closing years of the 19th century that the complete life-history has
been fully worked out; this has now been done in many cases, thanks to
the researches of M. Siedlecki, L. Cuenot, L. Leger, O. Duboscq, A.
Laveran, M. Caullery, F. Mesnil and others, to whom also we owe most of
our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the cells of
their host during their early development.
Occurrence; mode of infection.
Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are not
known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in Ascidians. By
far the greatest number of hosts is furnished by the Arthropods. Many
members of the various groups of worms (especially the Annelids) also
harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting forms are found in
Echinoderms; in the other classes, they either occur only sporadically
or else are absent. Infection is invariably of the accidental (casual)
type, by way of the alimentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed
by the host when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been
described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic in
Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca into the
respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.
[Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
FIG. 2.--Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a larva of
_Tipula_.]
Habitat and effects on host.
The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its
diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. In the
latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated germs at once
traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may come to rest in the
connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining, however,
extracellular), grow considerably in that situation, and ultimately fall
into the body-cavity (e.g. _Diplocystis_); or they may pass straightway
into the body-cavity and there come into relation with some organ or
tissue (e.g. _Monocystis_) of the earthworm, which is for a time
intracellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case of
intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite with
respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. The parasite
may remain only attached to the host-cell, never becoming actually
intracellular (e.g. _Pterocephalus_); more usually it penetrates
partially into it, the extracellular portion of the Gregarine, however,
giving rise subsequently to most of the adult (e.g. _Gregarina_); or
lastly, in a few forms, the early development is entirely intracellular
(e.g. _Lankesteria_, _Stenophora_).
[Illustration: From Lankester.
FIG. 3.--_Porospora gigantea f_, (E. van Ben.), from the intestine of
the lobster. a, Nucleus.]
[Illustration: From Lankester, after various authors.