a rule, bloom before the month of June.
Our first example is the Wild Clematis, Traveller's Joy, or Old Man's
Beard (_Clematis Vitalba_), of the order _Ranunculaceæ_--a climbing
shrub, very common in the hedgerows of the south and centre of England,
producing a profusion of white, scented flowers during July and August,
and rendered even more conspicuous in the autumn and winter by the dense
clusters of feathered fruits. Its stem is woody and often very thick at
the base; and the annual branches climb over the neighbouring plants,
clinging by means of the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are opposite,
pinnate, with three or five stalked, ovate or cordate leaflets; and the
flowers are in loose, axillary or terminal panicles. The latter have
four greenish-white sepals; no petals; numerous stamens; and many
one-seeded carpels, each of which, when ripe, is tipped by the
persistent style that has become very long and feathered.
[Illustration: THE WILD CLEMATIS.]
The Common Hedge Mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_--order _Cruciferæ_) is
a very common roadside plant, with stems and leaves so closely set with
hairs that they effectually hold the dust. It bears small, yellow
flowers, which appear during June and July; and it may be easily
distinguished from allied plants by its long and narrow, downy, tapering
pods, which lie close against the stem. Its stem grows from one to two
feet high, and is freely branched.
[Illustration: THE HEDGE MUSTARD.]
The Felix Weed (_S. Sophia_) of the same genus is moderately common,
grows to about the same height, and bears small, greenish-yellow flowers
from June to August. The stem of this plant is only slightly hairy,
slender, erect, and branched; and the leaves are divided in a pinnate
manner, with long, narrow segments similarly cut. In this genus the
sepals are longer than the petals; and the narrow, tapering fruits are
constricted between the numerous seeds.
The Dyer's Weed, also known as the Dyer's Rocket and the Yellow Weed
(_Reseda luteola_), is a plant of a habit similar to that of the Wild
Mignonette, and belongs to the same order (_Resedaceæ_), but may be
distinguished from the latter by its four sepals and four petals. It
owes its popular names to the fact that it was formerly employed for the
purpose of dyeing woollen fabrics. This is a common wayside plant,
especially in calcareous districts, and often reaches a height of three
feet, flowering during July and August.
Passing to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_, we note the Deptford Pink
(_Dianthus Armeria_)--a downy plant, a foot or more in height, with an
erect, slightly-branched stem; and very narrow, opposite leaves, from
one to three inches long, joined together at the base, and mostly acute
at the tip. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are
rose-coloured with white spots, and are grouped in terminal clusters,
with a very narrow, pointed bract below each calyx, usually as long as
the calyx itself. This plant is to be found principally on dry banks and
on waste ground, but it is not common.
[Illustration: THE FELIX WEED.]
The Red Campion (_Lychnis diurna_) is common on the banks of wayside
ditches, as well as in copses and other moist and shady places. It has a
hairy stem, from one to two feet high; hairy, ovate leaves in pairs; and
red (rarely white), unisexual flowers which close at night. The male and
female flowers are on separate plants. The former have ten stamens; and
the latter a superior ovary which ripens to a globular capsule with five
teeth that spread horizontally or even curve downwards. In both the
calyx is tubular, with five triangular teeth; and the petals have
spreading, deeply-notched limbs. The plant flowers during June and July.
[Illustration: THE DYER'S WEED.]
Three species of Mallow (order _Malvaceæ_) are more or less common by
waysides and on waste ground. They are all interesting plants, with
large, regular, attractive flowers; and stipuled leaves which are
palmately lobed and veined. The flowers have five sepals and five
petals, the latter being very curiously twisted in the bud. The stamens,
five in number, are freely branched, and are also raised on a tubular
structure as the flower matures, so that they appear like a large number
of stamens with united filaments. The ovary consists of many carpels,
with as many styles; and the fruit splits into a number of one-seeded
parts arranged radially.
The Common Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_) is a strong, erect, downy plant,
from two to three feet high, with branched stem. The flowers are
axillary, large and showy, of a pale purple or a lilac colour, marked
with crimson veins; and the fruit is smooth.
[Illustration: THE DEPTFORD PINK.]
The Dwarf Mallow (_M. rotundifolia_) is about as common, and grows in
similar situations, but it is a smaller plant, with prostrate stems from
six inches to a foot long. The leaves are cordate or almost round,
divided into five or seven shallow, crenate lobes. The flowers are
smaller than those of _M. sylvestris_, being generally less than an inch
in diameter, of a pale lilac colour; and the fruit is hairy. Both
species flower from June to September.
It is interesting to note that these two flowers, which frequently grow
together on the same waste ground, and consequently have to compete with
one another in the general struggle for existence, are pollinated in
totally different ways, the one (_M. sylvestris_) by the aid of insects,
and the other (_M. rotundifolia_) probably almost always
self-pollinated. In both these flowers the stamens are mounted on the
top of a tube as above described; and in both the stamens are crowded
round the numerous styles while the flower is yet young, so that insects
which visit the flower for nectar can hardly fail to dust themselves
with pollen. In _M. sylvestris_, however, the stamens are mature before
the stigmas, and the former droop, thus bringing the anthers below the
level of the stigmas, so that the flower could hardly fertilise itself
even if anthers and stigmas matured simultaneously. But later the styles
bend downwards, thus bringing the stigmas to the position of the
withered stamens in order to catch the pollen brought by insects from
other flowers. Further, the pollen cells of this species are covered
with minute hooks by means of which they attach themselves to the hairy
legs of bees.
[Illustration: THE RED CAMPION.]
The anthers and stigmas of _M. rotundifolia_ are both matured together;
and the styles lengthen, and bend downwards, causing the stigmas to
twine themselves among the numerous stamens in such a manner that the
flower can hardly fail to fertilise itself. Further, if we watch the
flowers of these two species on a sunny day, we find that insects visit
the flowers of _M. sylvestris_ freely, while they are seldom attracted
to the smaller and less conspicuous blooms of _M. rotundifolia_.
The third species referred to is the Musk Mallow (_M. moschata_), so
called from the musky odour given off from all parts of the plant,
especially when rubbed or crushed. It is often seen in hedgerows, but is
not so common as the other two just described, and seems to be rather
partial to gravelly soils. The plant is hairy, of a pale green colour,
with an erect stem from two to three feet high. The flowers are large
and beautiful, of a rich rose colour, and crowded towards the top of the
stem. The fruit is hairy. A white variety is occasionally seen, and this
is not uncommonly grown as a garden flower. The time of flowering is
July and August.
[Illustration: THE COMMON MALLOW.]
Some three species of Geranium (order _Geraniaceæ_) have already been
described among the spring wayside flowers, and these were listed at the
commencement of the present chapter as continuing to bloom during the
summer; but now we have to note other interesting flowers of this and
an allied genus as essentially summer bloomers.
The first of these is the Round-leaved Crane's-bill (_Geranium
rotundifolium_), which rather closely resembles the Dove's-foot
Crane's-bill, but is not nearly so plentiful. It is a downy plant,
growing from six to twelve inches high, and flowering in June and July.
The flowers are usually nearly half an inch across, of a pink colour;
and the petals are _not_ notched. This species is represented on Plate
III, Fig. 1.
In dry pastures and on stony wastes we may see the Bloody Crane's-bill
(_Geranium sanguineum_), which, though not common, is very widely
distributed in Britain. It has a thick, woody stock; numerous more or
less decumbent stems, from one to two feet long, clothed with spreading
hairs; and round leaves, divided quite to the base into five or seven
deeply-cut segments. The flowers are solitary, dark crimson
(occasionally pink) in colour, with hairy sepals terminating in fine
points; slightly notched petals about twice as long as the sepals; and
ten stamens, five of which are larger, and glandular at the base. This
species flowers during July and August.
[Illustration: THE MUSK MALLOW.]
The Small-flowered Crane's-bill (_G. pusillum_) also resembles the
Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but its flowers are usually smaller--about a
third of an inch in diameter--and of a pale lilac colour. The stems are
prostrate and downy, from six to eighteen inches long; and the leaves
roundish and deeply lobed. The sepals terminate in a sharp point, and
the petals are notched. This is a very common species, which flowers
throughout the summer.
British wild flowers of the Geranium family are divided into two groups,
known popularly as the Crane's-bills and the Stork's-bills, the former
constituting the genus _Geranium_, of which several flowers have been
described; and the latter forming the genus _Erodium_. These two groups
are sometimes confused by young botanists, but may be easily
distinguished by the aid of the following notes:--The flowers of the
Crane's-bills are symmetrical, while the petals of the Stork's-bills are
rather unequal in size and sometimes deficient. In the former there are
ten stamens, five of which are alternately larger, as previously
mentioned; while the latter have five perfect stamens, glandular at
their bases, and five alternating, abortive ones. Further, in the genus
_Geranium_ the persistent styles are straight, while in the
Stork's-bills they are twisted spirally.
[Illustration: THE BLOODY CRANE'S-BILL.]
The manner in which the seeds of Stork's-bills are dispersed is
particularly interesting:--When the fruit is ripe the carpels separate,
and the twisted styles are gradually released from one another, from
below upwards, till the fruit is finally set free and blown away by the
wind. The carpels thus detached are each furnished with a long style,
the lower portion of which is coiled like a corkscrew, while the upper
part is straighter but bent to one side. Now, these styles are
hygroscopic--that is, they are influenced by changes in the condition of
the atmosphere as regards moisture. This may easily be shown by placing
the fruit in an upright position on a piece of white card, and fixing it
so with a little spot of glue or gum, so that the bent upper end of the
style is free and serves as a little pointer. If now the open mouth be
placed close over the carpel, and moist air be breathed upon it, the
corkscrew will partially uncoil, causing the pointer to turn; and as
the carpel dries again the pointer will resume its former position.
Again, if the carpel be placed horizontally on a sheet of rough paper
(not fixed), and then alternately treated with moist and drier air, the
successive uncoiling and coiling of the spiral, together with the aid of
the bent tip and the hairs which give the carpel a hold, will cause it
to travel along. Thus, in its natural condition, and influenced by the
varying state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the carpels of the
Stork's-bill will not only travel some distance from the parent plant,
but the seed end will even be thrust between the particles of soil, and
the seed thus naturally buried.
There are three British Stork's-bills, of which only one may be
described as common. This is the Hemlock Stork's-bill (_Erodium
cicutarium_), a very variable plant as regards the form of the leaves
and the size and number of flowers, often plentiful in waste places,
especially near the sea. Its stems are prostrate and hairy, growing from
six to eighteen inches in length; and the flowers, which may be seen
throughout the summer, are rose-coloured, or, sometimes, white. The
petals are not divided or notched, and they soon fall.
Passing now to the order _Leguminosæ_, we deal first with the
exceedingly pretty and common Bird's-foot Trefoil (_Lotus
corniculatus_), that derives its popular name from the arrangement of
the cylindrical seed-pods, which spread in such a manner as to resemble
the toes of a bird. Its stems are partially prostrate; and its compound
leaves are not composed of three leaflets, as the term _trefoil_
suggests, but of five, two of which occupy such a position that they
might be mistaken for stipules. The flowers, which bloom in July and
August, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, often tinged with red.
They are arranged in umbels of from three to ten, with long peduncles
and short pedicels.
[Illustration: THE FRUIT OF THE STORK'S-BILL.]
The genus _Vicia_, of the same order, includes the plants commonly known
as Tares. These are climbing plants which cling by means of tendrils at
the tips of their pinnate leaves, and have their flowers in axillary
clusters. Their styles are threadlike, with a ring or a tuft of downy
hairs near the extremity; and the pods are flattened.
Two species may be included among our summer wayside flowers, one of
which--the Hairy Tare (_Vicia hirsuta_)--is very common in fields and
hedges, flowering from June to August. The stems of this plant are
slender, hairy, and are so much branched that they form tangled masses,
often mixed up in a confused manner with neighbouring plants. The leaves
have from six to eight pairs of leaflets; and the minute, pale blue
flowers, in clusters of from one to six, are on long peduncles. The pods
have only two seeds, and are hairy and sessile.
[Illustration: THE HEMLOCK STORK'S-BILL.]
The other Tare referred to is the Slender Tare (_V. tetrasperma_), found
principally in the South of England. It owes its specific name to the
fact that its pods usually contain four seeds. It is more slender and
much less branched than the Hairy Tare, and its leaves have generally
only from three to five pairs of leaflets. The flowers are pale blue,
appearing from June to August, and are generally solitary or in pairs,
on peduncles which are about as long as the leaves. The pods are smooth.
[Illustration: THE BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL.]
The same genus includes the Tufted Vetch (_Vicia Cracca_)--a very common
plant on hedgerows and bushy waysides, where it climbs over the
neighbouring plants and shrubs, covering them with its dense racemes of
bluish-purple flowers from June to August. Its climbing stem is very
weak, but it often grows to a length of six feet or more, supporting
itself by means of the branched tendrils at the tips of its leaves. The
leaves are pinnate, with about ten pairs of narrow, pointed, silky
leaflets, usually from half an inch to three-quarters in length; and at
the base of each leaf-stalk is a pair of narrow, half arrow-shaped
stipules. The racemes are one-sided, on rather long stalks, with from
ten to thirty flowers, each nearly half an inch long. The pods are
smooth, flattened, about an inch long, containing from six to eight
seeds.
[Illustration: THE HERB BENNET OR GEUM.]
Of the order _Rosaceæ_ we have several summer wayside flowers, our first
example being the Common Avens, also called the Wood Avens and the Herb
Bennet (_Geum urbanum_), which is common on banks and hedgerows. This is
an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, with yellow flowers,
from a half to three-quarters of an inch across, on erect stalks. The
numerous carpels ripen into a head of one-seeded achenes, on each of
which the persistent style forms a curved, hooked awn that readily
clings to the hair or wool of animals, thus providing an effectual means
by which the seeds are distributed. A variety of the Common Avens occurs
with drooping flowers.
[Illustration: THE DOG ROSE.]
[Illustration: THE SILVER WEED.]
The Dog Rose (_Rosa canina_) is one of the prettiest and most abundant
flowers of our hedgerows, and may be seen in bloom throughout June and
July. The bush has a thick, woody stock; and weak, straggling stems,
often reaching a height of six or eight feet, armed with equal, curved
prickles. The flowers are pink or white, with a calyx consisting of a
globular tube, contracted at the top, and five spreading segments; a
corolla of five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary of several
one-seeded carpels with free styles. The carpels are very hairy, and are
enclosed within the tube of the calyx, which becomes red and succulent
as the fruit ripens; but the calyx segments usually fall before the
ripening is complete.
[Illustration: THE AGRIMONY.]
The Silver Weed (_Potentilla anserina_), of the same order, is one of
the commonest of our roadside flowers, rendered more conspicuous by its
pretty, silvery leaves than by its solitary, yellow flowers. It has a
creeping stem, from six to twelve inches long, which bears pinnate
leaves. The leaflets are deeply serrated, and densely covered beneath
(and sometimes also above) with soft, silky hairs.
Two of the Cinquefoils are very common by roadsides. These are the Hoary
Cinquefoil (_Potentilla argentea_), and the Creeping Cinquefoil
(_Potentilla reptans_). The first of these is a partially prostrate
plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and digitate leaves
with five, wedge-shaped leaflets. The leaflets are rendered white
beneath by woolly hairs that lie close against the surface, and their
edges are curled backwards. The flowers, which bloom in June and July,
are yellow, small, and clustered.
The Creeping Cinquefoil has a slender stem that creeps on the ground and
forms new roots at the nodes. Its leaves are digitate and long-stalked,
with five obovate, serrate, hairy leaflets. The flowers are yellow,
solitary, nearly an inch in diameter, with five sepals and five petals.
On banks we frequently meet with the Agrimony (_Agrimonia Eupatoria_), a
slender plant, from one to two feet high, covered with soft hairs, and
bearing long, tapering, spikelike racemes of small, scattered, yellow
flowers during June and July. This plant may be readily identified by
means of our illustration.
One of the Willow Herbs--the Broad Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_Epilobium
montanum_)--is common on roadside banks, flowering during June and July.
Its stems are slender, downy, and generally unbranched; and the leaves
are opposite, stalked (the lower ones almost stalkless), ovate, acute,
with serrate edges, and smooth except along the margins and the
principal veins, which are more or less downy. The plant grows to a
height of one or two feet, and bears small, pale-purple flowers which
droop when in the bud. It belongs to the order _Onagraceæ_; and, like
the others of its genus, has four sepals, four petals, eight stamens,
and a long inferior ovary which splits into four valves, setting free a
large number of little, tufted seeds.
The order _Crassulaceæ_ contains a number of low, succulent plants, with
small, regular, star-like flowers. Some of them are well known as
Stonecrops and House-leeks. Those of the Stonecrop group usually have
cymes of flowers with perianth leaves in whorls of five, and stamens in
two whorls.
One member of this group--the Orpine or Livelong (_Sedum Telephium_)--is
not uncommonly found on shady wayside banks, especially near villages
and on the outskirts of towns, where it is probably an escape from
gardens. Its leaves are large, flat, oval or oblong, with serrate
edges. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, are of a purple or
crimson colour, and are clustered in close cymes.
We have now to consider several species of the order _Umbelliferæ_--a
group of flowers which contains so many species, with often such close
resemblances in general appearance, that it is always more or less
puzzling to the beginner, especially as it is frequently necessary to
note minute details of structure in order to determine a species.
The leading characteristic of the order is that denoted by its name; for
the flowers, which are generally very small and white, are arranged in
umbels. In a few instances these umbels are simple; but in most they are
compound--that is, the stalks which radiate from the same point on the
main peduncle, and thus form the _primary umbel_, give rise to the
lesser stalks of the _secondary umbels_, which are similarly arranged
and bear the flowers. There are often bracts at the base of the primary
umbel, in which case they are termed the _primary bracts_; and there are
frequently _secondary bracts_ or _involucels_ at the bases of the
secondary umbels.
[Illustration: THE ORPINE OR LIVELONG.]
The flowers have a superior calyx; with five teeth; but this is often so
inconspicuous that it appears like a mere rim round the top of the
ovary. There are also five petals, which generally have their points
turned inwards; and five stamens. The inferior ovary consists of two
united carpels, surmounted by a fleshy disc that supports the petals and
the stamens, and bears two styles.
Special attention must be given to the structure of the fruits of
umbellifers, for a close examination of these is often necessary for
purposes of identification. The two carpels are close together, with
their adjacent surfaces flattened, and are fixed to a central axis
called the _carpophore_. As the fruit ripens, the carpophore often
divides, from above downwards, becoming Y-shaped; and the carpels, thus
separated, are for a time suspended on its two arms. Each carpel is
marked by vertical ridges, generally nine in number, five of them
(_primary ridges_) being more prominent than the four intermediate or
_secondary ridges_. The ridge on each side of the carpel, nearest to the
fissure that divides the fruit into two parts, is often extended so as
to form wings by means of which wind-distribution is greatly
facilitated; and between the various ridges are the _furrows_ of the
fruit. In addition to these features, there are often narrow,
light-coloured streaks running parallel with the ridges, in the walls of
the fruit. There are usually six of these in each carpel, sometimes more
than one in the same furrow, and they mark the positions of narrow
oil-sacs or _vittæ_. Each carpel contains only one seed.
[Illustration: THE FOOL'S PARSLEY.]
As to the general characters of the plants, it may also be noted that
the stems of the _Umbelliferæ_ are jointed, and frequently hollow; also
that the leaves are pinnately divided, and often _decompound_ (compound,
with compound leaflets).
[Illustration: THE WILD PARSNIP.]
Our first example of this family is the common Hemlock (_Conium
maculatum_) of hedges and waste ground--a very graceful plant, with a
much-branched stem that grows from two to six or more feet in height. It
is distinguished by a foetid odour and poisonous properties. Its stem
is slender in proportion to the height, furrowed, smooth, and spotted
with purple or red. The flowers are white, with hardly a trace of a
calyx, and arranged in compound umbels, with three small bracts _on one
side_ of the secondary umbels. The fruit is short, swollen, and slightly
flattened laterally; and the carpels, without vittæ, have each five
thick, waved ridges. The Hemlock flowers during June and July.
[Illustration: THE COW PARSNIP OR HOGWEED.]