by those who are unable to distinguish between species, but this name is
correctly applied only to _Æthusa cynapium_, a smooth, leafy plant, with
an unpleasant odour and poisonous properties. The plant grows from a
foot to eighteen inches high, flowers during July and August, and is
common in cultivated ground as well as in wastes and by waysides. It may
be recognised at once by the help of our illustration; but we call
special attention to the three, long, drooping bracts on the outer side
of each secondary umbel.
On roadside banks, particularly in chalky districts, we may often meet
with the Wild Parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_). This is an erect, downy
plant, with a tap root; and angular, hollow stem from two to three feet
high. Its leaves are pinnate, glossy above and downy beneath, with five
or seven ovate, sessile, cut and serrate leaflets, and sheathing
petioles. The umbels are terminal, without primary or secondary bracts;
and the flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, producing
flattened, winged fruits. The flowers bloom during July and August.
The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed (_Heracleum Sphondylium_) is somewhat similar
in general appearance, but is much stouter, and grows to a height of
four or five feet. Its stem is hairy and channelled; and the leaves have
a few broad, lobed, serrate leaflets with a rough, hairy surface. The
flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a reddish white
colour, and have unequal petals.
The Upright Hedge Parsley (_Torilis Anthriscus_ or _Caucalis
Anthriscus_) is a slender plant, with an erect, solid, rough stem, from
two to three feet high. Its leaves are hairy, bipinnate, with lobed and
toothed, ovate or oblong leaflets. The white or pale pink flowers are
arranged in long-stalked, terminal umbels of from about six to twelve
rays, with several primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are armed
with bristles which, though not hooked, are slightly bent inwards. This
is a very common hedgerow plant, flowering from July to September.
[Illustration: THE HONEYSUCKLE.]
Our last example of the _Umbelliferæ_ is the Rough Chervil
(_Chærophyllum temulum_), which is very common in hedgerows, among the
undergrowth of woods, and in other shady places. It has a slender stem,
from one to three feet high, swollen at the joints, spotted with purple,
and rendered rough by short hairs. The leaves, which are also rough and
spotted, are bipinnate, with ovate leaflets that are cut into segments
terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and they assume a rich purple
tint that makes the plant a conspicuous object in the autumn. The
flowers are white, in terminal compound umbels which droop in the bud.
The bracts are few in number or altogether absent, but there are several
secondary bracts which are fringed and bent downwards.
Passing now to the order _Caprifoliaceæ_, we have to deal with the
well-known and favourite Honeysuckle or Woodbine (_Lonicera
periclymenum_), so highly prized on account of its lovely fragrant
flowers. It is a climbing plant, often reaching a height of ten or
twelve feet, supporting itself by twining its woody stem round
surrounding shrubs and trees in hedges and the open spaces of woods. The
beautiful flowers, which are yellow within, and more or less tinged with
red outside, are arranged in terminal, stalked heads; and the united
petals form widely-gaping lips. The plant blooms from June to September,
and displays its crimson berries in the autumn.
Two other species of Honeysuckle occur in our hedges, but neither of
these is common. One is the Upright Honeysuckle, which has an erect
stem; downy, stalked leaves; and pale yellow, scentless flowers that
grow in pairs in the axils of the leaves. The other is the Perfoliate
Honeysuckle, so called because its upper leaves are united at their
bases, with the stem running through them. In this one the flower-heads
have no stalks.
[Illustration: THE GREAT HEDGE BEDSTRAW.]
In the Bedstraw family (order _Rubiaceæ_) we have two very common,
hedgerow plants--the Great Hedge Bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_) and the
Goose-grass or Cleavers (_G. Aparine_). The first is a very straggling
plant, with a square stem, thickened at the joints, that often reaches a
length of four or five feet. Its leaves are elliptical, with apex
terminating suddenly in a bristle-like point, and margins roughened by
prickles that are either at right angles or pointing more or less
forward. They are arranged in whorls, usually of eight, but sometimes
six. The little white flowers, which bloom during July and August, are
arranged in panicles with spreading branches, the lower of which are
either horizontal or bent downward. The fruit is smooth.
The Goose Grass is so named because it is eaten by geese; and it is also
known as the Cleavers because its fruits, which are covered with hooked
bristles, cling tenaciously to our clothing and to the covering of
animals. Its straggling stem often reaches a length of four or five
feet, and forms tangled masses with the stems and leaves of other
hedgerow plants. The leaves are narrow and keeled; and the small, white
flowers are arranged in small axillary clusters of two or three. The
whole plant is rough with hooked bristles.
[Illustration: THE TEASEL.]
We conclude this chapter with a description of the common Teasel
(_Dipsacus sylvestris_) of the order _Dipsaceæ_. This is really a very
graceful plant, rarely less than three or four feet high, and sometimes
reaching six feet or more. Its stem is very stout and prickly; and its
large bright green leaves are simple, sessile, and arranged in opposite
pairs. They are prickly beneath, and the two leaves of each pair are
united at their bases in such a manner that they form hollows in which
the rain-water collects. The reservoirs so formed often contain drowned
insects which have flown or fallen into the water, or which have been
washed down the stem by the rain. Their dead bodies decompose, giving
rise to nitrogenous and other products of decay which generally
discolour the water. These products are valuable as plant food, and it
has been said that they are absorbed by the leaves. The flowers of the
Teasel are collected in large heads, covered with straight, stiff
bristles, and have an involucre of bracts which curve upwards. The
flowers are of a pale purple colour. They commence to open near the
middle of the head, forming a horizontal circle; and then they expand
both upwards and downwards from this level. The flowers are not
conspicuous individually, nor does each individual flower produce much
pollen; but the large heads of bloom attract numerous insects which
climb about among the flowers in search of nectar, covering their bodies
with pollen, and thus aiding the process of fertilisation.
[Illustration: TEASEL-HEADS.
1, 2, and 3 are successive flowering stages. 4, The elongated head in
fruit.]
XII
WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (_Continued_)
COMPOSITE FLOWERS
There are so many flowers of the order _Compositæ_ in bloom by the
wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a
chapter entirely to them.
This group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to
contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. The chief
distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the
flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little
flowers or _florets_ that are sessile on a common _receptacle_, as in
the case of the Daisy, the Dandelion, and the Thistles.
The florets of each head or _capitulum_ are generally arranged into two
well-defined sets--the florets of the disc, occupying the centre; and
the florets of the ray, spreading more or less in a radial manner from
the edge of the disc. These two sets are often of different colours, as
in the Daisy, where the disc florets are of a deep yellow, while the ray
florets are white or pink.
In some of the Composites all the florets of each head are perfect,
while in others some are perfect and some imperfect. Then, as regards
the latter, they may be staminate or male florets, with no pistil;
pistillate or female flowers, with no stamens; or neuter florets,
possessing neither stamens nor pistil. In some few cases all the florets
of one head are staminate, while the pistillate florets alone form other
heads; and in these instances the two kinds of heads may be found on one
plant, or only one kind may exist on the same plant. In all cases the
capitulum is surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts which are often
closely overlapping.
The florets seldom possess a distinguishable calyx, but there is
sometimes an indication of the presence of five sepals; in many,
however, the calyx is represented by a whorl of hairs on the summit of
the ovary. Such a whorl is known as the _pappus_, and it frequently
enlarges as the fruit ripens, forming a kind of parachute that allows
the fruit to be carried great distances by the wind. The hairs of the
pappus are often sessile on the fruit, but sometimes mounted on the
summit of a slender stalk, as in the Dandelion. Further, the hairs which
constitute the pappus may be simple or feathered.
[Illustration: CAPITULUM OR FLOWER-HEAD OF THE MARIGOLD, showing the
_involucre_ or whorl of overlapping bracts.]
The corolla frequently consists of five petals, united into a tube with
as many teeth; but it is often _ligulate_ or strap-shaped, in which case
the presence of five petals is often denoted by five minute teeth at the
tip.
Where stamens exist they are five in number, attached to the petals, and
the anthers are generally united in such a manner that they form a tube
within the tube of the corolla.
[Illustration: FLORETS OF A COMPOSITE FLOWER. In fig. 1 the corolla is
strap-shaped; in fig. 2 it is tubular.]
Fertilisation is brought about much in the same way in many of the
composite flowers:--The anthers open inwards, discharging their pollen
within the tube formed by themselves, and just above the stigma which,
as yet, is immature. The style then lengthens, pushing its way up
through the anther-tube, and brushing up the pollen by means of the
tufts of hairs on its surface. At this stage a dense cluster of pollen
cells, completely covering the top of the style, may be seen projecting
above the tube of the corolla, and the pollen is sooner or later
scattered, the distribution being aided greatly by the various insects
which visit the flowers. The upper part of the style now divides into
two parts, and the branches diverge, exposing the stigmatic surfaces
which form the inner sides of the fork. It will thus be seen that the
florets are not self-pollinated, since the stigma is generally mature
after the pollen has all been removed from the same flower.
Our first example of this order is the Yellow Goat's-beard (_Tragopogon
pratensis_), also known as Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon. This is a common
wayside plant, of a glaucous green colour, with a milky sap. Its stem is
erect, from one to two feet high, and the whole plant is smooth. The
flower-heads are solitary, large, yellow, and surrounded by a single row
of narrow bracts that are united below; and the peduncle is thickened at
the top. The bracts are generally as long as the florets, and the latter
usually close about the middle of the day. The fruit is long and narrow,
with longitudinal ridges; and the pappus consists of rows of feathery
hairs which interlock and form a very shallow cup. The flowers bloom
during June and July.
[Illustration: THE YELLOW GOAT'S-BEARD.]
The Bristly Ox-tongue (_Helminthia echioides_ or _Picris echioides_),
also a common plant, is more or less covered with rigid, hooked
bristles, each of which arises from a swollen, white base; and it has a
milky sap. The stem is stout, branched, very bristly, and grows from two
to three feet high. The leaves are simple and toothed, the upper ones
cordate and embracing the stem, and the lower ones _auricled_ or eared.
The heads are terminal, consisting of yellow, ligulate florets,
surrounded by five large cordate bracts. The fruit is brown, curved,
with transverse ridges and a stalked pappus of feathery hairs. This
species flowers from June to September. It is shown on Plate
III.
In the same genus we have the Hawkweed Picris (_P. hieracoides_) which
bears yellow flowers from June to September. Its stem, more slender than
that of the last species, is from two to three feet high, branched
towards the top, and rough with hooked bristles; and the leaves are
lanceolate and toothed. There are numerous heads of flowers, about an
inch in diameter, usually arranged in a corymb, but sometimes in an
umbel, and there are bracts on the peduncles.
[Illustration: THE HAWKWEED PICRIS.]
The Strong-scented or Acrid Lettuce (_Lactuca virosa_) is moderately
common on dry wastes. It is an acrid, glaucous, leafy and prickly plant,
with a milky juice. Its erect stem grows to a height of three or four
feet. Its leaves are spreading, obovate in form, with toothed margins,
and bristly hairs on the under side of the midrib. The lower leaves are
frequently marked with dark spots, and the upper ones have pointed
auricles which clasp the stem. The heads of flowers are small, pale
yellow, and arranged in a loose, spreading panicle. The bracts overlap,
the outer ones being shorter, and the receptacle is flat. Each head
contains only a few florets. The fruit is flattened, black, with a beak
as long as itself and a pappus of many simple hairs. The flowers appear
during July and August.
Another Lettuce, known as the Prickly Lettuce (_L. Scariola_), is
somewhat rare. It is really less prickly than the last species, but is
equally tall, and flowers during the same months. Its leaves are erect,
lanceolate, sagittate, with a wavy margin; and the upper ones clasp the
stem. The fruit of this species is of a greyish colour, and has a beak
of the same length.
Two species of Sow-thistle (genus _Sonchus_) are included among our
wayside Composites. They are erect, succulent plants, from two to three
feet in height, with a milky juice, and either toothed or pinnatifid
leaves. Their flower-heads are yellow, arranged in a corymb, and bloom
during the whole of the summer. Each head is surrounded by several rows
of overlapping bracts, and the receptacle is flat and pitted. The fruits
are considerably flattened, without beaks; and the pappus consists of
several rows of fine, silky, unbranched hairs.
[Illustration: THE PRICKLY LETTUCE.]
One species is known as the Sharp-fringed Sow-thistle or the Common
Milk-thistle (_S. oleraceus_). Its leaves are sometimes deeply divided,
but always more or less toothed; and the teeth often terminate in sharp
prickles. The upper ones clasp the stem, and have spreading,
arrow-shaped ears. The stem is branched and hollow; and the fruit is
ribbed and transversely wrinkled.
The second is the Common Sow-thistle (_S. asper_)--a very similar plant,
but may be distinguished by its leaves, which are more spinously
toothed, with _rounded_ ears. In this one the fruits are also ribbed,
but they are not wrinkled transversely.
The Smooth Hawk's-beard (_Crepis virens_) has a furrowed, branched stem,
from a few inches to three feet in height. Its spreading radical leaves
are deeply toothed, and narrower towards the base; and the stem leaves
are narrow and sagittate. The numerous small heads of yellow flowers are
panicled, and the outer florets are often tinged with red. The heads are
surrounded by two rows of bracts, the outer of which are shorter and
narrower, and the whole involucre assumes a conical form after
flowering. The fruit is shorter than the pappus; tapering, but not
beaked; and the pappus consists of several rows of unbranched, silky
hairs. This plant flowers during July and August. It is very common on
waste land, and may be frequently seen growing on old walls, and even on
the roofs of country cottages and out-houses.
[Illustration: THE SHARP-FRINGED SOW-THISTLE.]
The genus _Hieracium_ (Hawkweeds) is a puzzle not only to the beginner,
but also to experienced botanists, who have not yet agreed as to its
division into species. According to some authorities these latter amount
to seven, but they, or rather some of them, are so variable, and present
so many intermediate characters, that some botanists divide the British
members into no less than thirty-three species.
All the plants of the group agree in the following particulars:--They
have a milky sap. The leaves are nearly all radical. The flower-heads
are either yellow or orange, surrounded by several rows of overlapping
bracts. The receptacle is pitted. The fruit is not beaked, and its
pappus consists of a single row of rigid, brittle, brownish hairs, which
are simple and of unequal lengths.
One species at least is a common wayside flower, and this is the Shrubby
Hawkweed (_H. boreale_). It grows from two to four feet high, and bears
a corymb of many yellow heads, from July to September. Its stem is hairy
below, downy with fine branched hairs above, and bears rigid, erect
branches which are leafy, and often of a reddish colour. This species
has no radical leaves. The stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate and
toothed, the upper ones broad and slightly clasping the stem. The
peduncle is scaly or woolly, and the involucre bracts are of a blackish
green colour.
[Illustration: THE SMOOTH HAWK'S-BEARD.]
The Nipplewort (_Lapsana communis_) is another very common Composite of
waysides and wastes. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high,
branched, armed with scanty stiff hairs below, and smooth above. The
leaves are thin and usually hairy, the lower ones ovate, pinnatifid or
coarsely-toothed, with a few smaller lobes along the stalks, and the
upper ones small, and entire or only slightly toothed. The flower-heads
are small, yellow, in a loose panicle with long slender stalks. The
involucre consists of about eight glaucous scales, about a quarter of an
inch in length, and a whorl of small outer ones. The fruits are
flattened, with many longitudinal nervures, and have no pappus. The
flowers may be seen from July to September.
The Chicory or Succory (_Cichorium Intybus_) is a local plant, but often
very abundant where it exists. It has a long tap root; and a strong,
erect, bristly and sticky stem. The lower leaves are spreading and
hairy, deeply divided, with a large terminal lobe, and smaller lateral
lobes which are pointed and coarsely toothed. The upper leaves are
lanceolate, clasping the stem, with pointed auricles. The flower-heads
are of a bright blue colour, large and conspicuous, mostly in sessile
clusters of two or three along the rigid, spreading branches, but a few
are terminal. The involucre consists of about eight inner bracts, and a
whorl of outer ones that are much shorter. The florets are large; and
the fruits are smooth, or nearly so, and closely enveloped in the lower
part of the involucre. The time of flowering is from July to October.
[Illustration: THE NIPPLEWORT.]
Our next species is the Burdock (_Arctium Lappa_), familiar as a wayside
plant not only on account of its abundance and its large size, but also
on account of its globular flower-heads which cling so tenaciously to
our clothing by means of the hooked points of the inner involucre
bracts. It is a very stout, branching plant, varying from two to six
feet in height, with very large, stalked, cordate lower leaves that
often exceed a foot in length. The upper leaves are smaller, and broadly
ovate; and both these and the lower ones are smooth or nearly so on the
upper surface, but often covered with a short white down beneath. All
the leaves are also finely toothed, but bear no prickles. The
flower-heads are in terminal panicles, and are surrounded by many bracts
which are either quite smooth or covered with a white, woolly down. The
florets are purple, and all equal in size. The fruits are large, and
bear a short pappus of stiff hairs.
We now come to the interesting group of Thistles, all distinguished by
their very hard stems; their cut or toothed leaves, which are generally
very prickly; and their round or oval heads of flowers, surrounded by
many whorls of overlapping, and usually prickly, bracts. There are no
ray florets, but all are tubular and approximately equal in length.
Our first example is the Welted Thistle (_Carduus crispus_ or _Carduus
acanthoides_), which is a common plant in the South of England, but much
less abundant in the North. In general appearance it closely resembles
the Musk Thistle (p. 266), but is usually taller. The stem is
covered with prickles which run downwards in lines from the bases of the
leaves. The flowers are purple, in small, globular, clustered heads,
which droop slightly; and the numerous bracts of the involucre are
narrow, more or less erect, and terminate in a spreading or hooked
prickle. The pappus consists of rough, unbranched hairs. The above is
the description of the commonest form of this thistle, but it is a very
variable species. The plants vary from one to three feet in height, and
flower from June to August.
[Illustration: THE BURDOCK.]
Throughout the summer we may meet with the Spear Thistle (_C.
lanceolatus_), a very abundant species which grows on almost all waste
places. The plant is a stout one, varying from about one to five feet in
height, with a winged, prickly stem. The leaves are cut into short,
narrow lobes, with a long and pointed terminal one. They are covered
above with stiff hairs, and below with a white down; and all the lobes
terminate in stiff spines. The involucre is oval in form, covered with
cottony down; and its bracts are lanceolate, terminating with a stiff,
spreading spine. The flower-heads are few in number, with purple
florets, and measure about an inch and a quarter in diameter.
[Illustration: THE SPEAR THISTLE.]
Another common species is the Creeping Thistle (_C. arvensis_), which
has a perennial, creeping rootstock that gives off erect annual stems
from two to four feet in height. The stem is not winged, but the prickly
leaves clasp it, and sometimes extend a little way down at their bases.
The leaves are narrow, smooth, with edges turned inwards, very prickly,
and cut into numerous narrow lobes. The flower-heads are small,
arranged in loose terminal clusters, and are surrounded by numerous,
closely-placed bracts with small, sharp points. The flowers are always
imperfect, and the male and female blooms always occur on separate
plants. The heads of the male plants are globular in form, with
spreading purple florets; while those of the female plant are longer and
almost cylindrical in form, with longer bracts and shorter florets. The
pappus consists of numerous feathery hairs which grow very long as the
fruit ripens. This species flowers during July and August.
The Tansy (_Tanacetum vulgare_) is common in the hedgerows of most
localities, and is easily recognised by the powerful odour and bitter
taste of its leaves and flowers. It has a creeping root; an erect,
strong stem, which is either quite smooth or (generally) slightly downy;
and large, pinnate leaves, with narrow, deeply-toothed or pinnatifid
segments. There are a large number of flower-heads, nearly half an inch
in diameter, of a bright yellow colour, and arranged in large
flat-topped corymbs. This plant is common in most parts of Britain,
grows to a height of about three feet, and flowers during August and
September.
[Illustration: THE CREEPING THISTLE.]
The Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) is a very common roadside plant in
most districts, valued by many villagers as a remedy for rheumatism. It
has a short, woody rootstock; and erect, branching stems varying from
two to four feet in height. The leaves are deeply cut into narrow, acute
segments which are either coarsely serrate or lobed. They are green and
smooth above, but very white with a woolly down below. The flower-heads
are very numerous, erect, and arranged in a somewhat crowded, long,
terminal panicle. Each head is surrounded by a woolly involucre, and
consists of from fifteen to over twenty florets, either all perfect or
including a few without stamens. They are oval in form, and of a reddish
or yellowish-brown colour. The plant blooms throughout the summer.
[Illustration: THE TANSY.]