THE HAMMER FOR WITCHES.
The witches took small care to hide their game. Rather they boasted of
it; and it was, indeed, from their own lips that Sprenger picked up
the bulk of the tales that grace his handbook. It is a pedantic work,
marked out into the absurd divisions and subdivisions employed by the
followers of St. Thomas Aquinas; but a work sincere withal, and
frank-spoken, written by a man so thoroughly frightened by this
dreadful duel between God and the Devil, wherein God _generally_
allows the Devil to win, that the only remedy he can discern is to
pursue the latter fire in hand, and burn with all speed those bodies
which he had chosen for his dwelling-place.
Sprenger's sole merit is the fact of his having written a complete
book, which crowns a mighty system, a whole literature. To the old
_Penitentiaries_, handbooks of confessors for the inquisition of sin,
succeeded the _Directories_ for the inquisition of heresy, the
greatest sin of all. But for Witchcraft, the greatest of all heresies,
special handbooks or directories were appointed. Hammers for Witches,
to wit. These handbooks, continually enriched by the zeal of the
Dominicans, attained perfection in the _Malleus_ of Sprenger, the
book by which he himself was guided during his great mission to
Germany, and which for a century after served as a guide and light for
the courts of the Inquisition.
How was Sprenger led to the study of these things? He tells us that
being in Rome, at a refectory where the monks were entertaining some
pilgrims, he saw two from Bohemia; one a young priest, the other his
father. The father sighing prayed for a successful journey. Touched
with a kindly feeling Sprenger asked him why he sorrowed. Because his
son was _possessed_: at great cost and with much trouble he had
brought him to the tomb of the saints, at Rome.
"Where is this son of yours?" said the monk.
"By your side."
"At this answer I shrank back alarmed. I scanned the young priest's
figure, and was amazed to see him eat with so modest an air, and
answer with so much gentleness. He informed me that, on speaking
somewhat sharply to an old woman, she had laid him under a spell, and
that spell was under a tree. What tree? The Witch steadily refused to
say."
Sprenger's charity led him to take the possessed from church to
church, from relic to relic. At every halting-place there was an
exorcism, followed by furious cries, contortions, jabbering in every
language, and gambols without number: all this before the people, who
followed the pair with shuddering admiration. The devils, so abundant
in Germany, were scarcer among the Italians. For some days Rome talked
of nothing else. The noise made by this affair doubtless brought the
Dominican into public notice. He studied, collected all the _Mallei_,
and other manuscript handbooks, and became a first-rate authority in
the processes against demons. His _Malleus_ was most likely composed
during the twenty years between this adventure and the important
mission entrusted to Sprenger by Pope Innocent VIII., in 1484.
* * * * *
For that mission to Germany a clever man was specially needed; a man
of wit and ability, who might overcome the dislike of honest German
folk for the dark system it would be his care to introduce. In the Low
Countries Rome had suffered a rude check, which brought the
Inquisition into vogue there, and consequently closed France against
it: Toulouse alone, as being the old Albigensian country, having
endured the Inquisition. About the year 1460 a Penitentiary[70] of
Rome, being made Dean of Arras, thought to strike an awe-inspiring
blow at the _Chambers of Rhetoric_, literary clubs which had begun to
handle religious questions. He had one of these Rhetoricians burnt for
a wizard, and along with him some wealthy burgesses, and even a few
knights. The nobles were angry at this near approach to themselves:
the public voice was raised in violent outcry. The Inquisition was
cursed and spat upon, especially in France. The Parliament of Paris
roughly closed its doors upon it; and thus by her awkwardness did Rome
lose her opportunity of establishing that Reign of Terror throughout
the North.
[70] Officer charged with the absolution of
penitents.--TRANS.
About 1484 the time seemed better chosen. The Inquisition had grown to
so dreadful a height in Spain, setting itself even above the king,
that it seemed already confirmed as a conquering institution, able to
move forward alone, to make its way everywhere, and seize upon
everything. In Germany, indeed, it was hindered by the jealous
antagonism of the spiritual princes, who, having courts of their own,
and holding inquisitions by themselves, would never agree to accept
that of Rome. But the position of these princes towards the popular
movements by which they were then so greatly disquieted, soon rendered
them more manageable. All along the Rhine, and throughout Swabia, even
on the eastern side towards Salzburg, the country seemed to be
undermined. At every moment burst forth some fresh revolt of the
peasantry. A vast underground volcano, an invisible lake of fire,
showed itself, as it were, from place to place, in continual spouts of
flame. More dreaded than that of Germany, the foreign Inquisition
appeared at a most seasonable hour for spreading terror through the
country, and crushing the rebellious spirits, by roasting, as the
wizards of to-day, those who might else have been the insurgents of
to-morrow. It was a beautiful _derivative_, an excellent popular
weapon for putting down the people. This time the storm got turned
upon the Wizards, as in 1349, and on many other occasions it had been
launched against the Jews.
Only the right man was needed. He who should be the first to set up
his judgment-seat in sight of the jealous courts of Mentz and Cologne,
in presence of the mocking mobs of Strazburg or Frankfort, must indeed
be a man of ready wit. He would need great personal cleverness to
atone for, to cause a partial forgetfulness of his hateful mission.
Rome, too, has always plumed herself on choosing the best men for her
work. Caring little for questions, and much for persons, she thought
rightly enough that the successful issue of her affairs depended on
the special character of her several agents abroad. Was Sprenger the
right man? He was a German to begin with, a Dominican enjoying
beforehand the support of that dreaded order through all its convents,
through all its schools. Need was there of a worthy son of the
schools, a good disputant, of a man well skilled in the _Sum_,[71]
grounded firm in his St. Thomas, able at any moment to quote texts.
All this Sprenger certainly was: and best of all, he was a fool.
[71] A mediæval text-book on theology.--TRANS.
* * * * *
"It has been often said that _diabolus_ comes from _dia_, 'two,' and
_bolus_, 'a pill or ball,' because devouring alike soul and body, he
makes but one pill, one mouthful of the two. But"--he goes on to say
with the gravity of _Sganarelle_--"in Greek etymology _diabolus_ means
'shut up in a house of bondage,' or rather 'flowing down' (Teufel?),
that is to say, falling, because he fell from heaven."
Whence comes the word sorcery (_maléfice_)? From _maleficiendo_, which
means _male de fide sentiendo_.[72] A curious etymology, but one that
will hold a great deal. Once trace a resemblance between witchcraft
and evil opinions, and every wizard becomes a heretic, every doubter a
wizard. All who think wrongly can be burnt for wizards. This was done
at Arras; and they long to establish the same rule, little by little,
everywhere else.
[72] "Thinking ill of the faith."--TRANS.
Herein lies the once sure merit of Sprenger. A fool, but a fearless
one, he boldly lays down the most unwelcome theses. Others would have
striven to shirk, to explain away, to diminish, the objections that
might be made. Not he, however. From the first page he puts plainly
forward, one by one, the natural manifest reasons for not believing in
the Satanic miracles. To these he coldly adds: "_They are but so many
heretical mistakes_." And without stopping to refute those reasons, he
copies you out the adverse passages found in the Bible, St. Thomas, in
books of legends, in the canonists, and the scholiasts. Having first
shown you the right interpretation, he grinds it to powder by dint of
authority.
He sits down satisfied, calm as a conqueror; seeming to say, "Well,
what say you now? Will you dare use your reason again? Go and doubt
away then; doubt, for instance, that the Devil delights in setting
himself between wife and husband, although the Church and all the
canonists repeatedly admit this reason for a divorce!"
Of a truth this is unanswerable: nobody will breathe so much as a
whisper in reply. Since Sprenger heads his handbook for judges by
declaring the slightest doubt _heretical_, the judge stands bound
accordingly; he feels that he cannot stumble, that if unhappily he
should ever be tempted by an impulse of doubt or humanity, he must
begin by condemning himself and delivering his own body to the flames.
* * * * *
The same method prevails everywhere: first the sensible meaning, which
is then confronted openly, without reserve, by the negation of all
good sense. Some one, for instance, might be tempted to say that as
love is in the soul, there is no need to account for it by the
mysterious working of the Devil. That is surely specious, is it not?
"By no means," says Sprenger.
"I mark a difference. He who cuts wood does not cause it to burn: he
only does so indirectly. The woodcutter is Love; see Denis the
Areopagite, Origen, John of Damascus. Therefore, love is but the
indirect cause of love."
What a thing, you see, to have studied! No weak school could have
turned out such a man. Only Paris, Louvain, or Cologne, had machinery
fit to mould the human brain. The school of Paris was mighty: for
dog-Latin who can be matched with the _Janotus_ of Gargantua?[73] But
mightier yet was Cologne, glorious queen of darkness, whence Hutten
drew the type of his _Obscuri viri_, that thriving and fruitful race
of obscurantists and ignoramuses.[74]
[73] A character in Rabelais. "Date nobis clochas nostras,
&c."--_Gargantua_, ch. 19.--TRANS.
[74] Ulrich von Hutten, friend of Luther, and author of the
witty _Epistolæ obscurorum virorum_.--TRANS.
This massive logician, so full of words, so devoid of meaning, sworn
foe of nature as well as reason, takes his seat with a proud reliance
on his books and gown, on his dirt and dust. On one side of his
judgement-table lies the _Sum_, on the other the _Directory_. Beyond
these he never goes: at all else he only smiles. On such a man as he
there is no imposing: he is not the man to utter anent astrology or
alchemy nonsense not so foolish but that others might be led thereby
to observe truly. And yet Sprenger is a freethinker: he is sceptical
about old receipts! Albert the Great may aver, that some sage in a
spring of water will suffice to raise a storm, but Sprenger only
shakes his head. Sage indeed! Tell that to others, I beg. For all my
little experience, I see herein the craft of One who would put us on
the wrong scent, that cunning Prince of the Air; but he will fare
ill, for he has to deal with a doctor more subtle than the Subtle One
himself.
I should have liked to see face to face this wonderful specimen of a
judge, and the people who were brought before him. The creatures that
God might bring together from two different worlds would not be more
unlike, more strange to each other, more utterly wanting in a common
language. The old hag, a skeleton in tatters, with an eye flashing
forth evil things, a being thrice cooked in hell-fire; and the
ill-looking hermit shepherd of the Black Forest or the upper Alpine
wastes--such are the savages offered to the leaden gaze of a
scholarling, to the judgement of a schoolman.
Not long will they let him toil in his judgment-seat. They will tell
all without being tortured. Come the torture will indeed, but
afterwards, by way of complement and crown to the law-procedure. They
explain and relate to order whatever they have done. The Devil is the
Witch's bedfellow, the shepherd's intimate friend. She, for her part,
smiles triumphantly, feels a manifest joy in the horror of those
around.
Truly, the old woman is very mad, and equally so the shepherd. Are
they foolish? Not at all, but far otherwise. They are refined, subtle,
skilled in growing herbs, and seeing through walls. Still more clearly
do they see those monumental ass's ears that overshadow the doctor's
cap. Clearest of all is the fear he has of them, for in vain does he
try to bear him boldly; he does nought but tremble. He himself owns
that, if the priest who adjures the demon does not take care, the
Devil will change his lodging only to pass into the priest himself,
feeling all the more proud of dwelling in a body dedicated to God. Who
knows but these simple Devils of Witches and shepherds might even
aspire to inhabit an inquisitor? He is far from easy in mind when in
his loudest voice he says to the old woman, "If your master is so
mighty, why do I not feel his blows?"
"And, indeed I felt them but too strongly," says the poor man in his
book. "When I was in Ratisbon, how often he would come knocking at my
windowpanes! How often he stuck pins in my cap! A hundred visions too
did I have of dogs, monkeys," &c.
* * * * *
The dearest delight of that great logician, the Devil, is, by the
mouth of the seeming old woman, to push the doctor with awkward
arguments, with crafty questions, from which he can only escape by
acting like the fish who saves himself by troubling the water and
turning it black as ink. For instance, "The Devil does no more than
God allows him: why, then, punish his tools?" Or again, "We are not
free. As in the case of Job, the Devil is allowed by God to tempt and
beset us, to urge us on by blows. Should we, then, punish him who is
not free?" Sprenger gets out of that by saying, "We are free beings."
Here come plenty of texts. "You are made serfs only by covenant with
the Evil One." The answer to this would be but too ready: "If God
allows the Evil One to tempt us into making covenants, he renders
covenants possible," &c.
"I am very good," says he, "to listen to yonder folk. He is a fool who
argues with the Devil." So say all the rest likewise. They all cheer
the progress of the trial: all are strongly moved, and show in murmurs
their eagerness for the execution. They have seen enough of men
hanged. As for the Wizard and the Witch, 'twill be a curious treat to
see those two faggots crackling merrily in the flames.
The judge has the people on his side, so he is not embarrassed.
According to his _Directory_ three witnesses would be enough. Are not
three witnesses readily found, especially to witness a falsehood? In
every slanderous town, in every envious village teeming with the
mutual hate of neighbours, witnesses abound. Besides, the _Directory_
is a superannuated book, a century old. In that century of light, the
fifteenth, all is brought to perfection. If witnesses are wanting, we
are content with the _public voice_, the general clamour.[75]
[75] Faustin Hélie, in his learned and luminous _Traité de
l'Instruction Criminelle_ (vol. i. p. 398), has clearly
explained the manner in which Pope Innocent III., about 1200,
suppressed the safeguards theretofore required in any
prosecution, especially the risk incurred by prosecutors of
being punished for slander. Instead of these were established
the dismal processes of _Denunciation and Inquisition_. The
frightful levity of these latter methods is shown by Soldan.
Blood was shed like water.
A genuine outcry, born of fear; the piteous cry of victims, of the
poor bewitched. Sprenger is greatly moved thereat. Do not fancy him
one of those unfeeling schoolmen, the lovers of a dry abstraction. He
has a heart: for which very reason he is so ready to kill. He is
compassionate, full of lovingkindness. He feels pity for yon weeping
woman, but lately pregnant, whose babe the witch had smothered by a
look. He feels pity for the poor man whose land she wasted with hail.
He pities the husband, who though himself no wizard, clearly sees his
wife to be a witch, and drags her with a rope round her neck before
Sprenger, who has her burnt.
From a cruel judge escape was sometimes possible; but from our worthy
Sprenger it was hopeless. His humanity is too strong: it needs great
management, a very large amount of ready wit, to avoid a burning at
his hands. One day there was brought before him the plaint of three
good ladies of Strasburg who, at one same hour of the same day, had
been struck by an arm unseen. Ah, indeed! They are fain to accuse a
man of evil aspect, of having laid them under a spell. On being
brought before the inquisitor, the man vows and swears by all the
saints that he knows nothing about these ladies, has never so much as
seen them. The judge is hard of believing: nor tears nor oaths avail
aught with him. His great compassion for the ladies made him
inexorable, indignant at the man's denials. Already he was rising from
his seat. The man would have been tortured into confessing his guilt,
as the most innocent often did. He got leave to speak, and said: "I
remember, indeed, having struck some one yesterday at the hour named;
but whom? No Christian beings, but only three cats which came
furiously biting at my legs." The judge, like a shrewd fellow, saw the
whole truth of the matter; the poor man was innocent; the ladies were
doubtless turned on certain days into cats, and the Evil One amused
himself by sending them at the legs of Christian folk, in order to
bring about the ruin of these latter by making them pass for wizards.
A judge of less ability would never have hit upon this. But such a man
was not always to be had. It was needful to have always handy on the
table of the Inquisition a good fool's guide, to reveal to simple and
inexperienced judges the tricks of the Old Enemy, the best way of
baffling him, the clever and deep-laid tactics employed with such
happy effect by the great Sprenger in his campaigns on the Rhine. To
that end the _Malleus_, which a man was required to carry in his
pocket, was commonly printed in small 18mo, a form at that time
scarce. It would not have been seemly for a judge in difficulties to
open a folio on the table before his audience. But his handbook of
folly he might easily squint at from the corner of his eye, or turn
over its leaves as he held it under the table.
* * * * *
This _Malleus_ (or Mallet), like all books of the same class, contains
a singular avowal, namely, that the Devil is gaining ground; in other
words, that God is losing it; that mankind, after being saved by
Christ, is becoming the Devil's prey. Too clearly indeed does he step
forward from legend to legend. What a way he has made between the time
of the Gospels, when he was only too glad to get into the swine, and
the days of Dante, when, as lawyer and divine, he argues with the
saints, pleads his cause, and by way of closing a successful
syllogism, bears away the soul he was fighting for, saying, with a
triumphant laugh, "You didn't know that I was a logician!"
In the earlier days of the Middle Ages he waits till the last pangs to
seize the soul and bear it off. Saint Hildegarde, about 1100, thinks
that "_he cannot enter the body of a living man_, for else his limbs
would fly off in all directions: it is but the shadow and the smoke of
the Devil which pass therein." That last gleam of good sense vanishes
in the twelfth century. In the thirteenth we find a suppliant so
afraid of being caught alive that he has himself watched day and night
by two hundred armed men.
Then begins a period of increasing terror, in which men trust
themselves less and ever less to God's protection. The Demon is no
longer a stealthy sprite, no longer a thief by night, gliding through
the gloom. He becomes the fearless adversary, the daring ape of
Heaven, who in broad daylight mimics God's creation under God's own
sun. Is it the legends tell us this? Nay, it is the greatest of the
doctors. "The Devil," says Albert the Great, "transforms all living
things." St. Thomas goes yet further. "All changes that may occur
naturally by means of seeds, can be copied by the Devil." What an
astounding concession, which coming from the mouth of so grave a
personage, means nothing short of setting up one Creator face to face
with another! "But in things done without the germinal process," he
adds, "such as the changing of men into beasts or the resurrection of
the dead, there the Devil can do nothing." Thus to God is left the
smaller part of His work! He may only perform miracles, a kind of
action alike singular and infrequent. But the daily miracle of life is
not for Him alone: His copyist, the Devil, shares with Him the world
of nature!
For man himself, whose weak eyes see no difference between nature as
sprung from God and nature as made by the Devil, here is a world split
in twain! A dreadful uncertainty hangs over everything. Nature's
innocence is gone. The clear spring, the pale flower, the little bird,
are these indeed of God, or only treacherous counterfeits, snares laid
out for man? Back! all things look doubtful! The better of the two
creations, being suspiciously like the other, becomes eclipsed and
conquered. The shadow of the Devil covers up the day, spreads over all
life. To judge by appearances and the fears of men, he has ceased to
share the world; he has taken it all to himself.
So matters stand in the days of Sprenger. His book teems with saddest
avowals of God's weakness. "These things," he says, "are done with
God's leave." To permit an illusion so entire, to let people believe
that God is nought and the Devil everything, is more than mere
_permission_; is tantamount to decreeing the damnation of countless
souls whom nothing can save from such an error. No prayers, no
penances, no pilgrimages, are of any avail; nor even, so it is said,
the sacrament of the altar. Strange and mortifying avowal! The very
nuns who have just confessed themselves, declare _while the host is
yet in their mouths_, that even then they feel the infernal lover
troubling them without fear or shame, troubling and refusing to leave
his hold. And being pressed with further questions, they add, through
their tears, that he has a body _because he has a soul_.
* * * * *
The Manichees of old, and the more modern Albigenses, were charged
with believing in the Power of Evil struggling side by side with Good,
with making the Devil equal to God. Here, however, he is more than
equal; for if God through His holy sacrament has still no power for
good, the Devil certainly seems superior.
I am not surprised at the wondrous sight then offered by the world.
Spain with a darksome fury, Germany with the frightened pedantic rage
certified in the _Malleus_, assail the insolent conqueror through the
wretches in whom he chooses to dwell. They burn, they destroy the
dwellings in which he has taken up his abode. Finding him too strong
for men's souls, they try to hunt him out of their bodies. But what is
the good of it all? You burn one old woman and he settles himself in
her neighbour. Nay, more; if Sprenger may be trusted, he fastens
sometimes on the exorcising priest, and triumphs over his very judge.
Among other expedients, the Dominicans advised recourse to the
intercession of the Virgin, by a continual repeating of the _Ave
Maria_. Sprenger, for his part, always averred that such a remedy was
but a momentary one. You might be caught between two prayers. Hence
came the invention of the rosary, the chaplet of beads, by means of
which any number of aves might be mumbled through, whilst the mind was
busied elsewhere. Whole populations adopted this first essay of an art
thereafter to be used by Loyola in his attempt to govern the world, an
art of which his _Exercises_ furnish the ingenious groundwork.
* * * * *
All this seems opposed to what was said in the foregoing chapter as to
the decline of Witchcraft. The Devil is now popular and everywhere
present. He seems to have come off conqueror: but has he gained by
his victory? What substantial profit has he reaped therefrom?
Much, as beheld in his new phase of a scientific rebellion which is
about to bring forth the bright Renaissance. None, if beheld under his
old aspect, as the gloomy Spirit of Witchcraft. The stories told of
him in the sixteenth century, if more numerous, more widespread than
ever, readily swing towards the grotesque. People tremble, but they
laugh withal.[76]
[76] See my _Memoirs of Luther_, concerning the Kilcrops, &c.