FOOTNOTE:

[1] It had always been the practice, when the clergy voted their

subsidies in their convocation, for parliament to authorize the

collection of each subsidy by the same commissioners who collected

the parliamentary aid.

CONVOLVULACEAE, a botanical natural order belonging to the series

Tubiflorae of the sympetalous group of Dicotyledons. It contains about

40 genera with more than 1000 species, and is found in all parts of the

world except the coldest, but is especially well developed in tropical

Asia and tropical America. The most characteristic members of the order

are twining plants with generally smooth heart-shaped leaves and large

showy white or purple flowers, as, for instance, the greater bindweed of

English hedges, _Calystegia sepium_, and many species of the genus

_Ipomaea_, the largest of the order, including the "convolvulus major"

of gardens, and morning glory. The creeping or trailing type is a common

one, as in the English bindweed (_Convolvulus arvensis_), which has also

a tendency to climb, and _Calystegia Soldanella_, the sea-bindweed, the

long creeping stem of which forms a sand-binder on English seashores; a

widespread and efficient tropical sand-binder is _Ipomaea Pes-Caprae_.

One of the commonest tropical weeds, _Evolvulus alsinoides_, has

slender, long-trailing stems with small leaves and flowers. In hot dry

districts such as Arabia and north-east tropical Africa, genera have

been developed with a low, much-branched, dense, shrubby habit, with

small hairy leaves and very small flowers. An exceptional type in the

order is represented by _Humbertia_, a native of Madagascar, which forms

a large tree. The dodder (q.v.) is a genus (_Cuscuta_) of leafless

parasites with slender thread-like twining stems. The flowers stand

singly in the leaf-axils or form few or many flowered cymose

inflorescences; the flowers are sometimes crowded into small heads. The

bracts are usually scale-like, but sometimes foliaceous, as for instance

in _Calystegia_, where they are large and envelop the calyx.

The parts of the flower are in fives in calyx, corolla and stamens,

followed by two carpels which unite to form a superior ovary. The

sepals, which are generally free, show much variation in size, shape and

covering, and afford valuable characters for the distinction of genera

or sub-genera. The corolla is generally funnel-shaped, more rarely

bell-shaped or tubular; the outer face is often marked out in

longitudinal areas, five well-defined areas tapering from base to apex,

and marked with longitudinal striae corresponding to the middle of the

petals, and alternating with five non-striated weaker triangular areas;

in the bud the latter are folded inwards, the stronger areas being

exposed and showing a twist to the right. The slender filaments of the

stamens vary widely, often in the same flower; the anthers are linear

to ovate in shape, attached at the back to the filament, and open

lengthwise. Some importance attaches to the form of the pollen grains;

the two principal forms are ellipsoidal with longitudinal bands forming

the _Convolvulus_-type, and a spherical form with a spiny surface known

as the _Ipomaea_-type. The ovary is generally two-chambered, with two

inverted ovules standing side by side at the inner angle of each

chamber. The style is simple or branched, and the stigma is linear,

capitate or globose in form; these variations afford means for

distinguishing the different genera. The fruit is usually a capsule

opening by valves; the seeds, where four are developed, are each shaped

like the quadrant of a sphere; the seed-coat is smooth, or sometimes

warty or hairy; the embryo is large with generally broad, folded,

notched or bilobed cotyledons surrounded by a horny endosperm. _Cuscuta_

has a thread-like, spirally twisted embryo with no trace of cotyledons.

[Illustration: _Convolvulus sepium_, slightly reduced.

1. Flower cut vertically.

2. Fruit, slightly reduced.

3. Seed cut lengthwise showing embryo.

4. Embryo taken out of seed.

5. Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.]

The large showy flowers are visited by insects for the honey which is

secreted by a ring-like disk below the ovary; large-flowered species of

_Ipomaea_ with narrow tubes are adapted for the visits of honey-seeking

birds.

The largest genus, _Ipomaea_, has about 400 species distributed

throughout the warmer parts of the earth. _Convolvulus_ has about 150 to

200 species, mainly in temperate climates; the genus is principally

developed in the Mediterranean area and western Asia. _Cuscuta_ contains

nearly 100 species in the warmer and temperate regions; two are native

in Britain.

The tubers of _Ipomaea Batatas_ are rich in starch and sugar, and, as

the "sweet potato," form one of the most widely distributed foods in the

warmer parts of the earth. Several members of the order are used

medicinally for the strong purging properties of the milky juice (latex)

which they contain; scammony is the dried latex from the underground

stem of _Convolvulus Scammonia_, a native of the Levant, while jalap is

the product of the tubercles of _Exogonium Purga_, a native of Mexico.

Species of _Ipomaea_ (morning glory), _Convolvulus_ and _Calystegia_ are

cultivated as ornamental plants. _Convolvulus arvensis_ (bindweed) is a

pest in fields and gardens on account of its wide-spreading underground

stem, and many of the dodders (_Cuscuta_) cause damage to crops.

CONVOY (through the Fr. from late Lat. _conviare_, to go along with,

from Lat. _cum_, with, and _via_, way; "convey" has the same ultimate

origin [see CONVEYANCE], neither word being connected, as has sometimes

been supposed, with Lat. _convehere_, to carry together), a verb and

noun now almost exclusively used in military and naval parlance. As a

verb it signifies in the first instance to accompany or to escort; and

in the 17th century we even hear of cavalry "convoying" infantry, but

its meaning was soon complicated by the growing use of the word "convey"

in the sense of "to carry," and as the usual task of an escort was that

of accompanying and protecting vehicles containing supplies, the noun

"convoy" (Fr. _convoi_) was introduced and has thenceforward in land

warfare meant a train of vehicles containing stores for the use of

troops and its guard or escort. Sometimes even the word is found in the

meaning of the train of vehicles without implying that there is an

escort, so far has the original meaning become obscured; but the idea of

military protection is always present, whether this protection is given

by a separate escort or provided by the weapons of the drivers

themselves.

In naval warfare the term is used to describe a method adopted for

defending merchant ships against capture. It was usually applied to the

vessels to be protected--as for example "the Baltic convoy," or "Captain

Montray's convoy." Until the 17th century the English term was "to waft"

and the warship employed to guard the traders on their way was called "a

wafter." The practice of sailing in convoy for mutual protection was

common in the middle ages, when all ships were more or less armed and

the war vessel was not entirely differentiated from the trader. Thus the

ships of the great German confederation of cities known as the Hanseatic

League were required to sail in convoy. So were the six trading

squadrons which sailed yearly from Venice. The masters of all the

vessels were required to obey the authority of an officer who had the

general command. In the 16th century the Spanish trade with America was

compelled by law to sail in convoys (_flotas_), in order to avoid the

danger of capture by pirates to which single ships were exposed. In the

17th and 18th centuries the use of convoy was universal. Dutch, French

or British ships were collected at a rendezvous, and were accompanied by

warships till they reached the point at which they were compelled to

separate in order to go to their various destinations. The main danger

was near the enemy's ports. An example of the way the duty was

discharged may be found in the Newfoundland convoy. They sailed from

England under the direction of a naval officer and the protection of his

ships, commonly a forty- or fifty-gun ship with a smaller vessel in

attendance. The convoy sailed to the banks of Newfoundland. When they

had filled up with stock fish, they were escorted across the Atlantic by

the same officer. He accompanied those of them bound to the

Mediterranean to the port of Leghorn, and, when they had unloaded and

reloaded, saw them home. All cases were not so simple. The ships engaged

in the East and West India trade, for instance, sailed together. In the

Channel they were protected by the main strength of the fleet. When

beyond the Scilly Islands they were left to the care of a smaller force,

and continued together till in the neighbourhood of Madeira, when they

separated. Convoys were subject to attack in two forms, by strong

squadrons which overpowered the guard, and by privateers, corsairs and

isolated cruisers. This latter peril was much increased in the case of

British commerce by the reluctance of the merchant captains to obey the

naval officers. They were very much inclined to separate from the convoy

as they approached their destination in the hope of forestalling rivals.

As a natural consequence they were frequently captured by hostile

privateers. French naval officers had authority and large powers of

punishment over merchant skippers. The British naval officers had not.

In 1803-34, on the renewal of the war with France, the British

government saw the necessity for regulating convoy more strictly than

had hitherto been the case. It therefore passed "an act for the better

protection of the trade of the United Kingdom during the present

hostilities with France." By this act (the 43rd Geo. III. Cap. 57) all

vessels not exempted by special licence were required to sail in convoy

and to conform to strict regulations, under penalties of L1000 (or, when

the goods included government stores, of L1500) and the loss of all

claim to insurance in case of capture. (D. H.)

The object of convoying is to attach an official public character to the

convoyed ships, i.e. a sort of assimilation of them to the escorting

ship or ships of war. Thus European states and jurists hold that the

declaration of the commander of the convoy, that there is no contraband

of war on board the convoyed ships, pledges the national good faith, and

must be assumed to be correct in the same way as it is assumed that the

convoy itself is carrying no contraband of war. Great Britain has never

taken this view. Down to 1907 she had maintained that it is materially

impossible for any neutral state to exercise the necessary supervision

to secure absolute accuracy of the ship's papers. Number 29, however, of

the instructions given by the government to the British

plenipotentiaries at the Hague Conference of 1907 stated that "H.M.

government would ... be glad to see the right of search limited in every

practicable way, e.g. by the adoption of a system of consular

certificates declaring the absence of contraband from the cargo...." As

the greater includes the smaller, we may assume that, if a consular

certificate might suffice to exempt from the exercise of search, the

state guarantee of a convoy would certainly suffice. The London

Convention on the Laws and Customs of Naval War has laid down the rules

as to convoys in the following terms:

Neutral vessels under national convoy are exempt from search. The

commander of a convoy gives, in writing, at the request of the

commander of a belligerent warship, all information as to the

character of the vessels and their cargoes, which could be obtained by

search.--Art. 61.

If the commander of the belligerent warship has reason to suspect that

the confidence of the commander of the convoy has been abused, he

communicates his suspicions to him. In such a case it is for the

commander of the convoy alone to investigate the matter. He must

record the result of such investigation in a report, of which a copy

is handed to the officer of the warship. If, in the opinion of the

commander of the convoy, the facts shown in the report justify the

capture of one or more vessels, the protection of the convoy must be

withdrawn from such vessels.--Art. 62. (T. BA.)

CONVULSIONS, the pathological condition of body associated with

abnormal, violent and spasmodic contractions and relaxations of the

muscles, taking the form of a fit. Convulsions may be a symptom

resulting from various diseases, but the term is commonly restricted to

the infantile variety, occurring in association with teething, or other

causes which upset the child's nervous system. The treatment (plunging

into a hot bath, or administration of chloroform) must be prompt, as

convulsions are responsible for a large part of infant mortality.

The name "Convulsionaries" (Fr. _Convulsionnaires_) was given to certain

Jansenist fanatics in France in the 18th century, owing to the

convulsions, regarded by them as proofs of divine inspiration, which

were the result of their religious ecstasies (see JANSENISM). The term

"Convulsionists" is sometimes applied to them, as also, more loosely, to

other religious enthusiasts who exhibit the same symptoms.

CONWAY, HENRY SEYMOUR (1721-1795), English field marshal and statesman,

was the second son of Francis Seymour, of Ragley, Warwickshire, who took

the name of Conway on succeeding to the estates of the earl of Conway in

1699 and was created Baron Conway in 1703 (see SEYMOUR or ST MAUR).

Henry Seymour Conway's elder brother, Francis, 2nd Baron Conway, was

created marquess of Hertford in 1793; his mother was a sister of Sir

Robert Walpole's wife, and he was therefore first cousin to Horace

Walpole, with whom he was on terms of intimate friendship throughout his

life. Having entered the army at an early age, Conway was elected to the

Irish parliament in 1741 as member for Antrim, which he continued to

represent for twenty years; in the same year he became a member of the

English House of Commons, sitting for Higham Ferrers in

Northamptonshire, and he remained in parliament, representing

successively a number of different constituencies, almost without

interruption for more than forty years. Meantime he saw much service in

the army abroad, where he served with conspicuous bravery and not

without distinction. In 1745 he became aide-de-camp to the duke of

Cumberland in Germany, and was present at Fontenoy; in the following

year he had command of a regiment at Culloden. In 1755 he went to

Ireland as secretary to the lord-lieutenant, a position which he held

for one year only; and on his return to England he received a court

appointment, having already been promoted major-general. In 1757 he was

associated with Sir John Mordaunt in command of an abortive expedition

against Rochfort, the complete failure of which brought Conway into

discredit and involved him in a pamphlet controversy. In 1759 he became

lieutenant-general, and served under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in

the campaigns of 1761-1763. Returning to England he took part in the

debates in parliament on the Wilkes case, in which he opposed the views

of the court, speaking strongly against the legality of general

warrants. His conduct in this matter highly incensed the king, who

insisted on Conway being deprived of his military command as well as of

his appointment in the royal household. His dismissal along with other

officers was the occasion of another paper controversy in which Conway

was defended by Horace Walpole, and gave rise to much constitutional

dispute as to the right of the king to remove military officers for

their conduct in parliament--a right that was tacitly abandoned by the

Crown when the Rockingham ministry of 1765 reinstated the officers who

had been removed.

In this ministry Conway took office as secretary of state, with the

leadership of the House of Commons. In the dispute with the American

colonies his sympathies were with the latter, and in 1766 he carried the

repeal of the Stamp Act. When in July of that year Rockingham gave place

to Chatham, Conway retained his office; and when Chatham became

incapacitated by illness he tamely acquiesced in Townshend's reversal of

the American policy which he himself had so actively furthered in the

previous administration. In January 1768, offended by the growing

influence of the Bedford faction which joined the government, Conway

resigned the seals of office, though he was persuaded by the king to

remain a member of the cabinet and "Minister of the House of Commons."

When, however, Lord North became premier in 1770, Conway resigned from

the cabinet and was appointed to the command of the royal regiment of

horse guards; and in 1772 he became governor of Jersey, the island being

twice invaded by the French during his tenure of command. In 1780 and

1781 he took an active part in opposition to Lord North's American

policy, and it was largely as the result of his motion on the 22nd of

February in the latter year, demanding the cessation of the war against

the colonies, when the ministerial majority was reduced to one, that

Lord North resigned office. In the Rockingham government that followed

General Conway became commander-in-chief with a seat in the cabinet; and

he retained office under Shelburne when Rockingham died a few months

later. On Pitt's elevation to the premiership, Conway supported Fox in

opposition; but after the dissolution of parliament in 1784 he retired

from political life. He was made field marshal in 1793, and died at

Henley-on-Thames on the 9th of July 1795. Conway married in 1747

Caroline, daughter of General Campbell (afterwards duke of Argyll), and

widow of the earl of Aylesbury. He had one daughter, Anne, who married

John Darner, son of Lord Milton, and who inherited a life interest in

Strawberry Hill under the will of Horace Walpole.

Conway was personally one of the most popular men of his day. He was

handsome, conciliatory and agreeable, and a man of refined taste and

untarnished honour. As a soldier he was a dashing officer, but a poor

general. He was weak, vacillating and ineffective as a politician,

lacking in judgment and decision, and without any great parliamentary

talent. In his later years he dabbled in literature and the drama, and

interested himself in arboriculture in his retirement at

Henley-on-Thames.

See Horace Walpole, _Letters_, edited by P. Cunningham (9 vols.,

London, 1857), many of the letters being addressed to Conway; _Memoirs

of the Last Ten years of the Reign of George II._ (2 vols., London,

1822); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by Sir D. le

Marchant (4 vols., London, 1845); _Journal of the Reign of George

III._, 1771-1783 (2 vols., London, 1859). See also the duke of

Buckingham and Chandos, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George

III._ (4 vols., London, 1853). Much information about Conway will also

be found in the biographies of his leading contemporaries, Rockingham,

Shelburne, Chatham, Pitt and Fox. (R. J. M.)

CONWAY, HUGH, the nom-de-plume of FREDERICK JOHN FARGUS (1847-1885),

English novelist, who was born at Bristol on the 26th of December 1847,

the son of an auctioneer. He was intended for his father's business, but

at the age of thirteen joined the training-ship "Conway" in the Mersey.

In deference to his father's wishes, however, he gave up the idea of

becoming a sailor, and returned to Bristol, where he was articled to a

firm of accountants till on his father's death in 1868 he took over the

family business. While a clerk he had written the words for various

songs, adopting the nom-de-plume Hugh Conway in memory of his days on

the training-ship. Mr Arrowsmith, the Bristol printer and publisher,

took an interest in his work, and Fargus's first short story appeared in

_Arrowsmith's Miscellany_. In 1883 Fargus published through Arrowsmith

his first long story, _Called Back_, of which over 350,000 copies were

sold within four years. A dramatic version of this book was produced in

London in 1884, and in this year Fargus published another story, _Dark

Days_. Ordered to the Riviera for his health, he caught typhoid fever,

and died at Monte Carlo on the 15th of May 1885. Several other books

from his pen appeared posthumously, notably _A Family Affair_.

CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832-1907), American clergyman and author, was

born of an old Virginia family in Stafford county, Virginia, on the 17th

of March 1832. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1849, studied law

for a year, and then became a Methodist minister in his native state. In

1852, owing largely to the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson, his

religious and political views underwent a radical change, and he entered

the Harvard Divinity School, where he graduated in 1854. Here he fell

under the influence of "transcendentalism," and became an outspoken

abolitionist. On his return to Virginia this fact and his rumoured

connexion with the attempt to rescue the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns,

in Boston aroused the bitter hostility of his old neighbours and

friends, and in consequence he left the state. In 1854-1856 he was

pastor of a Unitarian church at Washington, D.C., but his anti-slavery

views brought about his dismissal. From 1856 to 1861 he was a Unitarian

minister in Cincinnati, Ohio, where, also, he edited a short-lived

liberal periodical called _The Dial_. Subsequently he was an editor of

the _Commonwealth_ in Boston, Mass., and wrote _The Rejected Stone_

(1861) and _The Golden Hour_ (1862), both powerful pleas for

emancipation. In 1862-1863, during the Civil War, he lectured in England

in behalf of the North. From 1863 to 1884 he was the minister of the

South Place chapel, Finsbury, London; and during this time wrote

frequently for the London press. In 1884 he returned to the United

States to devote himself to literary work. In addition to those above

mentioned, his publications include _Tracts for To-day_ (1858), _The

Natural History of the Devil_ (1859), _Testimonies Concerning Slavery_

(1864), _The Earthward Pilgrimage_ (1870), _Republican Superstitions_

(1872), _Idols and Ideals_ (1871), _Demonology and Devil Lore_ (2 vols.,

1878), _A Necklace of Stories_ (1879), _Thomas Carlyle_ (1881), _The

Wandering Jew_ (1881), _Emerson at Home and Abroad_ (1882), _Pine and

Palm_ (2 vols., 1887), _Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph_ (1888), _The

Life of Thomas Paine_ with an unpublished sketch of Paine by William

Cobbett (2 vols., 1892), _Solomon and Solomonic Literature_ (1899), his

_Autobiography_ (2 vols., 1900), and _My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of

the East_ (1906). Conway died on the 15th of November 1907.

CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856- ), English art critic and mountaineer,

son of the Rev. William Conway, afterwards canon of Westminster, was

born at Rochester, and was educated at Repton and at Trinity College,

Cambridge. He became interested in early printing and engraving, and in

1880 made a tour of the principal libraries of Europe in pursuit of his

studies, the result appearing in 1884 as a _History of the Woodcutters

of the Netherlands in the Fifteenth Century_. His later works on art

included _Early Flemish Artists_ (1887); _The Literary Remains of

Albrecht Durer_ (1889); _The Dawn of Art in the Ancient World_ (1891),

dealing with Chaldaean, Assyrian and Egyptian art; _Early Tuscan

Artists_ (1902). From 1884 to 1887 he was professor of art at University

College, Liverpool; and in 1901-1904 he was Slade professor of the fine

arts at Cambridge. He was knighted in 1895. Sir Martin Conway early

became a member of the Alpine Club, of which he was president from 1902

to 1904. In 1892 he beat the climbing record by ascending to a height of

23,000 ft. in the Himalayas in the course of an exploring and

mountaineering expedition undertaken under the auspices of the Royal

Society, the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association. In

1896-1897 he explored the interior of Spitsbergen, and in the next year

he explored and surveyed the Bolivian Andes, climbing Sorata (21,500

ft.) and Illimani (21,200 ft.). He also ascended Aconcagua (23,080 ft.)

and explored Tierra del Fuego. At the Paris exhibition of 1900 he

received the gold medal for mountain surveys, and the founder's medal of

the Royal Geographical Society in 1905. His expeditions are described in

his _Climbing and Exploration in the Kara-Koram Himalayas_ (1894), _The

Alps from End to End_ (1895), _The First Crossing of Spitsbergen_

(1897), _The Bolivian Andes_ (1901), &c.; _No Man's Land, a History of

Spitsbergen from ... 1596 ..._ was published in 1906.

CONWAY (_Conwy_, or _Aberconwy_), a municipal borough in the Arfon

parliamentary division of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 14 m. by the London

& North-Western railway from Bangor, and 225 m. N.W. from London. Pop.

(1901) 4681. The town is enclosed by a high wall, roughly triangular,

about 1 m. round, with twenty-one dilapidated round towers, pierced by

three principal gateways with two strong towers. The castle in the

south-east angle, built in 1284 by Edward I., was inhabited, in 1389, by

Richard II., who here agreed to abdicate. Held for Charles I. by

Archbishop Williams, it was taken by General Mytton in 1646. Dismantled

by the new proprietor, Earl Conway, it remains a ruin. It is oblong,

with eight massive towers, and has, within, a hall 130 ft. in length,

known as Llewelyn's. The parliamentary borough of Conway, returning,

with five other towns, one member, extends over to the right bank of the

stream Conwy (Conway). In 1885 the mayor of Conway was made a constable.

Llandudno with Great and Little Orme's Heads are at some 4 m. distance.

Two bridges, a tubular for the railway (40 ft. shorter than that of the

Menai) and a suspension, designed by Stephenson (1846-1848) and Telford

(1822-1826) respectively, cross the stream. St Mary's church is Gothic;

the Elizabethan Plas Mawr is the _locale_ of the Royal Cambrian Academy

of Art. There are still some fragments of the 1185 Cistercian Abbey.

There are golf links here and at Llandudno. The Conwy stream, on which a

steamboat runs from Deganwy (2 m. below Conway town) to Trefriw,

opposite Llanrwst, in summer, has some coasting trade in sulphur and

slates. It is about 30 m. long, its valley (a haunt of artists)

containing the towns last mentioned and Bettws y coed. Its pearls are

mentioned in Drayton's _Polyolbion_ and Spenser's _Faerie Queene_. Pearl

fisheries existed at Conway for many centuries, dating back to the Roman

occupation. Tacitus, _Agricola_, 12, says of Britain "gignit et Oceanus

margarita, sed subfusca ac liventia," as are those found to-day.

Diganhwy (Dyganwy, Deganwy) is mentioned in the _Mabinogion_ (_Geraint

and Enid_), if the reading is sound; it is certainly mentioned in the

_Annales Cambriae_ (years 812-822) and in the _Black Book of

Caerfyrddin_ (Carmarthen), xxiii. 1. Caer-hyn, 4-1/2 m. from Conway, is on

the highroad from London to Holyhead, and is the _Conovium_ of the

Romans. The site of the camp can still be traced, consisting of a

square, strengthened by four parallel walls, extending to a distance

from the main work. The camp is on a height, with the Conwy in front and

a wood on each flank. At the foot of the hill, near the stream, was a

Roman bath, with walls, pavement and pillars. Camden's _Britannia_

mentions tiles, with marks of the 10th or Antoninus's legion, as being

found here, perhaps mistakenly. _Gleini nadroedd_ (possibly amulets) and

_vitrum_ have been found here. In Bwlch y ddwy faen ("two rock ravine"),

on the way to Aber, are the remains of a Roman road and antiquities.

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL (1787-1857), dean of Llandaff, one of the most

distinguished of English geologists, who was born in London on the 7th

of June 1787, was a grandson of John Conybeare, bishop of Bristol

(1692-1755), a notable preacher and divine, and son of Dr William

Conybeare, rector of Bishopsgate. Educated first at Westminster school,

he went in 1805 to Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1808 he took his

degree of B.A., with a first in classics and second in mathematics, and

proceeded to M.A. three years later. Having entered holy orders he

became in 1814 curate of Wardington, near Banbury, and he accepted also

a lectureship at Brislington near Bristol. During this period he was one

of the founders of the Bristol Philosophical Institution (1822). He was

rector of Sully in Glamorganshire from 1823 to 1836, and vicar of

Axminster from 1836 to 1844. He was appointed Bampton lecturer in 1839,

and was instituted to the deanery of Llandaff in 1845. Attracted to the

study of geology by the lectures of Dr John Kidd (q.v.) he pursued the

subject with ardour. As soon as he had left college he made extended

journeys in Britain and on the continent, and he became one of the early

members of the Geological Society. Both Buckland and Sedgwick

acknowledged their indebtedness to him for instruction received when

they first began to devote attention to geology. To the _Transactions of

the Geological Society_ as well as to the _Annals of Philosophy_ and

_Philosophical Magazine_ he contributed many geological memoirs. In 1821

he distinguished himself by the description of a skeleton of the

_Plesiosaurus_, discovered by Mary Anning, and his account has been

confirmed in all main points by subsequent researches. Among his most

important memoirs is that on the south-western coal district of England,

written in conjunction with Dr Buckland, and published in 1824. He wrote

also on the valley of the Thames, on Elie de Beaumont's theory of

mountain-chains, and on the great landslip which occurred near Lyme

Regis in 1839 when he was vicar of Axminster. His principal work,

however, is the _Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales_ (1822),

being a second edition of the small work issued by William Phillips

(q.v.) and written in co-operation with that author. The original

contributions of Conybeare formed the principal portion of this edition,

of which only Part I., dealing with the Carboniferous and newer strata,

was published. It affords evidence throughout of the extensive and

accurate knowledge possessed by Conybeare; and it exercised a marked

influence on the progress of geology in this country. He was a fellow of

the Royal Society and a corresponding member of the Institute of France.

In 1844 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of

London. The loss of his eldest son, W. J. Conybeare, preyed on his mind

and hastened his end. He died at Itchenstoke, near Portsmouth, a few

months after his son, on the 12th of August 1857. (Obituary in _Gent.

Mag._ Sept. 1857, p. 335.)

His elder brother JOHN JOSIAS CONYBEARE (1779-1824), also educated at

Christ Church, Oxford, and an accomplished scholar, became vicar of

Batheaston, and was professor of Anglo-Saxon and afterwards of poetry at

Oxford. He likewise was an ardent student of geology and communicated

several important papers to the _Annals of Philosophy_ and the

_Transactions of the Geological Society_ of London. (Obituary in _Ann.

Phil._ vol. viii., Sept. 1824, p. 162.)

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN (1815-1857), English divine, son of Dean W. D.

Conybeare, was born on the 1st of August 1815, and was educated at

Westminster and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected

fellow in 1837. From 1842 to 1848 he was principal of the Liverpool

Collegiate Institution, which he left for the vicarage of Axminster. He

published _Essays, Ecclesiastical and Social_, in 1856, and a novel,

_Perversion, or the Causes and Consequences of Infidelity_, but is best

known as the joint author (with J. S. Howson) of _The Life and Epistles

of St Paul_ (1851). He died at Weybridge in 1857.

COODE, SIR JOHN (1816-1892), English engineer, was born at Bodmin,

Cornwall, on the 11th of November 1816, the son of a solicitor. After

considerable experience as an engineer in the west of England he came to

London, and from 1844-1847 had a consulting practice in Westminster. In

the latter year he was appointed resident engineer in charge of the

extensive national harbour works at Portland then in progress. In 1856

he was appointed engineer-in-chief of this undertaking, and this post he

retained till the completion of the works in 1872. His services at

Portland were rewarded with a knighthood. He was now recognized as the

leading authority on harbour construction, and his advice was sought by

many of the colonial governments, especially by those of South Africa

and Australia, and by the Indian government. After the Portland harbour

his best-known work is the harbour of Colombo, Ceylon. He was made a

K.C.M.G. in 1886. From 1884 till his death he was a member of the Suez

Canal Commission, and from 1889-1891 president of the Institution of

Civil Engineers. He died at Brighton on the 2nd of March 1892.

COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853- ), American scholar, was born on the

6th of March 1853 in Montville, Morris county, New Jersey. He graduated

at Rutgers College in 1872, and also studied at Gottingen and Leipzig

(1877-1878), and, after spending the years 1879-1881 as associate in

English at Johns Hopkins University, in London, and under Sievers at

Jena, he became in 1882 professor of English in the University of

California, and in 1889 professor of English language and literature in

Yale University. He re-organized the teaching of English in the state of

California, and edited many texts for reading in secondary schools; but

he is best known for his work in Old English and in poetics. He

translated, edited, and revised Sievers' _Old English Grammar_ (1885),

edited _Judith_ (1888), _The Christ of Cynewulf_ (1900), _Asser's Life

of King Alfred_ (1905), and _The Dream of the Rood_ (1905), and prepared

_A First Book in Old English Grammar_ (1894). He also edited, with

annotations, _Sidney's Defense of Poesie_ (1890); _Shelley's Defense of

Poetry_ (1891); _Newman's Poetry_ (1891); _Addison's Criticisms on

Paradise Lost_ (1892); _The Art of Poetry_ (1892), being the essays of

Horace, Vida and Boileau; and _Leigh Hunt's What is Poetry_ (1893); and

published _Higher Study of English_ (1906).

COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829-1883), English dramatic critic and author, was

born in London on the 30th of January 1829, the son of a solicitor. He

was educated at King's College school, London, and, after four years in

his father's office, obtained a situation in the London office of a

railway company, at first utilizing only his spare time in literary

work, but eventually devoting himself entirely to literature. He was

dramatic critic of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ from 1867 to 1875, and of the

_World_ from 1875 till his death. He also wrote freely on art topics,

and was the author of several novels. He died in London on the 11th of

September 1883.

COOK, ELIZA (1818-1889), English author, was born on the 24th of

December 1818, in Southwark, being the daughter of a local tradesman.

She was self-taught, and began when a girl to write poetry for the

_Weekly Dispatch_ and _New Monthly_. In 1838 she published _Melaia and

other Poems_, and from 1849 to 1854 conducted a paper for family reading

called _Eliza Cook's Journal_. She also published _Jottings from my

Journal_ (1860), and _New Echoes_ (1864); and in 1863 she was given a

civil list pension of L100 a year. As the author of a single poem, "The

Old Armchair," Eliza Cook's name was for a generation after 1838 a

household word both in England and in America, her kindly domestic

sentiment making her a great favourite with the working-class and

middle-class public. She died at Wimbledon on the 23rd of September

1889.

COOK, JAMES (1728-1779), English naval captain and explorer, was born on

the 28th of October 1728, at Marton village, Cleveland, Yorkshire, where

his father was first an agricultural labourer and then a farm bailiff.

At twelve years of age he was apprenticed to a haberdasher at Staithes,

near Whitby, and afterwards to Messrs Walker, shipowners, of Whitby,

whom he served for years in the Norway, Baltic and Newcastle trades.

In 1755, having risen to be a mate, Cook joined the royal navy, and

after four years' service was, on the recommendation of Sir Hugh

Palliser, his commander, appointed master successively of the sloop

"Grampus," of the "Garland" and of the "Solebay," in the last of which

he served in the St Lawrence. He was employed also in sounding and

surveying the river, and he published a chart of the channel from Quebec

to the sea. In 1762 he was present at the recapture of Newfoundland, and

was employed in surveying portions of this coast (especially Placentia

Harbour); in 1763, on Palliser becoming governor of Newfoundland, Cook

was appointed "marine surveyor of the coast of Newfoundland and

Labrador"; this office he held till 1767; and the volumes of sailing

directions he now brought out (1766-1768) showed remarkable abilities.

At the same time he began to make his reputation as a mathematician and

astronomer by his observation of the solar eclipse of the 5th of August

1766, at one of the Burgeo Islands, near Cape Ray, and by his account of

the same in the _Philosophical Transactions_ (vol. lvii. pp. 215-216).

In 1768 Cook was appointed to conduct an expedition, suggested by the

revival of geographical interest now noticeable, and resolved on by the

English admiralty at the instance of the Royal Society, for observing

the impending transit of Venus, and prosecuting geographical researches

in the South Pacific Ocean. For these purposes he received a commission

as lieutenant (May 25th), and set sail in the "Endeavour," of 370 tons,

accompanied by several men of science, including Sir Joseph Banks

(August 25th). On the 13th of April 1769, he reached Tahiti, where he

observed the transit on the 3rd of June. From Tahiti he sailed in quest

of the great continent then supposed to exist in the South Pacific,

explored the Society Islands, and thence struck to New Zealand, whose

coasts he circumnavigated and examined with great care for six months,

charting them for the first time with fair accuracy, and especially

observing the channel ("Cook Strait") which divided the North and South

Islands. His attempts to penetrate to the interior, however, were

thwarted by native hostility. From New Zealand he proceeded to "New

Holland" or Australia, and surveyed with the same minuteness and

accuracy the whole east coast. New South Wales he named after a supposed

resemblance to Glamorganshire; Botany Bay, sighted on the 28th of April

1770, was so called by the naturalists of the expedition. On account of

the hostility of the natives his discoveries here also were confined to

the coast, of which he took possession for Great Britain. From Australia

Cook sailed to Batavia, satisfying himself upon the way that (as Torres

had first shown in 1607) New Guinea was in no way an outlying part of

the greater land mass to the south.

Arriving in England, by way of the Cape of Good Hope, on the 12th of

June, Cook was made a commander, and soon after was appointed to command

another expedition for examining and determining once for all the

question of the supposed great southern continent. With the "Resolution"

of 462 tons, the "Adventure" (Captain Furneaux) of 330 tons, and 193

men, he sailed from Plymouth on the 13th of July 1772; he touched at the

Cape of Good Hope, and striking thence south-east (November 22nd) passed

the Antarctic Circle (January 16th, 1773), repassed the same, and made

his way to New Zealand (March 26th) without discovering land. From New

Zealand he resumed his "search for a continent," working up and down

across the South Pacific, and penetrating to 67 deg. 31' and again to 71

deg. 10' S., with imminent risk of destruction from floating ice, but

with the satisfaction of disproving the possibility of the disputed

continent in the seas south-eastward of New Zealand. He then made for

Easter Island, whose exact position he determined, for the first time,

with accuracy; noticing and describing the gigantic statues which

Roggewein, the first discoverer of the island, had made known. In the

same manner he accomplished a better determination and examination of

the Marquesas, as well as of the Tonga or Friendly Islands, than had yet

been made; and after a stay at Tahiti to rest and refit, crossed the

central Pacific to the "New Hebrides," as he renamed Quiros's "Southern

Land of the Holy Spirit" (a name preserved in the modern island of

_Espiritu Santo_), called by Bougainville the "Great Cyclades" (_Grandes

Cyclades_), whose position, extent, divisions and character were now

verified as never before. Next followed the wholly new discoveries of

New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, and the Isle of Pines. Another visit to

New Zealand, and yet another examination of the far southern Pacific,

which was crossed from west to east through the whole of its extent,

from south Australia to Tierra del Fuego, were now undertaken by Cook

before he finally closed his work in refutation of the Antarctic

continent, as previously understood, on this side of the world. The

voyage closed with a rapid survey of the "Land of Fire," the rounding of

Cape Horn, the rediscovery of the island now named Southern Georgia, the

discovery of Sandwich Land, the crossing of the South Atlantic (here

also exploding the great _Terra Australis_ delusion), and visits to the

Cape of Good Hope, St Helena, Ascension, Fernando Noronha and the

Azores. The voyage (reckoning only from the Cape of Good Hope and back

to the same) had covered considerably more than 20,000 leagues, nearly

three times the equatorial circumference of the earth; it left the main

outlines of the southern portions of the globe substantially as they are

known to-day; and it showed a possibility of keeping a number of men for

years at sea without a heavy toll of lives. Cook only lost one man out

of 118 in more than 1000 days; he had conquered scurvy.

The discoverer reached Plymouth on the 25th of July 1775, and his

achievements were promptly, if meanly, rewarded. He was immediately

raised to the rank of post-captain, appointed a captain in Greenwich

hospital, and soon afterwards unanimously elected a member of the Royal

Society, from which he received the Copley gold medal for the best

experimental paper which had appeared during the year.

Cook's third and last voyage was primarily to settle the question of the

north-west passage, practically abandoned since before the middle of the

17th century, but now taken up again, as a matter of scientific

interest, by the British government. The explorer, who had volunteered

for this service, was instructed to sail first into the Pacific through

the chain of the newly discovered islands which he had recently visited,

and on reaching New Albion to proceed northward as far as latitude 65

deg. and endeavour to find a passage to the Atlantic. Several ships were

at the same time fitted out to attempt a passage on the other side from

the Atlantic to the Pacific. Sailing from the Nore on the 25th of June

1776 (Plymouth, July 12), with the "Resolution" and "Discovery," and

touching at the Cape of Good Hope, which he left on the 30th of

November, Cook next made Tasmania and thence passed on to New Zealand

and the Tonga and Society Islands, discovering on his way several of the

larger members of the Hervey or Cook Archipelago, especially Mangaia and

Aitutaki (March 30th-April 4th, 1777); some smaller isles of this group

he had already sighted on his second voyage, September 23rd, 1773. From

Tahiti, as he moved north towards the main object of his expedition, he

made a far more important discovery, or rather rediscovery, that of the

Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, the greatest and most remarkable of the

Polynesian archipelagos (early February 1778). These had perhaps first

been seen by the Spanish navigator Gaetano in 1555; but their existence

had been kept a close secret by Spain at the time, and had long been

forgotten. Striking the west American coast in 44 deg. 55' N. on the 7th

of March following, he made an almost continuous survey of the same up

to Bering Straits and beyond, as far as 70 deg. 41', where he found the

passage barred by a wall, or rather continent, of ice, rising 12 ft.

above water, and stretching as far as the eye could reach. The farthest

point visible on the American shore (in the extreme north-west of

Alaska) he called Icy Cape. On his way towards Bering Straits he

discovered and named King George's ("Nootka") and Prince William's

Sound, as well as Cape Prince of Wales, the westernmost extremity of

North America, never yet seen by English navigators, but well known to

Russian explorers, who probably first sighted it in 1648; he also

penetrated into the bay afterwards known as Cook's Inlet or River, which

at first seemed to promise a passage to the Arctic Seas, to the

south-east of the Alaska peninsula. Cook next visited the Asiatic shores

of Bering Straits (the extreme north-east of Siberia); returning to

America, he explored Norton Sound, north of the Yukon; touched at

(Aleutian) Unalaska, where he met with some Russian-American settlers;

and thence made his way back to the Hawaiian group, which he had

christened after his friend and patron Lord Sandwich, then head of the

British admiralty (January 17th, 1779). Here he visited Maui and Hawaii

itself, whose size and importance he now first realized, and in one of

whose bays (Kealakekua) he met his death early in the morning of the

14th of February 1779. During the night of the 13th, one of the

"Discovery's" boats was stolen by the natives; and Cook, in order to

recover it, made trial of his favourite expedient of seizing the king's

person until reparation should be made. Having landed on the following

day with some marines, a scuffle ensued which compelled the party to

retreat to their boats. Cook was the last to retire; and as he was

nearing the shore he received a blow from behind which felled him to the

ground. He rose immediately, and vigorously resisted the crowds that

pressed upon him, but was soon overpowered.

Had Cook returned from his third voyage, there is ground for believing

King George would have made him a baronet. Distinguished honours were

paid to his memory, both at home and by foreign courts, and a pension

was settled upon his widow. But in his life a very inadequate share of

official reward was dealt out to the man who not only may be placed

first among British maritime discoverers, but also gave his country her

title, and so her colonies, in Australasia. As a commander, an observer

and a practical physician, his merits were equally great. Reference has

been made to his survey work and to his victory over scurvy; it must not

be forgotten that along with a commanding personal presence, and with

sagacity, decision and perseverance quite extraordinary, went other

qualities not less useful to his work. He won the affection of those who

served under him by sympathy, kindness and unselfish care of others as

noteworthy as his gifts of intellect.

See the _Account of a Voyage round the World in 1769-1771, by Lieut.

James Cook_, in vols. ii. and iii. of Hawkesworth's Voyages (1773);

the _Voyage towards the South Pole and round the World ... in ...

1772-1775, written by James Cook_ ... (1777); a _Voyage to the Pacific

Ocean ... in 1776-1780_, vols. i. and ii. written by Cook (1784); also

the _Narrative of the Voyages round the World performed by Captain

James Cook_, by A. Kippis, D.D., F.R.S. (1788), long the standard life

of the navigator, but now superseded by Arthur Kitson's _Captain James

Cook, the Circumnavigator_ (1907). (C. R. B.)

COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892), English travelling agent, was born at

Melbourne in Derbyshire on the 22nd of November 1808. Beginning work at

the age of ten, he was successively a gardener's help and a wood-turner

at Melbourne, and a printer at Loughborough. At the age of twenty he

became a Bible-reader and village missionary for the county of Rutland;

but in 1832, on his marriage, combined his wood-turning business with

that occupation. In 1836 he became a total abstainer, and subsequently

became actively associated with the temperance movement, and printed at

his own expense various publications in its interest, notably the

_Children's Temperance Magazine_ (1840), the first of its kind to appear

in England. In June 1841 a large meeting was to be held at Loughborough

in connexion with this movement, and Cook was struck with the idea of

getting the Midland Counties Railway Company to run a special train from

Leicester to the meeting. The company consented, and on the 5th of July

there were carried 570 passengers from Leicester to Loughborough and

back at a shilling a head. This is believed to be the first

publicly-advertised excursion train ever run in England--private

"specials," reserved for members of institutes and similar bodies, were

already in use. The event caused great excitement, and Cook received so

many applications to organize similar parties that he henceforward

deserted wood-turning, while continuing his printing and publishing. The

summers of the next three years were occupied with excursions like the

first; but in 1845 Cook advertised a pleasure-trip on a more extensive

scale, from Leicester to Liverpool and back, with opportunities for

visiting the Isle of Man, Dublin and Welsh coast. A _Handbook of the

Trip to Liverpool_ was supplied for the use of travellers. In the

previous year Cook had entered into a permanent arrangement with the

Midland Railway Company to place trains at his disposal, for which he

should provide the passengers. A trip to Scotland followed, and the

excursionists were received in Glasgow with music and salute of guns.

The next great impetus to popular travel was given by the Great

Exhibition of 1851, which Cook helped 165,000 visitors to attend. On the

occasion of the Paris exhibition of 1855 there was a Cook's excursion

from Leicester to Calais and back for L1:10s. The following year saw the

first grand circular tour in Europe. This part of Cook's activity

largely increased after 1863, when the Scottish railway managers broke

off their engagements with him, and left him free for more distant

enterprise. Switzerland was opened up in 1863, and Italy in 1864. Up to

this time "Cook's tourists" had been personally conducted, but now he

began to be an agent for the sale of English and foreign tickets, the

holders of which travelled independently. Switzerland was the first

foreign country accessible under these conditions, and in 1865 nearly

the whole of Europe was included in the scheme. Its extension to the

United States followed in 1866. For the benefit of visitors to the Paris

exhibition, Cook made a fresh departure and leased a hotel there. In the

same year began his system of "hotel-coupons," providing accommodation

at a fixed charge. The year 1869 was marked by an extension of Cook's

tours to Palestine, followed by further developments of travel in the

East, his son, John Mason Cook, (1834-1899), being appointed in 1870

agent of the khedivial government for passenger traffic on the Nile. The

Franco-German War of 1870-1871 was expected to damage the tourist

system, but, as a matter of fact, encouraged it, through the demand for

combination, international tickets enabling travellers to reach the

south of Europe without crossing the belligerent countries. At the

termination of the war a party of American freemasons visited Paris

under J. M. Cook's guidance, and became the precursors of the present

vast American tourist traffic. At the beginning of 1872 J. M. Cook

entered into formal partnership with his father, and the firm first took

the name of Thomas Cook & Son. In 1882, on the outbreak of Arabi Pasha's

rebellion, Thomas Cook & Son were commissioned to convey Sir Garnet

Wolseley and his suite to Egypt, and to transport the wounded and sick

up the Nile by water, for which they received the thanks of the war

office. The firm was again employed in 1884 to convey General Gordon to

the Sudan, and the whole of the men (18,000) and stores necessary for

the expedition afterwards sent to relieve him. In 1889 Thomas Cook & Son

acquired the exclusive right of carrying the mails, specie, soldiers and

officials of the Egyptian government along the Nile. In 1891 the firm

celebrated its jubilee, and on the 19th of July of the following year

Thomas Cook died. He had been afflicted with blindness in his declining

years. His son, J. M. Cook, died in 1899, leaving three sons, all

actively engaged in the business.

COOK or HERVEY ISLANDS, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, lying

mainly between 155 deg. and 160 deg. E., and about 20 deg. S.; a

dependency of the British colony of New Zealand. It comprises nine

partly volcanic, partly coralline, islands, the more important of which

are Rarotonga, hilly, fertile and well watered, with several cones 300

to 400 ft. high, above which towers the majestic Rarotonga volcano (2920

ft.), the culminating point of the archipelago; Mangaia (Mangia);

Aitutaki, with luxuriant cocoa-nut palm groves; Atui (Vatui); Mitiero;

Mauki; Fenuaiti; and the two Hervey Islets, which give an alternative

name to the group. The total land area is 111 sq. m. Owing to its

healthy, equable climate, the archipelago is well suited for European

settlement; but the dangerous fringing coral reefs render it difficult

of access, and it suffers also from the absence of good harbours. The

natives, who are of Polynesian stock and speech, have legends of their

emigration from Samoa. They say their ancestors found black people on

the islands, and the strongly Melanesian type which is found, especially

on Mangaia, supports the statement. The Cook Islanders were formerly

man-hunters and cannibals, but they now are nearly all Protestants, wear

European dress and live in stone houses. The total population is about

6200. Since 1890 the islands have enjoyed a general legislature and an

executive council of which the _Arikis_ ("kings" and "queens") are

members. But all enactments are subject to the approval of the British

resident at Rarotonga, and a British protectorate, proclaimed in 1888,

was followed by the annexation of the whole archipelago by the governor

of New Zealand, by proclamation of June 10th, 1901. The archipelago was

discovered by Captain Cook in 1777, and in 1823 became the scene of the

remarkable missionary labours of John Williams, of the London Missionary

Society. The chief products of the group are cocoanuts, fruits, coffee

and copra. Lime-juice and hats are made.

COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK (1756-1811), English actor, was born in London,

and made his first appearance on the stage in Brentford at the age of

twenty as Dumont in _Jane Shore_. His first London appearance was at the

Haymarket in 1778, but it was not until 1794 in Dublin, as Othello, that

he attained high rank in his profession. In 1801 he appeared in London

as Richard III., Iago, Shylock and Sir Giles Overreach, and became the

rival of Kemble, with whom, however, and with Mrs Siddons, he acted from

1803. His intemperate habits unfortunately grew more and more notorious,

and on at least one occasion the curtain had to be rung down owing to

the audience hissing his drunken condition. He visited the United States

in 1810, and died in New York on the 26th of September 1811. A monument

to his memory was erected in St Paul's churchyard there by Edmund Kean.

COOKE, JAY (1821-1905), American financier, was born at Sandusky, Ohio,

on the 10th of August 1821, the son of Eleutheros Cooke (1787-1864), a

pioneer Ohio lawyer, and Whig member of Congress from that state in

1831-1833. Being destined for a commercial career, Jay Cooke received a

preliminary training in a trading house in St Louis, and in the booking

office of a transportation company in Philadelphia, and at the age of

eighteen entered the Philadelphia house of E.W. Clark & Company, one of

the largest private banking firms in the country. He showed such

aptitude for business that three years later he was admitted to

membership in the firm, and before he was thirty he was also a partner

in the New York and St Louis branches of the Clarks. In 1858 he retired

from the firm, and for the next three years he devoted himself to

reorganizing some of the abandoned Pennsylvania railways and canals and

placing them again in operation. On the 1st of January 1861 he opened in

Philadelphia the private banking house of Jay Cooke & Company, and soon

achieved signal success in floating at par a war loan of $3,000,000 for

the state of Pennsylvania, whose credit had become notoriously bad. In

the early months of the Civil War Cooke co-operated with the secretary

of the treasury, Salmon P. Chase, in securing loans from the leading

bankers in the Northern cities, and his own firm was so successful in

distributing treasury notes that Chase engaged him as special agent for

the sale of the $500,000,000 of so-called "five-twenty" bonds authorized

by the act of the 25th of February 1862. To dispose of these bonds the

treasury department had already tried every regular means at its command

and had failed. Cooke secured the influence of the American press,

appointed 2500 sub-agents, and before the machinery he set in motion

could be stopped he had sold $11,000,000 more of bonds than had been

authorized, an excess which Congress immediately sanctioned. At the same

time he used all his influence in favour of the establishment of

national banks, and organized a national bank at Washington and another

at Philadelphia almost as soon as such institutions were authorized by

Congress. In the early months of 1865, when the needs of the government

were pressing, and the sale of the new "seven-thirty" notes by the

national banks had been very disappointing, Cooke's services were again

secured. He sent agents into the remotest villages and hamlets, and even

into the isolated mining camps of the West, and caused the rural

newspapers to praise the loan. As a result, between February and July

1865 he had disposed of three series of the notes, reaching a total of

$830,000,000. Through these efforts the Union soldiers were well

supplied and well paid while dealing the final blows of the war; and,

later, with money in their pockets, they were disbanded without

difficulty.

After the war Cooke became interested in the development of the

North-west, and in 1870 his firm undertook to finance the construction

of the Northern Pacific railway. In advancing the money for the work,

the firm over-estimated the possibilities of its capital, and at the

approach of the financial crisis of 1873 it was forced to suspend. By

1880 Cooke had discharged all his obligations, and through an

investment in a silver mine in Utah had again become wealthy. He died at

Ogontz, Pennsylvania, on the 18th of February 1905. Cooke was noted for

his piety, and gave regularly a tenth of his income for religious and

charitable purposes. His handsome estate at Ogontz, which he had been

compelled to give up during his bankruptcy, he later repurchased and

converted into a school for girls.

See E. P. Oberholtzer, _Jay Cooke, Financier of the Civil War_

(Philadelphia, 1907).

COOKE, ROSE TERRY (1827-1892), American writer, _nee_ Terry, was born at

West Hartford, Connecticut, on the 17th of February 1827. She published

in 1860 a volume of _Poems_, but after her marriage in 1873 to Rollin H.

Cooke she was best known for her fresh and humorous stories, though in

1888 she published more verse in her _Complete Poems_. The chief volumes

of fiction dealing mainly with New England country life, produced by

Rose Terry Cooke, were _Happy Dodd_ (1878), _Somebody's Neighbors_

(1881), _Root-bound_ (1885), _The Sphinx's Children_ (1886), _Steadfast_

(1889) and _Huckleberries_ (1891). She died at Pittsfield,

Massachusetts, on the 18th of July 1892.

COOKERY (Lat. _coquus_, a cook), the art of preparing and dressing food

of all sorts for human consumption, of converting the raw materials, by

the application of heat or otherwise, into a digestible and pleasing

condition, and generally ministering to the satisfaction of the appetite

and the delight of the palate. We may take it that some form of cookery

has existed from the earliest times, and its progress has been from the

simple to the elaborate, dominated partly by the foods accessible to

man, partly by the stage of civilization he has attained, and partly by

the appliances at his command for the purpose either of treating the

food, or of consuming it when served.

The developed art of cookery is necessarily a late addition--if it may

be considered to be included at all--to the list of "fine arts."

Originally it is a purely industrial and useful art. Man, says a French

writer, was born a roaster, and "_pour etre cuisinier, il a besoin de le

devenir._" The ancients were great eaters, but strangers to the subtler

refinements of the palate. The gods were supposed to love the smell of

fried meat, while their nectar and ambrosia represented an ideal, which,

though preserved as a phrase, would hardly satisfy a modern epicure. The

ancients were poorly provided with pots and pans, except of a simple

order, or with the appurtenances of a kitchen, and they were sadly to

seek in the requisites of a modern table. So long as men ate with their

hands no dainty confection was suitable; the viands were set forth in a

straightforward style fit for their requirements. "Plain cooking,"

which, after all, can never become obsolete, was the only sort.

Oddities, no doubt, were the luxuries; and we can see to-day in the

ethnological accounts of contemporary savages and backward

civilizations, a fair representation of the cookeries of the ancients.

The luxuries of the Chinese are, in their way, a survival of long ages

of a cookery which to western civilization is grotesque. Even if it is

an historic impertinence, it is impossible for the countries of western

civilization to regard the fine flower of their own evolution as other

than the highest pitch of progress. _Autres temps, autres moeurs._ To

the Chinaman French cooking may possibly be as grotesque as to an

Englishman the Chinaman's hundred-year-old buried egg, black and

tasteless. The history of comparative cookery is bound up with the

physical possibilities of each country and its products; and if we

attempt to mark out stages in the evolution of cookery as a fine art, it

is necessarily as understood by the so-called civilized peoples of the

West in their culmination at the present day.

It is obvious that opportunity has dominated its history, for the art of

cookery is to some extent the product of an increased refinement of

taste, consequent on culture and increase of wealth. To this extent it

is a decadent art, ministering to the luxury of man, and to his

progressive inclination to be pampered and have his appetite tickled. It

is thus only remotely connected with the mere necessities of nutrition

(q.v.), or the science of dietetics (q.v.). Mere hunger, though the best

sauce, will not produce cookery, which is the art of sauces. For

centuries its elaboration consisted mainly of a progressive variety of

foods, the richest and rarest being sought out; and their nature

depended on what was most difficult to obtain. The Greeks learnt by

contact with Asia to increase the sumptuous character of their banquets,

but we know little enough of their ideas of gastronomy. Athens was the

centre of luxury. According to our chief authority Athenaeus,

Archestratus of Gela, the friend of the son of Pericles, the guide of

Epicurus, and author of the _Heduphagetica_, was a great traveller, and

took pains to get information as to how the delicacies of the table were

prepared in different parts. His lost work was versified by Ennius.

Other connoisseurs seem to have been Numenius of Heraclea, Hegemon of

Thasos, Philogenes of Leucas, Simonaclides of Chios, and Tyndarides of

Sicyon. The Romans, emerging from their pristine simplicity, borrowed

from the Greeks their achievements in gastronomic pleasure. We read of

this or that Roman gourmet, such as Lucullus, his extravagances and his

luxury. The name of the connoisseur Apicius, after whom a work of the

time of Heliogabalus is called, comes down to us in association with a

manual of cookery. And from Macrobius and Petronius we can gather very

interesting glimpses of the Roman idea of a menu. In the later empire,

tradition still centred round the Roman cookery favoured by the

geographical position of Italy; while the customs and natural products

of the remoter parts of Europe gradually begin to assert themselves as

the middle ages progress.

It is, however, not till the Renaissance, and then too with Italy as the

starting-point, that the history of modern cookery really begins.

Meanwhile cookery may be studied rather in the architecture of kitchens,

and the development of their appurtenances and personnel, than in any

increase in the subtleties of the art; the ideal was inevitably gross;

the end was feeding--inextricably associated in all ages with cooking,

but as distinct from its _fine fleur_ as gluttony from gastronomy.

Montaigne's references to the revival of cookery in France by Catherine

de' Medici indicate that the new attention paid to the art was really

novel. She brought Italian cooks to Paris and introduced there a

cultured simplicity which was unknown in France before. It is to the

Italians apparently that later developments are originally due. It is

clearly established, for instance (says Abraham Hayward in his _Art of

Dining_), that the Italians introduced ices into France. Fricandeaus

were invented by the _chef_ of Leo X. And Coryate in his _Crudities_,

writing in the time of James I., says that he was called "furcifer"

(evidently in contemptuous jest) by his friends, from his using those

"Italian neatnesses called forks." The use of the fork and spoon marked

an epoch in the progress of dining, and consequently of cookery.

Under Louis XIV. further advances were made. His _maitre d'hotel_,

Bechamel, is famous for his sauce; and Vatel, the great Conde's cook,

was a celebrated artist, of whose suicide in despair at the tardy

arrival of the fish which he had ordered, Madame de Sevigne relates a

moving story. The prince de Soubise, immortalized by his onion sauce,

also had a famous chef.

In England the names of certain cookery-books may be noted, such as Sir

J. Elliott's (1539), Abraham Veale's (1575), and the _Widdowe's

Treasure_ (1625). The _Accomplisht Cook_, by Robert May, appeared in

1665, and from its preface we learn that the author (who speaks

disparagingly of French cookery, but more gratefully of Italian and

Spanish) was the son of a cook, and had studied abroad and under his

father (c. 1610) at Lady Dormer's, and he speaks of that time as "the

days wherein were produced the triumphs and trophies of cookery." From

his description they consisted of most fantastic and elaborately built

up dishes, intended to amuse and startle, no less than to satisfy the

appetite and palate.

Louis XV. was a great gourmet; and his reign saw many developments in

the culinary art. The mayonnaise (originally _mahonnaise_) is ascribed

to the duc de Richelieu. Such dishes as "_potage a la Xavier_,"

"_cailles a la Mirepoix_," "_chartreuses a la Mauconseil_," "_poulets a

la Villeroy_," "_potage a la Conde_," "_gigot a la Mailly_," owe their

titles to celebrities of the day, and the Pompadour gave her name to

various others. The Jesuits Brunoy and Bougeant, who wrote a preface to

a contemporary treatise on cookery (1739), described the modern art as

"more simple, more appropriate, and more cunning, than that of old

days," giving the ingredients the same union as painters give to

colours, and harmonizing all the tastes. The very phrase "_cordon bleu_"

(strictly applied only to a woman cook) arose from an enthusiastic

recognition of female merit by the king himself. Madame du Barry, piqued

at his opinion that only a man could cook to perfection, had a dinner

prepared for him by a _cuisiniere_ with such success that the delighted

monarch demanded that the artist should be named, in order that so

precious a _cuisinier_ might be engaged for the royal household.

"_Allons donc, la France!_" retorted the ex-grisette, "have I caught you

at last? It is no _cuisinier_ at all, but a _cuisiniere_, and I demand a

recompense for her worthy both of her and of your majesty. Your royal

bounty has made my negro, Zamore, governor of Luciennes, and I cannot

accept less than a _cordon bleu_" (the Royal Order of the _Saint

Esprit_) "for my _cuisiniere_."

The French Revolution was temporarily a blow to Parisian cookery, as to

everything else of the _ancien regime_. "Not a single turbot in the

market," was the lament of Grimod de la Reyniere, the great gourmet, and

author of the _Manuel des amphitryons_ (1808). But while it fell heavily

on the class of noble amphitryons it had one remarkable effect on the

art which was epoch-making. It is from that time that we notice the rise

of the Parisian restaurants. To 1770 is ascribed the first of these, the

_Champ d'oiseau_ in the rue des Poulies. In 1789 there were a hundred.

In 1804 (when the _Almanach des gourmands_, the first sustained effort

at investing gastronomy with the dignity of an art, was started) there

were between 500 and 600. And in 1814, to such an extent had the

restaurants attracted the culinary talent of Paris, that the allied

monarchs, on arriving there, had to contract with the two brothers Very

for the supply of their table. Among the great gastronomic names of

Napoleon's day was that of his chancellor Cambaceres, of whose dinners

many stories are told. Robert (the eponym of the _sauce Robert_),

Rechaud and Merillion were at this period esteemed the Raphael,

Michelangelo and Rubens of cookery; while A. Beauvilliers (author of

_Art des cuisines_) and Careme (author of the _Maitre d'hotel francais_,

and chef at different times to the Tsar Alexander I., Talleyrand, George

IV. and Baron Rothschild) were no less celebrated.[1] Perhaps the

greatest name of all in the history of the literature of cookery is that

of Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826), the French judge and author of

the _Physiologie du gout_ (1825), the classic of gastronomy.

In England Louis Eustache Ude, Charles Elme Francatelli, and Alexis

Soyer carried on the tradition, all being not only cooks but authors of

treatises on the art. The _Original_ (1835) of Thomas Walker, the

Lambeth police magistrate, is another work which has inspired later

pens. Like the _Physiologie du gout_, it is no mere cookery-book, but a

compound of observation and philosophy. Among simple hand-books, Mrs

Glasse's, Dr Kitchener's and Mrs Rundell's were standard English works

in the 18th and early 19th centuries; and in France the _Cuisiniere de

la campagne_ (1818) went through edition after edition. An interesting

old English work is Dr Pegge's _Forme of Cury_ (1780), which includes

some historical reflections on the subject. "We have some good families

in England," he says, "of the name of Cook or Coke.... Depend upon it,

they all originally sprang from real professional cooks, and they need

not be ashamed of their extraction any more than Porters, Butlers, &c."

He points out that cooks in early days were of some importance; William

the Conqueror bestowed land on his _coquorum praepositus_ and _coquus

regius_; and Domesday Book records the bestowal of a manor on Robert

Argyllon, by the service of a dish called "de la Groute" on the king's

coronation day.

At the present time, whatever the local varieties of cooking, and the

difference of national custom, French cooking is admittedly the ideal of

the culinary art, directly we leave the plain roast and boiled. And the

spread of cosmopolitan hotels and restaurants over England, America and

the European continent, has largely accustomed the whole civilized world

to the Parisian type. The improvements in the appliances and

appurtenances of the kitchen have made the whole world kin in the arts

of dining, but the French chef remains the typical master of his craft.

Schools of cookery have been added to the educational machine. The

literature of the subject has passed beyond enumeration.

It is unnecessary here to pursue so vast a practical subject into

detail; but the following notes on broiling, roasting, baking, boiling,

stewing and frying may be useful.

_Broiling._--The earliest method of cooking was probably burying seeds

and flesh in hot ashes, a kind of broiling on all the surfaces at the

same time, which when properly done is the most delicate kind of

cooking. Broiling is now done over a clear fire extending at least 2

in. beyond the edges of the gridiron, which should slightly incline

towards the cook. It is usual to rub the bars with a piece of suet for

meat, and chalk for fish, to prevent the thing broiled from being

marked with the bars of the gridiron. In this kind of cookery the

object is to coagulate as quickly as possible all the albumen on the

surface, and seal up the pores of the meat so as to keep in all the

juices and flavour. It is, therefore, necessary thoroughly to warm the

gridiron before putting on the meat, or the heat of the fire is

conducted away while the juices and flavour of the meat run into the

fire. Broiling is a simple kind of cookery, and one well suited to

invalids and persons of delicate appetites. There is no other way in

which small quantities of meat can be so well and so quickly cooked.

Broiling cannot be well done in front of an open fire, because one

side of the meat is exposed to a current of cold air. A pair of tongs

should be used instead of a fork for turning all broiled meat and

fish.

_Roasting._--Two conditions are necessary for good roasting--a clear

bright fire and frequent basting. Next to boiling or stewing it is the

most economical method of cooking. The meat at first should be placed

close to a brisk fire for five minutes to coagulate the albumen. It

should then be drawn back a short distance and roasted slowly. If a

meat screen be used, it should be placed before the fire to be

moderately heated before the meat is put to roast. The centre of

gravity of the fire should be a little above the centre of gravity of

the joint. No kitchen can be complete without an open range, for it is

almost impossible to have a properly roasted joint in closed

kitcheners. The heat radiated from a good open fire quickly coagulates

the albumen on the surface, and thus to a large extent prevents that

which is fluid in the interior from solidifying. The connective tissue

which unites the fibres is gradually converted into gelatin, and

rendered easily soluble. The fibrin and albumen appear to undergo a

higher oxidation and are more readily dissolved. The fat cells are

gradually broken, and the liquid fat unites to a small extent with the

chloride of sodium and the tribasic phosphate of sodium contained in

the serum of the blood. It is easily seen that roasting by coagulating

the external albumen keeps together the most valuable parts of the

meat, till they have gradually and slowly undergone the desired

change. This surface coagulation is not sufficient to prevent the free

access of the oxygen of the surrounding air. The empyreumatic oils

generated on the surface are neither wholesome nor agreeable, and

these are perhaps better removed by roasting than any other method

except broiling. The chief object is to retain as much as possible all

the sapid juicy properties of the meat, so that at the first cut the

gravy flows out of a rich reddish colour, and this can only be

accomplished by a quick coagulation of the surface albumen. The time

for roasting varies slightly with the kind of meat and the size of the

joint. As a rule beef and mutton require a quarter of an hour to the

pound; veal and pork about 17 minutes to the pound. To tell whether

the joint is done, press the fleshy part with a spoon; if the meat

yield easily it is done.

_Baking_ meat is in many respects objectionable, and should never be

done if any other method is available. The gradual disuse of open

grates for roasting has led to a practice of first baking and then

browning before the fire. This method completely reverses the true

order of cooking by beginning with the lowest temperature and

finishing with the highest. Baked meat has never the delicate flavour

of roast meat, nor is it so digestible. The vapours given off by the

charring of the surface cannot freely escape, and the meat is cooked

in an atmosphere charged with empyreumatic oil. A brick or earthenware

oven is preferable to iron, because the porous nature of the bricks

absorbs a good deal of the vapour. When potatoes are baked with meat,

they should always be first parboiled, because they take a longer time

to bake, and the moisture rising from the potatoes retards the process

of baking, and makes the meat sodden. A baked meat pie, though not

always very digestible, is far less objectionable than plain baked

meat. In the case of a meat pie the surfaces of the meat are protected

by a bad conductor of heat from that charring of the surface which

generates empyreumatic vapours, and the fat and gravy, gradually

rising in temperature, assist the cooking, and such cooking more

nearly resembles stewing than baking. The process may go on for a long

time after the removal of the meat from the oven, if surrounded with

flannel, or some bad conductor of heat. The Cornish pasty is the best

example of this kind of cooking. Meat, fish, game, parboiled

vegetables, apples or anything that fancy suggests, are surrounded

with a thick flour and water crust and slowly baked. When removed from

the oven, and packed in layers of flannel, the pasty will keep hot for

hours. When baked dishes contain eggs, it should be remembered that

the albumen becomes harder and more insoluble, according to the time

occupied in cooking. About the same time is required for baking as

roasting.

_Boiling_ is one of the easiest methods of cooking, but a successful

result depends on a number of conditions which, though they appear

trifling, are nevertheless necessary. The fire must be watched so as

properly to regulate the heat. The saucepan should be scrupulously

clean and have a closely-fitting lid, and be large enough to hold

sufficient water to well cover and surround the meat, and all scum

should be removed as it comes to the surface; the addition of small

quantities of cold water will assist the rising of the scum. For all

cooking purposes clean rain water is to be preferred. Among cooks a

great difference of opinion exists as to whether meat should be put

into cold water and gradually brought to the boiling point, or should

be put into boiling water. This, like many other unsettled questions

in cookery, is best decided by careful scientific experiment and

observation. If a piece of meat be put into water at a temperature of

60 deg., and gradually raised to 212 deg., the meat is undergoing a

gradual loss of its soluble and nutritious properties, which are

dissolved in the water. From the surface to the interior the albumen

is partially dissolved out of the meat, the fibres become hard and

stringy, and the thinner the piece of meat the greater the loss of all

those sapid constituents which make boiled meat savoury, juicy and

palatable. To put meat into cold water is clearly the best method for

making soups and broth; it is the French method of preparing the _pot

au feu_; but the meat at the end of the operation has lost much of

that juicy sapid property which makes boiled meat so acceptable. The

practice of soaking fresh meat in cold water before cooking is for the

same reasons highly objectionable; if necessary, wipe it with a clean

cloth. But in the case of salted, smoked and dried meats soaking for

several hours is indispensable, and the water should be occasionally

changed. The other method of boiling meat has the authority of Baron

Liebig, who recommends putting the meat into water when in a state of

ebullition, and after five minutes the saucepan is to be drawn aside,

and the contents kept at a temperature of 162 deg. (50 deg. below

boiling). The effect of boiling water is to coagulate the albumen on

the surface of the meat, which prevents, but not entirely, the juices

from passing into the water, and meat thus boiled has more flavour and

has lost much less in weight. To obtain well-flavoured boiled meat the

idea of soups or broth must be a secondary consideration. It is,

however, impossible to cook a piece of meat in water without

extracting some of its juices and nutriment, and the liquor should in

both cases be made into a soup.

_Stewing._--When meat is slowly cooked in a close vessel it is said to

be stewed; this method is generally adopted in the preparation of made

dishes. Different kinds of meat may be used, or only one kind

according to taste. The better the meat the better the stew; but by

carefully stewing the coarsest and roughest parts will become soft,

tender and digestible, which would not be possible by any other kind

of cooking. Odd pieces of meat and trimmings and bones can often be

purchased cheaply, and may be turned into good food by stewing. Bones,

although containing little meat, contain from 39 to 49% of gelatin.

The large bones should be broken into small pieces, and allowed to

simmer till every piece is white and dry. Gelatin is largely used both

in the form of jellies and soups. Lean meat, free from blood, is best

for stewing, and, when cut into convenient pieces, it should be

slightly browned in a little butter or dripping. Constant attention is

necessary during this process, to prevent burning. The meat should be

covered with soft water or, better, a little stock, and set aside to

simmer for four or five hours, according to the nature of the

material. When vegetables are used, these should also be slightly

browned and added at intervals, so as not materially to lower the

temperature. Stews may be thickened by the addition of pearl barley,

sago, rice, potatoes, oatmeal, flour, &c., and flavoured with herbs

and condiments according to taste. Although stewing is usually done in

a stewpan or saucepan with a close-fitting cover, a good stone jar,

with a well-fitting lid, is preferable in the homes of working people.

This is better than a metal saucepan, and can be more easily kept

clean; it retains the heat longer, and can be placed in the oven or

covered with hot ashes. The common red jar is not suitable; it does

not stand the heat so well as a grey jar; and the red glaze inside

often gives way in the presence of salt. The lid of a vessel used for

stewing should be removed as little as possible. An occasional shake

will prevent the meat from sticking. At the end of the operation all

the fat should be carefully removed.

_Frying._--Lard, oil, butter, or dripping may be used for frying.

There are two methods of frying--the dry method, as in frying a

pancake, and the wet method, as when the thing fried is immersed in a

bath of hot fat. In the former case a frying pan is used, in the other

a frying kettle or stewpan. It is usual for most things to have a wire

frying basket; the things to be fried are placed in the basket and

immersed at the proper temperature in the hot fat. The fat should

gradually rise in temperature over a slow fire till it attains nearly

400 deg. Fahr. Great care is required to fry properly. If the

temperature is too low the things immersed in the fat are not fried,

but soddened; if, on the other hand, the temperature is too high, they

are charred. The temperature of the fat varies slightly with the

nature of things to be fried. Fish, cutlets, croquets, rissoles and

fritters are well fried at a temperature of 380 deg. Fahr. Potatoes,

chops and white bait are better fried at a temperature of 400 deg.

Fahr. Care must be taken not to lower the temperature too much by

introducing too many things. The most successful frying is when the

fat rises two or three degrees during the frying. Fried things should

be of a golden brown colour, crisp and free from fat. When fat or oil

has been used for fish it must be kept for fish. It is customary first

to use fat for croquets, rissoles, fritters and other delicate things,

and then to take it for fish. Everything fried in fat should be placed

on bibulous paper to absorb any fat on the surfaces.