About half a century ago the Papal question was the order of the day.
Another Napoleon was seated on the throne of France, in the full tide of
success and triumph of victory; another Pius was Pontiff at the Vatican,
under the patronage of French legions, and, strange to say, another
Antonelli was the leading adviser of the Pope. The city of Rome, too,
and the Papal States were in a condition of general discontent and
disaffection; but, unfortunately, this latter circumstance is one of too
constant occurrence to afford any clue as to the date of the period in
question.
In the year of grace 1806, the enemies of Napoleon were _ipso facto_ our
friends; and in consequence the Pope, who was known to be hostile to
France, became somewhat of a popular character amongst us. Indeed Pius
VII. was looked on at home rather in the light of a martyr and a hero. It
is only of late years that this feeling has worn off, and that we, as a
nation, have begun to doubt whether, in his struggle with the Papacy, the
Corsican usurper, as it was the fashion then to style him, may not have
been in the right after all. Considerable light has been thrown upon
this question by the recent publications of certain private State papers,
which remained in the possession of Count Aldini, the minister of Italian
affairs under the great Emperor.
There had long been subjects of dissension between the Papal and the
Imperial Governments. At last, in 1806, these dissensions came to an
open rupture. On the 1st of June in that year, Count Aldini wrote a
despatch, by order of the Emperor, to complain of the avowed hostility
displayed by the Papal Court against the system of legislation introduced
into the Kingdom of Italy, and of the private intrigues carried on by
Cardinal Antonelli. In this despatch occur these words, which at the
present day read strangely appropriate:--
"His Majesty cannot behold without indignation, how that authority,
which was appointed by God to maintain order and obedience on earth,
employs the most perilous weapons to spread disorder and discord."
This appeal to the conscience of the Vatican remained of course without
effect, and things only grew worse. At the end of the same year Napoleon
published at Berlin his famous decrees for the blockade of England, and
the exclusion of all English merchandise. Whether justly or unjustly,
the Court of Rome was suspected by Buonaparte of not keeping up the
blockade (the most unpardonable of all political offences in his eyes).
At last, by a decree of the 2nd of April 1808, he removed the Marches
from the Papal Government, and annexed them to the Kingdom of Italy. The
legations, by the way, had formed part of that kingdom since the treaty
of Tolentino. This experiment proved unsuccessful. Napoleon soon
discovered, what his successor is also likely to learn, that the real
evil of the Papal Government consisted not in its territorial extent, but
in the admixture of temporal and spiritual authority; that, in fact, its
power of working mischief was, if anything, in inverse proportion to its
size. With that rapidity of resolution which formed half his power, he
resolved at once to suppress the temporal power of the Popes, and gave
instructions to Count Aldini to draw up the necessary decrees. The
Emperor was then on the eve of departure for the Spanish peninsula; and
it was during the harassing reverses of his fortunes in Spain, that the
following report of Aldini was perused by him:--
"Sire,--Your Imperial and Royal Majesty has considered that the time
is come to fix the destinies of Rome.
"You have directed me to examine which, amidst the diverse governments
that Rome has had during modern times, is most adapted for her actual
circumstances, while retaining the character of a free government. It
appears from history, that Crescenzius governed Rome for many years
with the title of Patrician and Consul.
"Pope John XV. having appealed against him to the Emperor Otho, the
appeal was dismissed, and Crescenzius was confirmed in his office, and
caused to swear allegiance to the Emperor.
"The supreme dominion of the Emperors over Rome was exercised without
contradiction throughout all the dynasty of the Othos and Conrads, and
only became assailed under Frederick I.
"Afterwards, amidst the multitude of Italian republics, the Roman
republic was restored for a time; and, in the 13th century, had for
the head of its government a Matteo of the Orsini family with the
title of Senator, in honour of whose memory a medal was struck.
"For a long period the Kings of Naples, of the Anjou race, were
Senators of Rome.
"Pope Nicholas III. retained the senatorial dignity for himself; and,
by a bull of 1268, forbade the election of any Senator, without the
sanction of the Pope.
"From this date all the Senators of Rome have been nominated by the
Popes, and were never permitted to be foreigners.
"Besides the Senator, there was a council, called the Conservatori.
The members of this council were chosen from amongst the first
families of Rome; proposed by the Senator, and approved by the Pope.
"From time to time the Pontiffs have endeavoured to diminish the
jurisdiction and the prerogatives of the Senators, so that in latter
times their office has been reduced to a mere honorary charge.
"It has appeared to me that the restoration of this form of
government, replacing the Senator in his old authority, would be a
step at once adapted to the circumstances of the present day, and
acceptable to the Roman people.
"To declare Rome a free Imperial city, and to reserve a palace there
for your Majesty and your court, cannot but produce the most
favourable effect on the minds of the Romans.
"In the other dispositions of the proposed statute I have confined
myself to following the precedents adopted by your Majesty on former
occasions, under similar circumstances."
This report was accompanied by the minutes of three decrees. The first
referred to the future government of the Eternal City, and was sketched
out in the following articles:--
"Art. 1. Rome is a free Imperial city.
"Art. 2. The Palace of the Quirinal, with its dependencies, is
declared to be an Imperial Palace.
"Art. 3. The confines between the territory of Rome and the Kingdom
of Italy are to be determined by a line, which, starting from
Arteveri, passes through Baccano, Palestrina, Marino, Albano,
Monterotondo, Palombara, Tivoli, and thence, keeping always at a
distance of two miles inland from the sea, returns to Arteveri.
"Art. 4. The lands of all communes intersected by the above line form
the territory of Rome, excepting all lands that lie between the line
and the sea coast.
"Art. 5. A Senator and a Magistracy of forty Conservators are to form
the Government of the City and its territory.
"Art. 6. The executive power resides in the Senator; the legislative
with the Magistracy of the Conservators. The Senator has the
initiative in all projects of law.
"Art. 7. The office of the Senator is for life; that of the
Conservators for four years. The Magistracy is to be renewed every
year for one-fourth of its members. In the first three years, lot is
to decide who go out; afterwards, the members shall retire by
rotation.
"Art. 8. Ten Conservators, at least, shall be chosen from the
different communes which compose the territory of Rome.
"Art. 9. The Senator is always to be nominated by us and our
successors. For the first election alone we reserve to ourselves the
right of nominating the Magistracy of the Conservators. Hereafter, as
vacancies occur, the Senator shall nominate the Conservators from a
double list presented to him by the Magistracy.
"Art. 10. The judicial functions are to be exercised in the name of
the Senator, by judges nominated by him. Their appointment shall be
for life. They cannot be removed except for fraud or neglect of duty,
recognised as such by the Magistracy, or on being sentenced to any
disgraceful or penal punishment.
"Art. 11. Five AEdiles, nominated after the same fashion as the
Conservators, shall superintend the preservation of the ancient
monuments and the repairs of the public buildings. For this purpose a
special fund (the amount to be determined by the Government) shall be
placed yearly at their disposal.
"Art. 12. Between the kingdom of Italy and the Roman State, there
shall be no intermediate line of customs or duties. The Government of
Rome may, however, impose an _octroi_ duty on victuals at the gates of
the city.
"Art. 13. For . . . years no ecclesiastic can hold a civil office in
Rome or its territory."
The second decree declares that the Papal States, with the exception of
the Roman territories above described, are irrevocably and in perpetuity
annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, and that the _Code Napoleon_ is to be
the law of the land.
The third is headed, "Dispositions with regard to his Holiness," and
disposes of the Papal question in this somewhat summary manner.
"We Napoleon, by the grace of God, and by the Constitution, Emperor of
the French, King of Italy, Protector of the Rhenish Confederation,
"Having regard to our first decree concerning Rome, have decreed, and
decree as follows:--
"Art. 1. The Church and the Piazza of St Peter, the palace of the
Vatican and that of the Holy Office, with their dependencies, are a
free possession of his Holiness the Pope.
"Art. 2. All the property of the Capitol and the Basilica of St Peter
are preserved to those institutions under whatever administration the
Pope may please to appoint.
"Art. 3. His Holiness shall receive a yearly income of one million
Italian francs, and shall retain all the honorary privileges he has
enjoyed in past times.
"Given at our Imperial Palace of St Cloud, this --- day of Sept.
1808."
In the midst of the Spanish campaigns, these documents were perused and
approved by the Emperor, who wrote to Aldini, at that time in Italy, and
told him to make private inquiries as to whether the time was opportune
for the promulgation of these decrees, and whether it was expedient to
require the clergy to take an oath of allegiance to the new constitution.
Aldini's reply contains the following remarkable passage:--
"The Pope, who has never enjoyed the good opinion of the Roman public,
has succeeded in these latter days in winning the sympathy of a few
fanatics, who call his obstinacy heroic constancy, and wait every day
for a miracle to be worked by God in his defence.
"Except these bigots and a few wealthy persons who dread the
possibility, that, under a change of government, their privileges
might be destroyed, and the taxes on property increased, all classes
are of one mind in desiring a new order of things, and all alike long
for its establishment.
"I must not, however, conceal from you that this universal sentiment
is chiefly due to two causes:--Firstly, to the idea that the payment
of the interest on the public debt will be resumed; as, in truth, a
great number of Roman families depend on these payments for their
income; and secondly, to the hope that Rome will become the capital of
a great state, a hope which the Romans know not how to renounce."
Under these circumstances, Count Aldini goes on to recommend that hopes
should be held out of an early resumption of payments on the national
debt, and that a provisional air should be given to the proposed
arrangement, so as to keep alive the prospect of a great kingdom, of
which Rome should be the centre. He deprecates enforcing an oath of
allegiance on the clergy, on the ground that "all priests will consent to
obey the civil government; but all will not consent to swear allegiance
to it, because they consider obedience an involuntary act, and an oath a
voluntary act which might compromise their conscience." He finally
recommends delay, under present circumstances, till some decisive victory
has crushed the hopes of the priest party. This delay was fatal to the
scheme. After the battle of Wagram, Napoleon resumed the project, and
resolved to encrease the Pope's income to two millions of francs. Then,
however, there came unfortunately the protests of Pius VII. the bull of
excommunication hurled against the Emperor, and a whole series of petty
insults and annoyances on the part of the Pope; such, for instance, as
walling up the doors of his palace, and declaring, like his successor and
namesake, his anxiety to be made a martyr. Passion seems to have
prevailed over Napoleon's cooler and better judgment. The Pope was
carried off to Savona, Rome was made part of the French empire, and
Aldini's project slumbered till, in after years, it has been revived,
though without acknowledgement, by M. Guerroniere, in his pamphlet of _Le
Pape et le Congres_.
Now this project I have quoted not for its intrinsic value, but because I
think it one likely to be realized. Napoleon III. (the fact both for
good and bad is worth minding) and not the Italians has to decide on
Rome's future, and any one who has watched the Emperor's career will be
aware how carefully he follows out the cooler and wiser ideas of his
great predecessor. The Papal question is not one to be settled by the
sword, and I know not whether amongst all the plans that I have seen, the
solution of Napoleon I. does not present the fewest difficulties.