THE ORDER OF THE YELLOW ROBE.
"Lord Buddha sat the scorching summer through,
The driving rains, the chilly dawns and eves;
Wearing for all men's sakes the yellow robe,
Eating in beggar's guise the scanty meal
Chance gathered from the charitable."
"_Light of Asia_," Book V.--ARNOLD.
Among the crowd of brightly dressed people who throng the streets
and alleys, the canals and rivers of Eastern Venice, there are none
who so soon command the attention of the new arrival, or who appeal
more strongly to the eye of the oldest inhabitant of the city, than
the yellow-robed priests of the Buddhist faith. In the capital of
Siam there are over ten thousand of them, while in the whole kingdom
there are more than one hundred thousand. No ancient order of Grey
or White Friars ever exhibited their individuality either with such
frequency, persistency, or picturesqueness as these representatives
of a far more ancient if less noble worship. It is scarcely necessary
in these days when Oriental creeds and faiths have been so fully
and widely discussed, to point out that the primal elements of that
philosophy which announced the necessity of the Buddhist priesthood
are entirely different to those which caused the creation of similar
institutions in the West. The monk of the Western orders claims to
be an intercessor between God and man. The Buddhists have no God,
and therefore they do not make intercession for their brethren. The
Western monk is a teacher and a preacher, the Buddhist priest may
be, but is by no means necessarily so. The order rests upon a basis
something like this:--The evil in the world is the result of past evil
and will be productive of future evil. The only way to eradicate the
general wickedness of the world is by casting it separately out of
each individual in the world. This can only be accomplished by the
individual himself, and as long as he remains in contact with the
world he is under constant temptation to indulge in its pleasures,
to gratify his passions, and to add in a thousand ways to the sum of
human misery. By retirement he no longer craves for fine food and
raiment, but has every opportunity for long and careful meditation
upon his own evil doings and desires, and upon the way to get rid of
them. The monastic institution finds its parallel in the life of a
layman, when such a one, with a large amount of work to be performed,
shuts himself up in his own room and denies himself friends and rest
that his labours may be properly accomplished.
There is no real division between priest and layman; either may become
the other at will. In Siam the monastic vow is not binding for life,
but is cancelled by the superior of the monastery whenever a request
to that effect is made. Every man in Siam enters the priesthood for
at least three months of his life, during which time he is supported
by the voluntary offerings of the people. The original purity and
simplicity of the mendicant order has long been lost. The Society has
often been endowed by kings and chiefs with gold and silver; idleness
and worthlessness are too often the characteristics of the temporary
priests. Still, there are a few who desire to live the noble life of
their Founder and to follow faithfully in his paths of wisdom and
virtue. For years they have been the schoolmasters and the doctors,
and the copiers and makers of books. They are known in Siamese as
"Pra," a word which means both "sacred" and "great."
Each monk has eight requisite and lawful possessions; namely, three
robes of yellow cloth which are all worn at the same time; a bowl for
the collection of the daily food; a razor with which to shave the
head and eyebrows; a case of needles for the repairing of clothes; a
girdle; and a filtering cloth. But the Siamese monks often have many
possessions besides these. There is a rule that all other property
except the above shall be given up to the common use of the monastery,
but the rule is not obeyed. The three patched yellow robes are often
represented by seven or more; and in the wealthier monasteries they
are not of common cloth, but of rich and beautiful silk. The term
"yellow" as applied to the priest's vestments is apt to convey a
wrong impression to the minds of those not acquainted with Buddhist
countries. In these degenerate times the monks desire that ornament
in dress which their religion forbids, and they render themselves
very artistic in appearance by a combination of colours not strictly
yellow, but ranging from a rich chocolate through shades of saffron,
gold and orange to the palest tints of the orthodox colour. The
following note from Alabaster's "Wheel of the Law" is an interesting
comment upon the priestly robes:
"I cannot state with any certainty the reason yellow robes
were adopted by the Buddhists. There is a story that
thieves wore yellow dresses, and that the poor ascetics,
in the depth of their humility, imitated the thieves. It
is far more probable that the people of the lowest caste,
or outcasts, were compelled to wear yellow, and that
the Buddhists, voluntarily making themselves outcasts,
proudly adopted the colour which marked their act. We find
them boasting of the yellow robe as the flag of victory
of the saints. In the early days of Buddhism the monks
wore whatever they could get. Some picked up and patched
together the rags strewn about the cemeteries, whilst
others are mentioned as magnificently attired in glittering
royal vestments, and in the precious dresses procured
by kings for the ladies of the harems, which the ladies
piously gave away."
Each priest also possesses a large fan. It is intended to assist him
in keeping his eyes from the things of the world, and so to keep
his thoughts from straying as he walks along the streets. A priest
is forbidden to look more than a plough's length in front of him,
and must keep his eyes fixed upon the ground; but the Siamese monk
who obeys this rule must be diligently sought for in out of the way
corners. The fan is generally carried by a boy attendant, who holds it
so as to screen the priest's head from the sun, while his eyes roam at
will, seeking for novelty and amusement.
[Illustration: PRIEST AND ATTENDANT.]
All those who wear the yellow robe are not men. Many children can
daily be seen with shaven heads and eyebrows, dressed in the priestly
garments. These are novices or "nanes," not fully ordained monks.
They are not admitted before they are eight years old, and, unless
their parents intend them to remain in the monasteries for life, they
wait until the top-knot has been shaved off before entering into the
service of the temple, so that their average age is about thirteen.
After a time they leave the temple, return to the world, and get
married. But about the age of twenty or twenty-one they must re-enter
the priesthood, for in early manhood every male, including the king
himself, must seek full ordination. The "nane" during his noviciate
has only about ten rules to observe, whereas the fully ordained priest
has to obey over two hundred.
The ceremony of ordination if respectfully and devoutly performed
would be a very impressive one, but as at present carried out,
the only persons in the temple who are at all reverent are the
priests themselves. The behaviour of the congregation is marked by
indifference and often by extreme levity. When an applicant desires
admission to the priesthood he signifies his request sometime
beforehand to the president of the chapter, who then appoints a day
for him to be formally received. The applicant arrives at the temple
with a host of relatives and friends dressed as for a holiday. He is
clothed in white, and over his ordinary garments he wears a mantle of
gauze decorated with gold and silver spangles. A procession is formed,
and to the sound of a band that plays in the open air, he and his male
friends march three times round the outside of the temple. He next
enters the building and sits down on the floor in a place reserved for
him. The women of the party sit on one side of the temple and the
men on the other. They all chew betel-nut, and the men smoke, while
all refresh their thirst from the numerous tea-pots that circulate
round and round the congregation. At the far end of the building the
priests are arranged in two or more rows, facing each other, with the
president at their head.
One of the friends of the candidate who has already been ordained,
leads him to the superior, saying, "I present this person who wishes
to become a priest." The applicant prostrates himself before the
president three times, with his hands pressed against his forehead,
palm to palm, and says, "Venerable president, I own you as my
ordainer." The president fastens the bundle of robes round his neck,
and he goes to the entrance of the temple, where two friends who are
members of the chapter, fasten the begging bowl round his neck. The
three men then return to the altar and bow. The candidate retires
a little way, and kneels in reverential attitude while he answers
several questions. A private examination has previously taken place.
The president now reminds him that he is expected to give truthful
replies to the questions put to him, and then puts him publicly
through the following catechism.
"Are you free from consumption, fits, leprosy, or any
contagious disease?"
"I am free."
"Have you ever been bewitched or in the power of the
magicians?"
"Never."
"Are you in the full possession of all your mental
faculties?"
"I am."
"Are you of the male sex?"
"I am."
"Are you in debt?"
"I am not." (Many people endeavour to enter the priesthood
in order to avoid payment of their debts.)
"Are you a slave or a fugitive?"
"I am not." (Those drawn for conscription often seek
admission, as the forced military service is very
unpopular.)
"Do your parents give their consent to the step you are now
about to take?"
"They consent."
"Are you over twenty years of age?"
"I am."
"Have you the requisite utensils and garments?"
"I have."
"Then come forward."
The candidate goes forward on hands and knees, and with palm-joined
hands salutes the president three times, saying, "O father benefactor,
I pray to be admitted to the sacred dignity of the priesthood. Take
pity on me and raise me from the lowly condition of the laity to the
perfect condition of the priesthood."
The presiding priest next asks the monks of the chapter whether any
of them know any just or lawful reason why the candidate should not
have his request granted. If none of them state any objection, the
president signifies his willingness to admit the candidate to full
ordination. The name, age, and address of the applicant are now
written down in the records of the monastery, after which he goes to
one side of the temple to be robed. He takes off the clothes he has
been wearing and puts on his new garments in full view of the whole
congregation. This is not at all an easy matter, and he is always
assisted by some friend who has previously gone through the same
ordeal. If the friend gets the robes entangled, as he frequently does,
the congregation laughs immoderately at the uncomfortable dilemma
in which the candidate is placed. The difficulty is solved by some
kindly-disposed priest, who leaves his place and comes to assist
in the robing. With fan in hand and the alms-bowl slung over the
shoulder, the wearer of the yellow robe kneels once more before the
superior, saying:--
"I go for refuge to the Buddha."
"I go for refuge to the Law."
"I go for refuge to the Order."
He follows this by taking ten vows:--
1 "I take the vow not to destroy life."
2 "I take the vow not to steal."
3 "I take the vow to abstain from impurity."
4 "I take the vow not to lie."
5 "I take the vow to abstain from intoxicating drinks,
which hinder progress and virtue."
6 "I take the vow not to eat at forbidden times."
7 "I take the vow to abstain from dancing, singing, music,
and stage-plays."
8 "I take the vow not to use garlands, scents, unguents, or
ornaments."
9 "I take the vow not to use a broad or high bed."
10 "I take the vow not to receive gold or silver."
Then the president says to him, "You are now received into the
brotherhood. I will therefore instruct you what duties you are to
perform and what sins you are to avoid. You will daily collect alms
and will never put off your yellow robes. You must dwell continually
in a monastery and never with the laity, and you must forsake all
carnal pleasures," and so on.
The ceremony concludes with the paying of homage to the newly made
priest. He sits on the floor, and then all present who are acquainted
with him come, one by one, and prostrate themselves to the ground
before him, at the same time giving him some present. If he has many
friends, the floor of the temple round him is soon covered with about
as motley an assortment of articles as it is possible to gather. There
are robes, incense sticks, books, pens and ink, pencils, cigars,
tobacco, betel-nut, clocks, vases of wax flowers, umbrellas, fans,
flowers, fruit and cakes. When all the presents have been given and
the congregation have paid their respects to the new monk, they go
to their homes, and he at once takes up his residence in the cell
allotted him. As long as he remains at the monastery he must obey
orders and regard the superior as a second father.
The monks are not allowed to take food after noon. They may drink
tea, chew betel-nut, or smoke tobacco, but they must not partake of
solid food of any description. This rule is certainly far more rigidly
observed than most of those that are laid down to regulate the conduct
of the order. One of the commonest sights in any part of Siam is the
procession of priests, soon after sunrise, seeking their daily bread.
They carry a bowl, basin or bag, and go straight on from house to
house, each in the district appointed him. They stand outside the
houses, but make no request for alms. If anything is given to them
they bless the giver; if they receive nothing they pass silently on
their way. Having collected their food, they return to the monastery
to eat, and to meditate meanwhile upon the perishableness of the body.
On such occasions as weddings, hair-cuttings, and funerals, wealthy
laymen entertain the priests at their own houses, and send them away
afterwards with further gifts of food.
Buddha's early life as a mendicant was passed in the forest, and he
held that the solitude and quiet of such a place was conducive to that
long process of self-examination and renunciation which constitutes
the distinguishing feature of the order. But as he afterwards found
that he could be more useful to men by living amongst them, he
permitted his disciples to live in companies in different places. The
charity of the pious soon provided them with temples and monasteries,
some of which were built even in his own time.
During the whole of the dry weather the monks travel from place to
place, but in the rainy season, which is the Buddhist Lent, they
settle down in some particular monastery. They are not allowed to
sleep outside the temple they have chosen for their habitation during
this period of retirement, except for some very important reason, and
then only with the direct sanction of the superior. As at this time
the jungle is flooded, and malaria common, there is much wisdom in the
rule that forbids travelling about until the dry weather comes again.
The priests, during Lent, preach to the people, who come in large
numbers to listen, and to bring offerings. It is a very busy religious
season as far as outward appearances are concerned, but the apparent
indifference of the majority of the worshippers raises a doubt as to
whether these observances possess any moral influence upon their lives.
The catalogue of the sins which the priests may not commit is a
lengthy one and is religiously neglected. For instance, it is a sin
to inhale flowers, to sit or sleep more than twelve inches above
the ground, to break up the soil, to listen to music, to sing, to
dance, to use perfumes, to sit or sleep in a higher position than
the superior, to use gold or silver, to hold conversation on any but
religious topics, to take gifts from or give gifts to a woman, to
borrow, to ask for alms, to possess warlike weapons, to eat too much,
to sleep too long, to take part in any sports or games, to judge
one's neighbours, to swing the arms when walking, to bake bricks, to
burn wood, to wink, to stretch out the legs when sitting, to look
contemptuously at any one or anything, to buy, to sell, to slobber
or make a noise when eating, to have any hair anywhere about the
head or face, to keep the leavings of meals, to have many robes, to
meddle with royal affairs except in so far as they concern religion,
to cook rice, to ride on an elephant, to put flowers in the ears, to
wear shoes, to love one man more than another, to eat seeds, to sleep
after meals, to make remarks about the alms given to them, to wear any
colour but yellow, to pander to popular taste when preaching sermons,
to wash in the dark, to destroy either animal or vegetable life, and
to whistle.
There are five sins that will certainly lead to everlasting
punishment, whether committed by a priest or layman, viz., to murder
one's father, to murder one's mother, to murder a priest, to treat
the words or temples of Buddha with contempt, expressed as "to wound
Buddha's foot so as to make it bleed," and to persuade priests to act
falsely.
Members are expelled from the order on commission of the following
sins:--Sexual intercourse, theft, and murder. After such expulsions
they can never be re-admitted. Confessions of sin are made twice a
month, at full and new moon, when the chapter meets to listen to
the reading of the rules of the order. There is no inquisition;
confession is purely voluntary. Slight punishments, such as sweeping
the courtyard, or sprinkling dust round the holy Bo-tree follow the
acknowledgment of slight breaches of duty. Serious offences are tried
in the ecclesiastical courts, for the priestly body is not amenable to
the ordinary laws of the land. In these courts, presided over by the
chief priest, no oath is taken. An ordinary affirmation or negative
answer to any question is given in silence by the raising and lowering
of a fan. If the defendant is found guilty he is unfrocked, publicly
flogged, and then expelled from the order.
[Illustration: OFFERING RICE TO THE PRIESTS.]
The priest must rise before daylight, wash himself, sweep the room in
which he lives, sweep round the Bo-tree, fetch the drinking water for
the day, filter it to prevent killing any creatures it may contain
when drinking it. These practical offices concluded, he is supposed to
retire to a solitary place and there fix his mind in pious meditation
upon the rules that regulate his daily life. He rises to place
offerings of flowers before the sacred image, the sacred dome-shaped
shrine or the Bo-tree, thinking the whole time of the great contrast
between his own weaknesses and Buddha's virtues. The next portion of
the daily routine is strictly and regularly followed. He takes the
begging-bowl, follows his superior, collects his food, returns, eats
his meal, asks a blessing for the donor, performs little duties for
his superior, and washes the alms-bowls. For the next hour he should
again meditate upon the kindness of Buddha, and then study the sacred
books. At sunset he sweeps the holy place, lights the lamps, and
listens to the teaching of the superior. As the novices do all the
manual work, the superior is expected to devote himself more fully
to study and meditation. Many of the chief priests of the different
temples are profound Sanscrit and Pali scholars. The minute routine
set forth in the ecclesiastical books is rarely followed in Siam.
Priests walk about after sunset, and return late to the temples,
their attendants lighting the way with torches. The time they give to
meditation and worship is far short of that prescribed in the rules,
and they are always ready to turn out for a chat with any visitor to
their temple.
Meditation is the Buddhist substitute for prayer. There are five
distinct classes of meditation.[H]
1.--Meditation on love. The priest must think of the future happiness
which awaits him when he has rid himself of all evil desires. This
leads him to desire the same happiness for all his friends; and
finally for his foes. He meditates upon the good actions of his
enemies, forgets their evil deeds, and endeavours to arouse in himself
a wide-spreading, all-embracing, overshadowing love for all the world,
which shall enable him to look with tenderness and affection upon all
with whom he comes into contact.
2.--Meditation on Pity. He concentrates his thoughts upon the miseries
and sorrows of the world, and awakens the sentiment of pity in his own
breast for all the distressed ones among his fellow-men.
3.--Meditation on Joy. He is to change the attitude of his mind to one
of contemplation of the joys of all men, and therein to find cause for
rejoicing himself.
4.--Meditation on Impurity. He must try to realise the evils of
sickness, death, and corruption, to become horrified at the endless
misery entailed by the continual recurrence of birth and death, and to
desire its final extinction.
5.--Meditation on Serenity. The priest contemplates the worldly
opinions of men as to the badness and goodness of things; the desire
for wealth and power; the hatred of injustice and oppression; he
contrasts youth and disease, love and treachery, honour and disgrace,
and endeavours so to rise above them all, that without haughtiness or
pride he may be indifferent to all the evils and joys which accompany
them, and free from all desires to partake of the same.
This is not the place to discuss the philosophy of Buddha, as we are
here concerned only with the mendicant order in Siam. But in order to
gain a more complete idea of the duties and character of the monastic
body as contemplated by their founder, the following facts taken from
Professor Rhys Davids's work on "Buddhism" are here given.
Buddha before his death told his disciples that they were to propagate
his Laws, viz., (1) The four earnest meditations. (2) The four great
Efforts. (3) The four roads to Iddhi. (4) The five moral Powers. (5)
The seven kinds of Wisdom; and (6) The Noble Eightfold Path.
The four earnest Meditations are: (1) On the impurity of the body; (2)
on the evils which arise from sensation; (3) on the impermanence of
ideas; (4) on the conditions of existence.
The four great Efforts are--the exertion (1) to prevent bad qualities
from arising; (2) to put away bad qualities which have arisen; (3) to
produce goodness not previously existing; (4) to increase goodness
where it does exist.
The four roads to Iddhi are the four bases of Saintship by which
it is obtained. They are: (1) the will to acquire it; (2) the
necessary exertion; (3) the necessary preparation of the heart; (4)
investigation.
The five moral Powers are--Faith, Energy, Recollection, Contemplation,
Intuition.
The seven kinds of Wisdom are--Energy, Recollection, Contemplation,
Investigation of Scripture, Joy, Repose and Serenity.
The noble Eightfold Path which leads to Nirvana comprises: (1) Right
belief; (2) Right aims; (3) Right words; (4) Right behaviour; (5)
Right mode of livelihood; (6) Right exertion; (7) Right mindfulness;
(8) Right meditation and tranquillity.
All these different Powers, Laws, etc., are again subdivided and
re-subdivided; but the above lines will be sufficient to outline the
moral philosophy of that system which not only the priests should bear
out in their lives, but to which every true believer in Buddhism is
expected to conform. Practically, however, these counsels are so many
obsolete laws, long since dead and forgotten. Outside the permanent
priests and a few students, the vast majority of the people know
nothing whatever about the system, and if some of the learned writers
upon Buddhism in Europe were to preach their Buddhist sermons to the
subjects of the only independent Buddhist king remaining, the people
would stare in wonder at their new teachers and ask one another what
strange doctrines were these that were being preached unto them.
Buddha's own sermons as to the duties of the priesthood are worth a
moment's notice, though the priests as a rule have never heard them,
or heard them with indifferent ears. The following passages are quoted
from the book mentioned above, and are translations of passages in
those sermons whose authenticity is established.
"He who, himself not stainless,
Would wrap the yellow-stained robe around him,
He, devoid of self-control and honesty
Is unworthy of the yellow robe."
"But he who, cleansed from stains,
Is well grounded in the Precepts,
And full of honesty and self-restraint
'Tis he who's worthy of the yellow robe."
"The restrained in hand, restrained in foot,
Restrained in speech, the best of self-controlled;
He whose delight is inward, who is tranquil
And happy when alone--him they call _mendicant_."
"The mendicant who controls his tongue, speaking
Wisely, and is not puffed up,
Who throws light on worldly and on Heavenly things,
His word is sweet."
"Let his livelihood be kindliness,
His conduct righteousness,
Then, in the fulness of gladness,
He will make an end of grief."
"As the Vassika plant casts down its withered blossoms
So cast out utterly, O mendicants, ill-will and lust."
"Do no violence to a Brahman,
But neither let _him_ fly at his aggressor.
Woe to him who strikes a Brahman;
More woe to him who strikes the striker."
"What is the use of plaited hair, O fool!
What of a garment of skins?
Your low yearnings are within you,
And the outside thou makest clean."
"A mendicant, who is fond of disputes, is walled in by
ignorance, and understands neither religion nor the law of
Gautama."
"A mendicant having received in right time, his meal,
returning alone, should sit in private, reflecting within
himself; he should not spread out his mind; his mind should
be well controlled. Should he speak with a follower of
the Buddha or another mendicant, he should speak of the
excellent Law, and not backbite or speak ill of another.
Some fortify themselves for controversy. We praise not
those small-minded persons. Temptations from this source
and that are made to cling to them, and they certainly send
their minds very far away when they engage in controversy."
The mendicant that Gautama had in his mind when he uttered the above
passages, may be as easily discovered amongst the thousands that wear
the yellow robe to-day, as a needle in a mountain of hay.
After a short interval the priests put off their robes and return
to the world. If they are wanted for _corvée_ or conscription they
stay an indefinite period in their safe retreat. The yellow robes are
never taken away, but are given by him who is leaving them, to one
of the inmates of the same monastery. If a priest is thought to be
dying the robes are taken from him, for they must not be contaminated
with death. They are afterwards hung on the sacred Bo-tree, but never
burned. Anyone who has once been a priest, but has returned to a
secular life, may re-enter the priesthood whenever he chooses, but he
must be again formally presented and ordained.
In the vicinity of several temples women with shaven heads and white
dresses are sometimes seen. They are not always mourners for the
dead, but belong to an order of nuns. The first nun was Buddha's
foster-mother, who after the death of his father, wished to be
ordained. Buddha at first refused to comply with her wishes, but on
the intercession of his favourite disciple, Ananda, he granted the
request. Ananda's wife, a half-sister of Buddha, was also subsequently
ordained as a nun. The order of nuns does not appear to have been
at any time half as flourishing as that of the monks. Nuns in Siam
are very old widows. They do no teaching, sewing, or work of any
description. To them the temple is a form of alms-house where they
will be lodged and fed as long as they live.