[1] Inglefield, _Summer Search for Franklin_ (London, 1853).
[2] _Second Grinnell Expedition_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856).
[3] Davis, Polaris (_Hall's_) _North Polar Expedition_ (Washington,
1876). See also Bessels, _Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition_
(Leipzig, 1879).
[4] _Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery_ (1823).
[5] _Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt_ (1873-1875).
[6] _Reise til Ostkysten af Gronland_ (1832; trans. by G. Gordon
Macdougall, 1837).
[7] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).
[8] _The First Crossing of Greenland_, vol. i. (London, 1890), H.
Mohn and F. Nansen; "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen
Durchquerung von Gronland" (1888). Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu
_Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892).
[9] A. F. Nordenskiold, _Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til
Gronland_ (Stockholm, 1885).
[10] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen,
1895-1896).
[11] _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).
[12] _Ibid._ vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884).
[13] _The Geographical Journal_, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901);
_Tva Somrar i Norra Ishafvet_ (Stockholm, 1901).
[14] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, parts xxvi.-xxvii.
[15] Nares, _Voyage to the Polar Sea_ (2 vols. London, 1877). See
also Blue Book, journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London,
1877).
[16] A. W. Greely, _Report on the Proceedings of the United States
Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land_, vols. i. and ii.
(Washington, 1885); _Three Years of Arctic Service_ (2 vols. London,
1886).
[17] R. E. Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice"_ (2 vols. New York,
1898); E. Astrup, _Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer_ (Christiania, 1895).
[18] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).
[19] _Ibid._ part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896).
[20] See C. Kruuse in _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
1899). See also F. Nansen, "Die Ostkuste Gronlands," Erganzungsheft
No. 105 zu _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and pl.
iv., sketch No. 11.
[21] E. v. Drygalski, _Gronland-Expedition der Gesellschaft fur
Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891-1893_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).
[22] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen,
1889).
[23] _Ibid._ part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv.
pp. 317 et seq., 323.
[24] _Ibid._ part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).
[25] _Ibid._ part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).
[26] _Ibid._ part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).
[27] _Ibid._ part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 150-154
(1896).
[28] _Ibid._, part xix. p. 175 (1896).
[29] _Ibid._ part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26.
[30] See A. G. Nathorst, "Bidrag till nordostra Gronlands geologi,"
with map _Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar_, No. 257,
Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, _Flora fossilis Arctica_ (7 vols.,
1868-1883), and especially _Meddelelser om Gronland_ for numerous
papers on the geology and palaeontology.
[31] _Medd. om Gronl._, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).
[32] See Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice,"_ ii. 604 et seq.
(New York, 1898).
[33] See _loc. cit._ pp. 127-128.
[34] H. Mohn, "The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," _The Scott.
Geogr. Magazine_, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; H.
Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c.
Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p. 51.
[35] On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V.
Willaume-Jantzen, _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part ix. (1889), pp.
285-310, part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180.
[36] See A. Paulsen, _Meteorolog. Zeitschrift_ (1889), p. 241; F.
Nansen, _The First Crossing of Greenland_ (London, 1890), vol. ii.
pp. 496-497; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,"
&c. Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p.
51.
[37] H. Winge, "Gronlands Fugle," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part
xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).
[38] See J. Lange, "Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," _Meddelelser om
Gronland_, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, "Om
Gronlands Vegetation," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part xii.
(Copenhagen, 1888); and in _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. x.
(1888-1889). See also A. Blytt, _Englers Jahrbucher_, ii. (1882), pp.
1-50; A. G. Nathorst, _Otversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl._
(Stockholm, 1884); "Kritische Bemerkungen uber die Geschichte der
Vegetation Gronlands," _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. xiv. (1891).
[39] Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 as to
the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland,
and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation, the
Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for the
establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in
question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to put
its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships or
subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned in
the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar
provisions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in
council under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of
April in each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February
15, 1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still
operative.
[40] Cf. F. Nansen, _Eskimo Life_ (London, 1893).
GREENLAW (a "grassy hill"), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62-1/4 m. S.E. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway company's branch line from Reston
Junction to St Boswells. The town was built towards the end of the 17th
century, to take the place of an older one, which stood about a mile to
the S.E. It was the county town from 1696 to 1853, when for several
years it shared this dignity with Duns, which, however, is now the sole
capital. The chief manufactures are woollens and agricultural
implements. About 3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the
13th century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English in
1547, in spite of Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken two years
afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its surrender to Cromwell
in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards the close of the 18th century the
3rd earl of Marchmont had the walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and
the castle, though a mere shell of the original structure, is now a
picturesque ruin.
GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was born at Newburyport,
Massachusetts, on the 5th of December 1783. When a child he was taken by
his father to Maine, where he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise
at Standish. He soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve
years, and in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme
court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of _Reports
of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine_ (1822-1835). In 1833 he became
Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded Judge Joseph Story as Dane
professor of law in Harvard University; in 1848 he retired from his
active duties, and became professor emeritus. After being for many years
president of the Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge,
Mass., on the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf's principal work is a
_Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also
published _A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or
Limited in their Application, taken from American and English Reports_
(1821), and _Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists by the
Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, with an account
of the Trial of Jesus_ (1846; London, 1847). He revised for the American
courts William Cruise's _Digest of Laws respecting Real Property_ (3
vols., 1849-1850).
GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical group of the
guenon monkeys technically known as _Cercopithecus callitrichus_, taking
its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur of the back, which forms
a marked contrast to the white whiskers and belly.
GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire,
Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of
Glasgow by the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21
m. by the river and firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water
frontage of nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town
in which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch Gryfe,
from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic use, and for
driving several mills and factories. The streets are laid out on the
comparatively level tract behind the firth, the older thoroughfares and
buildings lying in the centre. The west end contains numerous handsome
villas and a fine esplanade, 1-1/2 m. long, running from Prince's Pier to
Fort Matilda, which is supplied with submarine mines for the defence of
the river. The capacious bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence
from a religious house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank
that ends here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway
between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and the
southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper firth.
There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting with Port
Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total distance of 7-1/2 m.
The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and Greenock thus has the
reputation of being the wettest town in Scotland.
Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal
buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with a tower 244
ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on the old steamboat
quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, dates from 1818. The county
buildings (1867) have a tower and spire 112 ft. high. The Watt
Institution, founded in 1837 by a son of the famous engineer, James
Watt, contains the public library (established in 1783), the Watt
scientific library (presented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble
statue of James Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the
museum and lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other
buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, founded
by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. In addition to
numerous board schools there are the Greenock academy for secondary
education, the technical college (1900), the school of art, and a school
of navigation and engineering. The charitable institutions include the
infirmary; the cholera hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception
house; Sir Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building
erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen; and the
Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built beyond the southern
boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour stands the old west now the north
parish church (a Gothic edifice dating from 1591) containing some
stained-glass windows by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's
"Highland Mary" was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson
Street (1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile.
The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the Classic
style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the infirmary and
attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful cemetery, 90 acres
in extent, has been laid out in the south-western district. The parks
and open spaces include Wellington Park, Well Park in the heart of the
town (these were the gift of Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle
Road--a broad drive winding over the heights towards Gourock,
constructed as a "relief work" in the severe winter of 1879-1880.
Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with provost and
bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by one member. The
corporation owns the supplies of water (the equipment of works and
reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, electric light and power, and
the tramways (leased to a company). The staple industries are
shipbuilding (established in 1760) and sugar refining (1765).
Greenock-built vessels have always been esteemed, and many Cunard, P. &
O. and Allan liners have been constructed in the yards. The town has
been one of the chief centres of the sugar industry. Other important
industries include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives,
anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and worsted
goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium factory, a
flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The seal and whale
fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, but the
fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland grounds are
considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first harbour (finished in
1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but acquired it in that and the
following year, and a graving dock was opened in 1786. Since then
additions and improvements have been periodically in progress, and there
are now several tidal harbours--among them Victoria harbour, Albert
harbour, the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour,
the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt dock
(completed in 1886 at a cost of L650,000 with an area of 2000 ft. by 400
ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel graving dock and other
dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 acres in area and the quay walls are
over 3 m. in length. Both the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western
railways (in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage
nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last the
outlay on the harbour has exceeded L1,500,000.
In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing village,
consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century later there were
only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it was erected by Charles
I. into a burgh of barony under a charter granted to John Shaw, the
government being administered by a baron-bailie, or magistrate,
appointed by the superior. Its commercial prosperity received an
enormous impetus from the Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with
America and the West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of
Independence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in
in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in
amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw--to whom and to whose descendants, the
Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been indebted--by charter (dated 1741
and 1751) had empowered the householders to elect a council of nine
members, which proved to be the most liberal constitution of any Scots
burgh prior to the Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the
status of a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to
parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, William Spence
(1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), principal of Glasgow
University, who died in the town and was buried in Greenock cemetery.
John Galt, the novelist, was educated in Greenock, where he also served
some time in the custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided
the town in 1715.
GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurring
as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals or as a canary-yellow powder.
Crystals are hexagonal with hemimorphic development, being differently
terminated at the two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the
numerous hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The
crystals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine to
resinous lustre; hardness 3-3-1/2; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals have
been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the neighbourhood
of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite in the amygdaloidal
cavities of basaltic igneous rocks--a rather unusual mode of occurrence
for a metallic sulphide. The first, and largest crystal (about 1/2 in.
across) was found, about the year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at
Bowling in Dumbartonshire, but this was thought to be blende. A larger
number of crystals, but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the
cutting of the Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they
were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of Cathcart,
after whom the mineral was named. A third locality is the Boyleston
quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities--Przibram in Bohemia,
Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.--the mineral is represented
only as a powder dusted over the surface of zinc minerals, especially
blende and calamine, which contain a small amount of cadmium replacing
zinc.
Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide (ZnS) known
as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared artificially, and are not
uncommon as furnace products. Previous to the recent discovery in
Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small octahedral crystals, greenockite was
the only known mineral containing cadmium as an essential constituent.
(L. J. S.)
GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, Ireland,
beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on its western
shore. It was brought to importance by the action of the London &
North-Western railway company of England, which owns the pier and
railways joining the Great Northern system at Dundalk (12-1/2 m.) and
Newry (14 m.). A regular service of passenger steamers controlled by
the company runs to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses
the Lough to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places
of county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out the golf
links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, some 10 ft. above
present sea-level, is to be seen.
GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geologist, was born in
London on the 18th of January 1778. He was educated at Eton, and
afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke College, Oxford, but never graduated.
In 1798 he proceeded to Gottingen to prosecute legal studies, but having
attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the study of
natural history, and, coming into the possession of a fortune, he
abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. He studied
mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in various parts of
Europe and the British Isles, and worked at chemistry at the Royal
Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused deep interest in political
questions, and he was in 1807 elected member of parliament for the
borough of Gatton, continuing to hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his
interest in geology increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was
the chief founder with others of the Geological Society of London in
1807. He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it
was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and in this
capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and did much to promote
the advancement of geology. In 1819 he published _A Critical Examination
of the First Principles of Geology_, a work which was useful mainly in
refuting erroneous theories. In the same year was published his famous
_Geological Map of England and Wales_, in six sheets; of which a second
edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based on the
original map of William Smith; but much new information was embodied. In
1843 he commenced to prepare a geological map of India, which was
published in 1854. He died at Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.
GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor, son of a merchant,
was born at Boston, on the 6th of September 1805. At the age of sixteen
he entered Harvard, but he devoted his principal attention to art, and
in the autumn of 1825 he went to Rome, where he studied under
Thorwaldsen. After a short visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed
busts of John Quincy Adams and other people of distinction, he returned
to Italy and took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first
commissions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting
Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government to execute the
colossal statue of Washington for the national capital. It was unveiled
in 1843, and was really a fine piece of work for its day; but in modern
times it has been sharply criticized as unworthy and incongruous.
Shortly afterwards he received a second government commission for a
colossal group, the "Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between
the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to Washington to
superintend its erection, and in the autumn of 1852 he was attacked by
brain fever, of which he died in Somerville near Boston on the 18th of
December. Among other works of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of
Lafayette, the Medora and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston
Athenaeum. Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in
prose and verse.
See H. T. Tuckerman, _Memoir of Horatio Greenough_ (New York, 1853).
GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901), American classical scholar, was
born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May 1833. He graduated at Harvard
in 1856, studied one year at the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the
Michigan bar, and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he
was appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became assistant
professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which he resigned
hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the
11th of October 1901. Following the lead of Goodwin's _Moods and Tenses_
(1860), he set himself to study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870
published _Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive_, a brief treatise,
privately printed, of much originality and value, and in many ways
coinciding with Berthold Delbruck's _Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und
Optativs in Sanskrit und Griechischen_ (1871), which, however, quite
overshadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared _A Latin Grammar for Schools
and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar_, by Joseph A. Allen and
James B. Greenough, a work of great critical carefulness. His theory of
_cum_-constructions is that adopted and developed by William Gardner
Hale. In 1872-1880 Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and
comparative philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced
scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen and
Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally
contributed to _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_ (founded in 1889
and endowed at his instance by his own class) papers on Latin syntax,
prosody and etymology--a subject on which he planned a long work--on
Roman archaeology and on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy.
He assisted largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able
English scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with
Professor George L. Kittredge on _Words and their Ways in English
Speech_ (1901), one of the best books on the subject in the language. He
wrote clever light verse, including _The Blackbirds_, a comedietta,
first published in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (vol. xxxix. 1877); _The Rose
and the Ring_ (1880), a pantomime adapted from Thackeray; _The Queen of
Hearts_ (1885), a dramatic fantasia; and _Old King Cole_ (1889), an
operetta.
See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in _Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology_, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in _Harvard
Graduates' Magazine_, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).
GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely combined
associations which met from time to time in London taverns or
coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century. It had its
meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery Lane End, and was
therefore known as the "King's Head Club." It seems to have been founded
about the year 1675 as a resort for members of the political party
hostile to the court, and as these associates were in the habit of
wearing in their hats a bow, or "bob," of green ribbon, as a
distinguishing badge useful for the purpose of mutual recognition in
street brawls, the name of the club became changed, about 1679, to the
Green Ribbon Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction
of the country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who were
concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion. Roger North
tells us that "they admitted all strangers that were confidingly
introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions to make
proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly come to town."
According to Dryden (_Absalom and Achitophel_) drinking was the chief
attraction, and the members talked and organized sedition over their
cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied the court with a list of forty-eight
members of the Green Ribbon Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's
numerous perjuries make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives
confirmation as regards several names from a list given to James II. by
Nathan Wade in 1885 (_Harleian MSS._ 6845), while a number of more
eminent personages are mentioned in _The Cabal_, a satire published in
1680, as also frequenting the club. From these sources it would appear
that the duke of Monmouth himself, and statesmen like Halifax,
Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of
Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, were among those who fraternized at the
King's Head Tavern with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and
Shadwell, with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridge,
Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard of
Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the type of
Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield, notorious among his
other crimes and treacheries for a seditious paper found in a meal-tub,
is found in connexion with the club in _The Loyal Subjects' Litany_, one
of the innumerable satires of the period, in which occur the lines:
"From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club
From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,
_Libera nos, Domine_."
The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the court, and
its members were active promoters of conspiracy and sedition. The
president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir Robert Peyton, M.P. for
Middlesex, who afterwards turned informer. The Green Ribbon Club served
both as a debating society and an intelligence department for the Whig
faction. Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed out
by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news from
Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, "for some or others
were continually coming and going," says Roger North, "to import or
export news and stories." Slander of the court or the Tories was
invented in the club and sedulously spread over the town, and measures
were there concerted for pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting
the pretensions of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to
Catholic outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the
scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk armour,
supposed to be bullet proof, "in which any man dressed up was as safe as
a house," says North, "for it was impossible to strike him for
laughing"; while in their pockets, "for street and crowd-work," they
carried the weapon of offence invented by Stephen College and known as
the "Protestant Flail."
The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club the means of
constructing the first systematized political organization in England.
North relates that "every post conveyed the news and tales legitimated
there, as also the malign constructions of all the good actions of the
government, especially to places where elections were depending, to
shape men's characters into fit qualifications to be chosen or
rejected." In the general election of January and February 1679 the Whig
interest throughout the country was managed and controlled by a
committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club's organizing
activity was also notably effective in the agitation of the Petitioners
in 1679. This celebrated movement was engineered from the Green Ribbon
Club with all the skill and energy of a modern caucus. The petitions
were prepared in London and sent down to every part of the country,
where paid canvassers took them from house to house collecting
signatures with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The
great "pope-burning" processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary of
Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the club. They ended
by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club windows; and as
they proved an effective means of inflaming the religious passions of
the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon Club that the _mobile vulgus_
first received the nickname of "the mob." The activity of the club was,
however, short-lived. The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of
the favourite projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence,
which declined rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation
of the city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House
Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 John
Ayloffe, who was found to have been "a clubber at the King's Head Tavern
and a green-ribon man," was executed in front of the premises on the
spot where the "pope-burning" bon-fires had been kindled; and although
the tavern was still in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green
Ribbon Club which made it famous did not survive the accession of James
II. The precise situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by North
as "over against the Inner Temple Gate," was at the corner of Fleet
Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the latter thoroughfare.
See Sir George Sitwell, _The First Whig_ (Scarborough, 1894),
containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning
procession; Roger North, _Examen_ (London, 1740); Anchitell Grey,
_Debates of the House of Commons_, 1667-1684, vol. viii. (10 vols.,
London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc.,
London, 1845). (R. J. M.)
GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to no fewer than
three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, viz. the Upper
Greensand (see GAULT), the Lower Greensand and the so-called Cambridge
Greensand, a local phase of the base of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was
introduced by the early English geologists for certain sandy rocks which
frequently exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of
minute grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of
these rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion
between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) and the
Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention to the latter.
The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. Fitton
(_Q.J.G.S._ iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name "Vectine"
for the formation. The name was revived under the form "Vectian" in 1885
by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, although sands and sandstones prevail,
the green colour has often changed by oxidation of the iron to various
shades of red and brown, and other lithological types, clays and
limestones represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand
is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of Wight, in
Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again beneath the northern
outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Bedfordshire, and
thence it is traceable through Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east
Yorkshire. It rests conformably upon the Wealden formation in the south
of England, but it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the
occurrence of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked
overlap of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived
pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. thick
at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly westward. It is
usually clearly marked off from the overlying Gault.
In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided as follows,
although the several members are not everywhere recognizable:--
Isle of Wight.
Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.) Carstone and Sand rock series.
Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.) Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).
Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.) Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).
Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.) Atherfield Clay.
The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The basal
portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the "Perna bed" from the abundance of
_Perna Mulleti_; other fossils are _Hoplites Deshayesii_, _Exogyra
sinuata_, _Ancyloceras Mathesonianum_. The Hythe beds are
interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former are
bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain amount of quartz
and glauconite. The limestone is known locally as "rag"; the Kentish Rag
has been largely employed as a building stone and roadstone; it
frequently contains layers of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that
town). The sandy portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey
and calcareous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone;
locally it is called "hassock" (or Calkstone). The two stones are well
exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so called from the
discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest of Dorking sandstone
and grit become more prevalent, and it is known there as "Bargate
stone," much used around Godalming. Pulborough stone is another local
sandstone of the Hythe beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this
formation in Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand
and clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst,
Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's earth
deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near Maidstone, at
Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds are light-coloured,
rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous limestone (Folkestone
stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found near the top. These beds are
well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone and near Reigate. At Ightham there
is a fine, hard, white sandstone along with a green, quartzitic variety
(Ightham stone). In Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking,
but a ferruginous grit, "carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and
layers, which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c.
The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy country, as about
Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at Woburn, or at Shanklin and
Sandown in the Isle of Wight. Outside the southern area the Lower
Greensand is represented by the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in
Berkshire, the Sandy and Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron
sands of Oxfordshire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the
Leighton Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the
Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county and
Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the
Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along with the
upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands of the Lower
Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture of glass, for which
purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, near Reigate, Hartshill,
near Aylesbury and other places; the ferruginous sand is worked as an
iron ore at Seend.
This formation is continuous across the channel into France, where it is
well developed in Boulonnais. According to the continental
classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the Urgonian or
Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to the Aptian (q.v.);
while the upper part of the Folkestone beds would fall within the lower
Albian (q.v.).
See the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey_, "Geology of the Weald"
(1875), "Geology of the Isle of Wight" (2nd ed., 1889), "Geology of
the Isle of Purbeck" (1898); and the _Record of Excursions_,
Geologists' Association (London, 1891). (J. A. H.)
GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, North
Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 3317, (1900)
10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is
served by several lines of the Southern railway. It is situated in the
Piedmont region of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is
the seat of the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of
the Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; chartered in
1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles F. Deems was
president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the burning of its
buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of two institutions for
negroes--a State Agricultural and Mechanical College, and Bennett
College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1873). Another school for
negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College (Evangelical Lutheran,
co-educational), was opened at Concord, N.C., in 1903, was removed to
Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 was established at Lutherville, E. of
Greensboro. About 6 m. W. of Greensboro is Guilford College
(co-educational; Friends), founded as "New Garden Boarding School" in
1837 and rechartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a
Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is the
shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking region, among
whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton are especially important;
is an important insurance centre; has a large wholesale trade; and has
various manufactures, including cotton goods[1] (especially blue denim),
tobacco and cigars, lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds,
machinery, foundry products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory
products increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or
97.6%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro
was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the 15th of
March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford Court House,
about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a Battle-Ground Park of
100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this park contains a Revolutionary
museum, and twenty-nine monuments, including a Colonial Column, an arch
(1906) in memory of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North
Carolina, who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and
Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781), a
brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed at Catawba
and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, N.C., was named.
Greensboro was founded and became the county-seat in 1808, was organized
as a town in 1829, and was first chartered as a city in 1870.