FOOTNOTE:_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre" Volume 10, Slice 4

[1] For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see

F. Francis and J.M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, _The Chemical Basis of

Pharmacology_ (1908).

FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824-1907), German philosopher, was born

at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of July 1824. After studying

philosophy at Leipzig and Halle, he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg

in 1850. The Baden government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching

owing to his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse

considerable sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a

professorship at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the

dignity of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller's removal to

Berlin, Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history

of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on the 4th of

July 1907. His part in philosophy was that of historian and commentator,

for which he was especially qualified by his remarkable clearness of

exposition; his point of view is in the main Hegelian. His _Geschichte

der neuern Philosophie_ (1852-1893, new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most

accredited modern book of its kind, and he made valuable contributions

to the study of Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing,

Schiller and Schopenhauer.

Some of his numerous works have been translated into English: _Francis

Bacon of Verulam_, by J. Oxenford (1857); _The Life and Character of

Benedict Spinoza_, by Frida Schmidt (1882); _A Commentary on Kant's

Kritik of Pure Reason_, by J.P. Mahaffy (1866); _Descartes and his

School_, by J.P. Gordy (1887); _A Critique of Kant_, by W.S. Hough

(1888); see also H. Falkenheim, _Kuno Fischer und die

litterar-historische Methode_ (1892); and bibliography in J.M.

Baldwin's _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_ (1905).

FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893), American statesman, was born in New York

City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father, Nicholas Fish (1758-1833),

served in the American army during the War of American Independence,

rising to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia

College in 1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only

a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in Congress. He

was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor of New York in 1846, and

was defeated by Addison Gardner (Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was

appointed a judge of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected

(November 1847) to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor

of New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States senator in

1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the last part of his term.

In 1861-1862 he was associated with John A. Dix, William M. Evarts,

William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, John Jacob Astor, and other New York

men, on the Union Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to

April 30, 1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising

and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million dollars for

the relief of New York volunteers and their families. Fish was secretary

of state during President Grant's two administrations (1869-1877). He

conducted the negotiations with Great Britain which resulted in the

treaty of the 8th of May 1871, under which (Article 1) the "Alabama

claims" were referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article

34) was made of the "San Juan Boundary Dispute," concerning the Oregon

boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace Conference at

Washington between Spain and the allied republics of Peru, Chile,

Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the formulation (April 12) of a

general truce between those countries, to last indefinitely and not to

be broken by any one of them without three years' notice given through

the United States; and it was chiefly due to his restraint and

moderation that a satisfactory settlement of the "Virginius Affair" was

reached by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was

vice-president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to

1854, and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in

Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.

His son, NICHOLAS FISH (1846-1902), was appointed second secretary of

legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was _charge

d'affaires_ at Berne in 1877-1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882-1886,

after which he engaged in banking in New York City.

FISH (O. Eng. _fisc_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch

_visch_, Ger. _Fisch_, Goth. _fisks_, cognate with the Lat. _piscis_),

the common name of that class of vertebrate animals which lives

exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and whose limbs take the

form of fins (see ICHTHYOLOGY). The article FISHERIES deals with the

subject from the economic and commercial point of view, and ANGLING with

the catching of fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the

zodiac known as "the fishes" is treated under PISCES.

The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval

Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters of the

names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. [Greek: Iesous Christos, Theou

Huios, Soter], Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which together spell

the Greek word for "fish," [Greek: ichthys]. The fish is also said to be

represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at both ends, and formed

by the intersection of two circles. This figure, also known as the

_vesica piscis_, is common in ecclesiastical seals and as a glory or

aureole in paintings of sculpture, surrounding figures of the Trinity,

saints, &c. The figure is, however, sometimes referred to the almond, as

typifying virginity; the French name for the symbol is _Amande

mystique_.

The word "fish" is used in many technical senses. Thus it is used of the

purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor to the bill-board; of a

piece of wood or metal used to strengthen a sprung mast or yard; and of

a plate of metal used, as in railway construction, for the strengthening

of the meeting-place of two rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but

it is probably an adaptation of the Fr. _fiche_, that which "fixes," a

peg. This word also appears in the English form "fish," in the metal,

pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used for

scoring points, &c., in many games.

FISHER, ALVAN (1792-1863), American portrait-painter, was born at

Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792. At the age of

eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and subsequently was employed

by the village house painter, but at the age of twenty-two he began to

paint portrait heads, alternating with rural scenes and animals, for

which he found patrons at modest prices. In ten years he had saved

enough to go to Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the

galleries of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized

group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty, Harding

and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his work in

Boston--perhaps the first joint display by painters ever held in that

city. Though he had considerable talent for landscape, a lack of

patronage for such work caused him to confine himself to portraiture, in

which he was moderately successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the

16th of February 1863.

FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909), American theologian, was born at

Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the 10th of August 1827. He graduated at

Brown University in 1847, and at the Andover Theological Seminary in

1851, spent three years in study in Germany, was college preacher and

professor of divinity at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street

professor of ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in

1861-1901, when he was made professor _emeritus_. He was president of

the American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have

given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history. They

include _Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity_ (1865);

_History of the Reformation_ (1873), republished in several revisions;

_The Beginnings of Christianity_ (1877); _Discussions in History and

Theology_ (1880); _Outlines of Universal History_ (1886); _History of

the Christian Church_ (1887); _The Nature and Method of Revelation_

(1890); _Manual of Natural Theology_ (1893); _A History of Christian

Doctrine_, in the "International Theological Library" (1896); and _A

Brief History of Nations_ (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909.

FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535), English cardinal and bishop of Rochester,

born at Beverly, received his first education at the collegiate church

there. In 1484 he went to Michael House, Cambridge, where he took his

degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491, and, after filling several offices in

the university, became master of his college in 1499. He took orders;

and his reputation for learning and piety attracted the notice of

Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and

chaplain. In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when

chancellor, he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the

beneficent schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John's and

Christ's colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek and

Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his own benefactions

took the form of scholarships, fellowships and lectures. In 1503 he was

the first Margaret professor at Cambridge; and the following year was

raised to the see of Rochester, to which he remained faithful, although

the richer sees of Ely and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated

as one of the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did

not attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at the

legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence of the

brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of display;

and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the cardinal's demand

for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A great friend of Erasmus, whom

he invited to Cambridge, whilst earnestly working for a reformation of

abuses, he had no sympathy with those who attacked doctrine; and he

preached at Paul's Cross (12th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther's

books. Although he was not the author of Henry's book against Luther, he

joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply to the

scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained the esteem of the

king until the divorce proceedings began in 1527; and then he set

himself sternly in favour of the validity of the marriage. He was Queen

Catherine's confessor and her only champion and advocate. He appeared on

her behalf before the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise

against the divorce that was widely read.

Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform brought

forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only moral force that

could withstand the royal will, he energetically opposed the reformation

of abuses, which doubtless under other circumstances he would have been

the first to accept. In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed

(11th of February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the

clergy "to be hissed out of the society of God's holy Catholic Church";

and it was his influence that brought in the saving clause, _quantum per

legem Dei licet_. By listening to the revelations of the "Holy Maid of

Kent," the nun Elizabeth Barton (q.v.), he was charged with misprision

of treason, and was condemned to the loss of his goods and to

imprisonment at the king's will, penalties he was allowed to compound by

a fine of L300 (25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April)

to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he was ready

to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the offspring of

Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith, trust and

obedience to any foreign authority or potentate. Refusing to take the

oath, he was committed (15th of April) to the Tower, where he suffered

greatly from the rigours of a long confinement. On the passing of the

Act of Supremacy (November 1534), in which the saving clause of

convocation was omitted, he was attainted and deprived of his see. The

council, with Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of

May 1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of the

church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher, while

driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the

whole Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most

learned and pious bishops of the time. Paul III., who had begun his

pontificate with the intention of purifying the curia, was unaware of

the grave danger in which Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the

king with the bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of

St Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate. Henry,

in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there should be

no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at Westminster (17th

of June 1535) on the charge that he did "openly declare in English that

the king, our sovereign lord, is not supreme head on earth of the Church

of England," and was condemned to a traitor's death at Tyburn, a

sentence afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22nd

of June 1535, after saying the _Te Deum_ and the psalm _In te Domine

speravi_. His body was buried first at All Hallows, Barking, and then

removed to St. Peter's _ad vincula_ in the Tower, where it lies beside

that of Sir Thomas More. His head was exposed on London Bridge and then

thrown into the river. As a champion of the rights of conscience, and

as the only one of the English bishops that dared to resist the king's

will, Fisher commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was

beatified by Pope Leo XIII.

Fisher's Latin works are to be found in the _Opera J. Fisheri quae

hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia_ (Wurzburg, 1595), and some of his

published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra

series. No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the

P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the main

sources for his biography are _The Life and Death of that renowned

John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London, 1655), by an anonymous

writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893);

Bridgett's _Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London,

1880 and 1890); and Thureau, _Le bienheureux Jean Fisher_ (Paris,

1907). (E. Tn.)

FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON (1841- ), British admiral,

was born on the 25th of January 1841, and entered the navy in June 1854.

He served in the Baltic during the Crimean War, and was engaged as

midshipman on the "Highflyer," "Chesapeake" and "Furious," in the

Chinese War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton,

and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on the 25th of

January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November of the same year.

The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars at sea in which the

British navy had to take a part, after 1860, allowed few officers to

gain distinction by actual services against the enemy. But they were

provided with other ways of proving their ability by the sweeping

revolution which transformed the construction, the armament, and the

methods of propulsion of all the navies of the world, and with them the

once accepted methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a

commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French

"Gloire" had set going the long duel in construction between guns and

armour. He early made his mark as a student of gunnery, and was promoted

commander on the 2nd of August 1869, and post-captain on the 30th of

October 1874. In this rank he was chosen to serve as president of the

committee appointed to revise "The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet." It was

his already established reputation which pointed Captain Fisher out for

the command of H.M.S. "Inflexible," a vessel which, as the

representative of a type, had supplied matter for much discussion. As

captain of the "Inflexible" he took part in the bombardment of

Alexandria (11th July 1882). The engagement was not arduous in itself,

having been carried out against forts of inferior construction,

indifferently armed, and worse garrisoned, but it supplied an

opportunity for a display of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the

midst of a long naval peace. The "Inflexible" took a prominent part in

the action, and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed

in Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and commanded it in

various skirmishes with the enemy. After the Egyptian campaign, he was,

in succession, director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October

1886 to May 1891); A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd

August 1890, at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral

superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord

commissioner of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and

vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the North American

and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he acted as naval expert at the

Hague Peace Conference, and on the 1st of July 1899 was appointed

commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command,

Admiral Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902,

and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st of August 1903,

from which post he passed to that of first sea lord. Besides holding the

foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and

G.C.B. in 1902. As first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John

Fisher had a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures

of naval development and internal reform; and he was also one of the

committee, known as Lord Esher's committee, appointed in 1904 to report

on the measures necessary to be taken to put the administration and

organization of the British army on a sound footing. The changes in

naval administration made under him were hotly canvassed among critics,

who charged him with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue

subservience to the government's desire for economy; and whatever the

efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact was undeniable

that for the first time for very many years the navy suffered, as a

service, from the party-spirit which was aroused. It was notorious that

Admiral Lord Charles Beresford in particular was acutely hostile to Sir

John Fisher's administration; and on his retirement in the spring of

1909 from the position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he

put his charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry was

held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its report,

published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty, though it

encouraged the belief that some important suggestions as to the

organization of a naval "general staff" would take effect. On the 9th of

November Sir John Fisher was created a peer as Baron Fisher of

Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired from the Admiralty in January 1910.

FISHERIES,[1] a general term for the various operations engaged in for

the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man. From time

immemorial fish have been captured by various forms of spears, nets,

hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a historical description of the

methods and appliances that have been used would comprise a considerable

portion of a treatise on the history of man. For the most part the

operations of fishing have been comparable with those of primitive

hunting rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible

account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality has

been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing pressure

on every source of food, and the enormous improvements in the catching

power of the engines involved, has made some kind of regulation and

control inevitable, with the result that in practically every civilized

country there exists some authority for the investigation and regulation

of fisheries.

The annexed table shows the department of state and the approximate

expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries of the world.

The figures are only approximate and are based on the expenditure for

1907. In the case of England and Wales the expenditure is not complete,

as under the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast

of England and Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees

with power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number

of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with this

addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that undertaken

by most of the countries of northern Europe, although British fisheries

are much more valuable than those of all the rest of Europe together.

_Administration of Fisheries._

+--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+

+--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+

| 1. Administration | L15,000 | L5,500 | L10,200 |Conducted by | L12,500 | .. |

| 2. Scientific Fishery Research| 5,000 | 4,500 | 6,300 | L27,750 | 2,500 | L1,000 |

+--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+

+--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+

+--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+

| 1. Administration | L159,000 |Conducted by | L8,000 | L13,000 | L10,000 |

| 2. Scientific Fishery Research| 48,000 | L141,000 | 14,000 | 800 | .. |

+--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+

The early years of the 20th century witnessed another great expansion of

the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The herring fishery has been

revolutionized partly by the successful introduction of steam drifters,

which have markedly increased the aggregate catching power, and partly

by the prosecution of the fishery on one part or other of the British

coasts during the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish

vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries in

alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost entirely

to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad fleets around all the

coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian drifters carry on their

operations at different seasons of the year from Shetland in the north

(for herrings) to Newlyn in the west (for mackerel). In Scotland the

value of the nets employed on steam drifters has increased from L3000 in

1899 to L61,000 in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has

increased from about four to about five million cwts. during the past

ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings, which reached a

total of two million cwts. for the first time in 1899, has exceeded

three millions in each year from 1902 to 1905.

In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In 1906 Messrs

Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling fleet of 50 vessels for

working the North Sea grounds, and the delivery of new steam trawlers at

Grimsby was greater than at any previous period, these vessels being

designed more especially to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the

range of which has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About

100 vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve

months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length and over 20

ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage, the accommodation both

for fish and crews being considerably in excess of that provided in

vessels of this class hitherto.

Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief European

countries show the expanse of this industry, and the enormous

preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers are as follows:--

Belgium 23

Denmark 5

France 224

Germany 239

Netherlands 81

Norway 20

Portugal 13

Spain 12-18

Sweden 11

Scotland 292

Ireland 6

England and Wales 1317

A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been manifested in

other maritime countries of Europe, particularly in Germany and Holland,

but the total number of steam trawlers belonging to those countries in

1905 scarcely exceeded the mere additions to the British fishing fleet

in 1906.

The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be gauged by a

comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries of other European

countries. The following table is based upon official returns and mainly

derived from the _Bulletin Statistique_ of the International Council for

the Study of the Sea. It represents in pounds sterling the value of the

produce of the various national fisheries during the year 1904, except

in the case of France, for which country the latest available figures

are those for 1902.

_Values in Thousands of L._

+---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+

+---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+

| British Isles | 1870 |1015 |1100 |5496 | 9,481,000 |

| Norway | 352 | 834 | .. | 443 | 1,629,000 |

| Denmark | 117 | 60 | 171 | 223 | 571,000 |

| Germany | 220 | 64[2]| 40[2]| 512[2]| 836,000 |

| Holland | 575 | 53 | 58 | 311 | 997,000 |

| France (1902) | 635 | 851[3]| .. |3562 | 5,048,000 |

+---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+

The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief subdivisions of

the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the official returns,

was as follows:

+------------------------+-------------+-------------+

| Fish landed in | Excluding | Including |

| | Shellfish. | Shellfish. |

+------------------------+-------------+-------------+

| England and Wales | L7,200,644 | L7,502,768 |

| Scotland | 2,649,148 | 2,719,810 |

| Ireland | 360,577 | 414,364 |

| +-------------+-------------+

| Total |L10,210,369 |L10,636,942 |

+------------------------+-------------+-------------+

These figures show an increase of L1,000,000 as compared with the total

value in 1900, and of more than L3,000,000 as compared with 1895 (cf.

Table I. at end).

In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock, and flat fish

yielded about three-quarters of the total, and the drift fisheries for

herring and mackerel nearly the whole of the remaining quarter. The line

fisheries in England and Wales are now relatively insignificant and

yield only about one-fortieth of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).

In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference in the

relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905 herrings and

other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-half of the total,

the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and the line fisheries

one-eighth (cf. Table X.).

+-------------------------+---------------------+---------------------+----------+

| Fishery. +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| | of cwt. | of L. | of cwt. | of L. | of L. |

+-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| East Coast | 6017 | 4713 | 3042 | 1145 | 202 |

| South Coast | 303 | 245 | 728 | 268 | 64 |

| West Coast | 1002 | 720 | 219 | 111 | 36 |

| East Coast | 2296 | 1202 | 2709 | 819 | 25 |

| Orkney and Shetland | 114 | 42 | 1735 | 642 | 10 |

| West Coast | 148 | 62 | 591 | 210 | 38 |

| North Coast | 9 | 5 | 177 | 70 | 7 |

| East Coast | 79 | 70 | 110 | 32 | 18 |

| South and West Coast | 46 | 35 | 577 | 148 | 28 |

+-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly

three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief item

in the south and west, and the herring on the north and east coasts.

The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the trawl fisheries, the

headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth and Balbriggan on the east,

and at Galway and Dingle on the west coast.

The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the Scottish

fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly L4,120,000. Upon a moderate

estimate, the total value of the boats and gear employed in the

fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot be less than L12,000,000.

The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the separate

coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of landings from

the latest data available.

From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of the east

coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate enormously over

those of the western coasts, whether attention be paid to the drift-net

fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries for bottom fish with

trawls and lines.

The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supplementary

tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British fishing

industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity. The community at

large has benefited by the more plentiful supply, and the merchant by

the general lowering of prices at the ports of landing (see Tables

I.-IV. at end). But it is to be noted that this wave of prosperity, as

on previous occasions, has been attained by the application of increased

and more powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new

fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase, natural or

artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,--unless perhaps the

abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to the destruction of their

enemies by trawling. British fisheries are still pursued as a form of

hunting rather than of husbandry. In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay

trawling banks were discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich

plaice grounds in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a

quarter of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England

were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.

_Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by

Steam Trawlers on the East Coast of England from Fishing Grounds within

and beyond the North Sea respectively._

+-----+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+

| | Within the North Sea. | Beyond the North Sea. |

|Year.+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+

+-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+

| 1903| 729| 2301 | 812 | 4776 | 470| 389 | 114 | 1189 |

| 1904| 637| 2032 | 658 | 4228 | 447| 429 | 284 | 1389 |

| 1905| 640| 1560 | 621 | 3739 | 603| 518 | 244 | 1682 |

+-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+

The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have

distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within and beyond the

North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers and liners. Neglecting the

catch of the liners as relatively insignificant, and of the sailing

trawlers as relatively small and practically constant during the three

years in question, we see from the board's figures (see table above)

that the total catch of English steam trawlers within the North Sea

during 1904 and 1905 was in each year 500,000 cwt. less than in the year

before, amounting to a gross decrease of more than 25% in 1905 as

compared with 1903, and, in relation to the catching power employed, to

an average decrease of 2-1/2 cwt. per boat per diem. This decrease may

be largely explained by the occurrence in 1903 of one of those periodic

"floods" of small cod and haddock which take place in the North Sea from

time to time; but the steady decline in the number of North Sea voyages

by English steam trawlers--from 29,300 in 1903 to 26,700 in

1905--affords a clear indication of the fact that many of our trawling

skippers are deserting the North Sea for more profitable fishing

grounds. The number of Scottish steam trawlers "employed" at Scottish

North Sea ports has also declined during the same period from 240 in

1903 to 228 in 1905.

The following table shows the number of British and foreign steam

trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English vessels the

number of fishing voyages made within and beyond the North Sea

respectively:--

+-----+-----------+-----------------------+---------+-----------+

|Year.| Boats +-----------+-----------+Scottish.| Dutch and |

+-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+

| 1903| 1060 | 29,328 | 1822 | 240 | 181 |

| 1904| 1049 | 28,589 | 2120 | 233 | 199 |

| 1905| 1064 | 26,670 | 2671 | 228 | 228 |

+-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+

Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this withdrawal of

British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled year after

year by increasing numbers of continental fishing boats. The number of

fishing steamers (practically all trawlers) registered at North Sea

ports in Germany and Holland was 159 in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905,

and 330 in 1907.

It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the increased

attention which has been paid in recent years to the acquisition of more

exact knowledge upon the actual state of the fisheries and upon the

biological and other factors which influence the supply.

A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations, both

scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the course of 1902

under the International Council for the Study of the Sea (see below).

The Fishery Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association for

England were commissioned to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great

Britain, and the English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards

with the means for collecting more adequate statistics.

Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of fish eggs

have located important spawning grounds of cod, haddock, plaice, sole,

eel, &c.; marking experiments with cod, plaice and eel have thrown much

light upon the migrations of these fishes; and the rate of growth of

plaice, cod and herring has been elucidated in different localities. The

percentage of marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has

been found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a

significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern conditions.

It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock of plaice on the

central grounds of the North Sea is mainly attributable to the excessive

rate of capture of plaice during their annual off-shore migrations from

the coast. On the other hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of

plaice on the Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or

six-fold in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are

reared,--facts which open up the possibility of increasing the permanent

supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption of some plan of

commercial transplantation (see PISCICULTURE).

_History._--A brief review may now be given of the history of the

administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of the steps

which have been taken for the attainment of scientific and statistical

information in relation thereto.

In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley, Mr

(afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Lord

Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the condition of the British

sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise of existing methods of

fishing, and the necessity or otherwise of the existing legislation. The

important report of this commission, issued in 1866, embodied the

following main conclusions and recommendations:--(1) the total supply of

fish obtained upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of

further augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a

wastefully destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament which

profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued in the open

sea should be repealed and "unrestricted freedom of fishing be

permitted hereafter"; (4) all fishing boats should be lettered and

numbered as a condition of registration and licence.

In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by the passing of

the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the registration of fishing boats

were issued by order in council in the following year. (New regulations

were introduced in 1902.)

In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buckland and Walpole to inquire

into the alleged destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish,

especially by the use of the beam-trawl and ground seine. Their report

is an excellent summary of the condition of the sea fisheries at the

time, and shows how little was then known with regard to the eggs and

spawning habits of our marine food fishes.

In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dissolved and the

Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter being empowered to

take such measures for the improvement of the fisheries as the funds

under their administration might admit of. Arrangements were made in the

following year with Professor M'Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the

latter to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of

studies on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed

greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning the

reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act

of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay against

trawlers as an experiment for the purpose of ascertaining the result of

such prohibition on the supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The

treasury also, by a further grant of L3000, enabled the board to

purchase the steam-yacht "Garland" as a means of carrying out regular

experimental trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the

results of these experiments have been annually published, and were

summarized at the end of ten years' closure in the board's report for

1895. Dr Fulton's summary showed that "no very marked change took place

in the abundance of food-fishes generally, either in the closed or open

waters of the Firth of Forth or St Andrews Bay," as a consequence of the

prohibition of trawling. Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and

lemon soles, which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in

numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open, while

dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if not quite

universal, increase.

The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the

presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have now

exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of eggs and fry

for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable; and (2) that

protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to check the

impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore. (For critical

examinations of Dr Fulton's account see M'Intosh, _Resources of the

Sea_, London, 1889; Garstang, "The Impoverishment of the Sea," _Journ.

Mar. Biol. Ass._ vol. vi., 1900; and Archer, _Report of Ichthyological

Committee_, Cd. 1312, 1902.)

A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently established by the

board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen in 1900.

In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the late earl of

Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints against the practice

of beam-trawling on the part of line and drift-net fishermen. A small

sum of money (L200) was granted to the commission for the purpose of

scientific trawling experiments, which were carried out by Professor

M'Intosh.

The report of this commission was an important one, and its

recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics for

England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).

In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom was

founded for the scientific study of marine zoology and botany,

especially as bearing upon the food, habits and life-conditions of

British food-fishes, crustacea and molluscs. Professor Huxley was its

first president, and Professor Ray Lankester, who initiated the

movement, succeeded him. A large and well-equipped laboratory was

erected at Plymouth, and formally opened for work in 1888. The work of

the association has been maintained by annual grants of L400 from the

Fishmongers' Company and L1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the

subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a half-yearly

journal recording the results of its investigations.

In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was organized under

the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of that year. The department

publishes annually a return of statistics of sea-fish landed, a report

on salmon fisheries (transferred from the home office), and a report on

sea fisheries. It consists of several inspectors under an assistant

secretary of the board; it has no power to make scientific

investigations or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries.

In 1894 the administration of the acts relating to the registration of

fishing vessels, &c., was transferred to the fisheries department.

In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the constitution

(by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local fisheries

committees having, within defined limits, powers for the regulation of

coast fisheries in England and Wales. The powers of district committees

were extended under Part II. of the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under

the Fisheries (Shell Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts

have now been created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales.

Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been prohibited in

nearly all the territorial waters of England and Wales, and trawling by

smaller boats has been placed under a variety of restrictions. Local

scientific investigations have been initiated under several of the

committees, especially in Lancashire by Professor Herdman of Liverpool

and his assistants.

In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the west coast of

Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin Society, with assistance from

the government, and in the hands of Mr E.W.L. Holt led to the

acquisition of much valuable information concerning the spawning habits

of fishes and the distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.

In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act of

1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole of the Moray

Firth--including a large tract of extra-territorial waters--against

trawling, in order to test experimentally the effect of protecting

certain spawning grounds in the outer parts of the firth. The closure

has given rise to a succession of protests from the leaders of the

trawling industry in Aberdeen and England. It seems that the difficulty

of policing so large an area, as well as the absence of any power to

enforce the restriction on foreign vessels, have defeated the original

intention; and the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in

deference to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of

whose industry--from economic causes which have been alluded to

above--is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The controversy

has had the effect of causing the transference of a number of English

trawlers to foreign flags, especially the Norwegian.

_Statistics._--The following tables summarize the official statistics

of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and

Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of

fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.

TABLE I.--_Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and exported

for the United Kingdom._

+------+-------------------------+-----------+-------------+

|------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+

| | Cwt. | | | |

| 1890 | 12,774,010 | L6,361,487 |L2,315,572 | L1,795,267 |

| 1895 | 14,068,641 | 7,168,025 | 2,453,676 | 2,282,406 |

| 1900 | 14,671,070 | 9,242,491 | 2,937,486 | 3,000,852 |

| 1905 | 20,164,276 | 10,210,369 | 2,250,259 | 4,164,869 |

+------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+

_Note._--Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly of

salted or cured fish to the value of over L900,000 in 1905) are not

included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports

consist mainly of herrings.

TABLE II.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes landed

on the Coasts of England and Wales (all caught with Trawl-nets, except

Halibut in part)._

+-----+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+

| | Quantity | Average Price (per Cwt.). |

|Year.| (in Thousands of Cwt.). | |

| +-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+

+-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+

| | | | | | |L s. | L s. | L s. | L s. | L s. |

| 1890| 72.1| 51.9 | 15.4 | 623 | 95 |6 7 | 3 13 | 2 8 | 0 19 | 1 10 |

| 1895| 82.8| 77.9 | 19.0 | 789 | 114 |6 16 | 3 17 | 2 11 | 1 1 | 1 15 |

| 1900| 75.3| 60.7 | 20.7 | 752 | 136 |7 11 | 4 3 | 2 14 | 1 4 | 1 14 |

| 1905| 80.1| 89.5 | 22.4 | 1074 | 120 |5 18 | 3 11 | 2 11 | 0 19 | 1 17 |

+-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+

TABLE III.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fishes,

caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England and

Wales._

+-----+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+

| | Quantity | Average Price (per Cwt.). |

|Year.| (in Thousands of Cwt.). | |

| +----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+

+-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+

| | | | | | |s. d.| s. d. | s. d.| s. d.| s. d. |

| 1890| 363| 1585 | .. | 96 | 1151 |13 10| 9 7 | .. | 14 3| 14 0 |

| 1895| 496| 2433 | 132 | 114 | 1013 |12 5| 9 9 | 16 2| 11 8| 13 7 |

| 1900| 589| 2487 | 233 | 100 | 1190 |14 8| 13 8 | 15 10| 12 10| 14 10 |

| 1905|1423| 2148 | 484 | 165 | 1425 |12 4| 12 5 | 13 4| 11 3| 9 8 |

+-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+

TABLE IV.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes

landed on the Coasts of England and Wales (caught with Drift-, Seine-,

and Stow-nets)._

+-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

| | Quantity | Average Price (per Cwt.). |

|Year.| (in Thousands of Cwt.). | |

| +---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+

+-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+

| | | | | | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d.|

| 1890| 509 | 1332 | 61 | 99 | 15 5 | 7 2 | 5 10 | 3 0 |

| 1895| 375 | 1437 | 65 | 91 | 16 3 | 5 10 | 5 3 | 3 1 |

| 1900| 321 | 2425 | 106 | 73 | 15 9 | 7 8 | 4 6 | 4 11 |

| 1905| 682 | 3062 | 169 | 75 | 8 11 | 7 7 | 5 0 | 3 6 |

+-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+

TABLE V.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed on

the Coasts of England and Wales._

+-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

| | Number. | Average Price. |

| +----------------+--------+---------+-------------------------+---------+

| +----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+

+-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+

| | | | | | L. s.| L. s. | s. d. | s. d. |

|1890 | 4808 | 922 | 47.6 | 505 | 1 4 | 4 18 | 6 1 | 5 0 |

|1895 | 4501 | 677 | 25.3 | 590 | 1 4 | 4 8 | 6 2 | 4 11 |

|1900 | 5177 | 654 | 37.8 | 539 | 1 2 | 4 7 | 7 0 | 5 8 |

|1905 | 5106 | 503 | 35.4 | 423 | 1 3 | 4 15 | 5 9 | 5 6 |

+-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+

TABLE VI.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish

landed in Scotland._

+-----+----------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+-------------------------+

|Year.+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+

+-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+

| 1890| 3980 | 17 | 81 | 20 | 449| 170 | 754 | 75 | 54 | 181 | 2882 | 643 | 350 |

| 1895| 4077 | 19 | 80 | 29 | 459| 165 | 1001 | 43 | 59 | 194 | 2548 | 610 | 239 |

| 1900| 3520 | 21 | 102 | 26 | 434| 157 | 761 | 75 | 72 | 143 | 3128 | 680 | 796 |

| 1905| 5343 | 31 | 561 | 36 | 677| 151 | 932 | 184 | 100 | 103 | 1990 | 760 | 218 |

+-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+

TABLE VII.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and

Shell-fish returned as landed on the Irish Coasts._

+-----+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+

| | In Thousands of Cwt. | Number (Thousands). |

|Year.+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+

+-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+

| 1890| 502 | 85 | 4.5 | 1.4 |39.6| 14.8| 16.4 | 13.5 | 25.3| 576 | 228 | 238 |

| 1895| 339 | 171 | 1.8 | 1.0 |43.6| 29.7| 30.9 | 11.9 | 18.7| 563 | 240 | 276 |

| 1900| 278 | 284 | 3.1 | 1.5 |33.6| 11.9| 12.4 | 11.9 | 16.3| 236 | 202 | 286 |

| 1905| 505 | 354 | 3.5 | 0.8 |18.6| 9.1| 11.3 | 18.3 | 7.1| 348 | 175 | 236 |

+-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+

_Note._--The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing

to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for

collecting statistics over large sections of the coast.

TABLE VIII.--_Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register

for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or

Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed._

+----------+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+

| Mode of +---------+---------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------+

+----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+

|Trawling | 1173 | 904 | 586 | 244 | .. | 68 | 10 | 142 | 283 |

|Drift-nets| 263 | 562 | 539 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

|Lines | 56 | 29 | 685 | 209 | 3403 | 2910 | .. | 229 | 2776 |

|Various | 21 | 215 | 2277 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

+----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+

| Total | 1513 | 1710 | 4087 | 453 | 3403 | 2978 | 10 | 371 | 3059 |

+----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+

_Note._--1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and

other boats of at least 15 tons registered tonnage (in Scotland

exceeding 30 ft. keel). 2nd class = less than 15 tons tonnage, or from

18 to 30 ft. keel.

TABLE IX.--_Number (A) of Men and Boys constantly employed and (B) of

other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing._

+-----+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+

| +--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | A. | B. | A. | B. | A. | B. | A. | B. |

+-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| 1890| 32,503 | 9312 | 34,319 | 20,829 | 10,121 | 13,981 | 78,450 | 46,337 |

| 1895| 32,229 | 8995 | 31,044 | 12,329 | 8,692 | 18,218 | 73,090 | 41,230 |

| 1900| 31,589 | 7994 | 27,288 | 10,288 | 8,677 | 18,982 | 68,708 | 37,814 |

| 1905| 34,318 | 8132 | 29,064 | 10,487 | 8,744 | 17,079 | 73,293 | 36,131 |

+-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

TABLE X.--_Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed in

Scotland._

+------+----------------------+----------------------+

| Year.| Line-caught Fish. | Trawled Fish. |

+------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+

| | Cwt. | | Cwt. | |

| 1890 | 1,577,299 | L591,059 | 291,812 | L203,620 |

| 1895 | 1,479,654 | 548,629 | 531,695 | 291,165 |

| 1900 | 757,416 | 371,173 | 1,077,082 | 703,427 |

| 1905 | 735,654 | 348,610 | 1,745,431 | 948,117 |

+------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+

In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took evidence as to

the expediency of adopting measures for the preservation of the

sea-fisheries in the seas around the British Islands, with especial

reference to the alleged wasteful destruction of under-sized fish. They

recommended the adoption of a size-limit of 8 in. for soles and plaice,

and 10 in. for turbot and brill, below which the sale of these fishes

should be prohibited, on the ground that these limits would approximate

to those already adopted by foreign countries.

In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act

transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish fisheries

to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.

The department is provided with a steam cruiser, the "Helga," 375 tons,

fully equipped for fishery research, as well as with a floating marine

laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly of the Marine Biological Association, was

appointed to take charge of the scientific work.

In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons was appointed

to consider and take evidence on the proposals of the Sea Fisheries

Bill, which had been framed in accordance with the recommendations of

the select committee of 1893, but had failed to pass in several sessions

of parliament. Owing to marked divergencies of opinion on the question

whether the low size-limits proposed would be effectual in keeping the

trawlers from working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the

committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate equipment

of the government departments with means for undertaking the necessary

scientific investigations.

In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all the

countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at Christiania to

revise proposals which had been drafted at Stockholm in 1899 for a

scientific exploration of these waters in the interest of the fisheries,

to be undertaken concurrently by all the participating countries. The

British government was represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M

G., with Professor D'Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W.

Garstang and Dr H.R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were subsequently

accepted, with some restrictions, and an international council of

management was appointed by the participating governments. The Fishery

Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association from England

were commissioned in 1902 to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great

Britain, and a special grant of L5500 per annum was made to each body by

the Treasury for this purpose. Two steamers, the "Huxley" and the

"Goldseeker," were chartered for the investigations and began work in

1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the

work of the first five years were published in 1909.

In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the Committee on

Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report as to the best means by

which scientific fishery research could be organized and assisted in

relation to the state or local authorities. The committee consisted of

Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P. (chairman), Mr W.F. Archer, Mr Donald

Crawford, Rev. W.S. Green, Professor W.A. Herdman, Hon. T.H.W. Pelham,

Mr S.E. Spring Rice and Professor J.A. Thomson. Sir Herbert Maxwell

resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn up (September

1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff. The committee

recommended the provision of more complete statistics; the provision and

maintenance of five special steamers (where not already existing) to

work in connexion with as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of

the three coasts of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and

Ireland; the provision of three biological assistants at each

laboratory; the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries

committees to expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a

fishery council for England and Wales, and of a conference of

representatives of the central authorities in England, Scotland and

Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade was

transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W.E. Archer, chief inspector

of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of the new Board of

Agriculture and Fisheries.

In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed to inquire into

the scientific and statistical investigations carried on in relation to

the fishing industry of the United Kingdom. The committee consisted of

Mr H.J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman), Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald

MacLeod, Mr N.W. Helms, M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers

Mitchell, F.R.S., Mr J.S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W.S. Green, Mr R.H.

Rew and Mr L.S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that had already

been done and urged its continuation and extension under the direction

of a central council composed of representatives of the government

departments concerned with fishery matters in England, Scotland and

Ireland, with a scientific chairman and director, and further insisted

on the need of international co-operation in the investigations.

_United States Fisheries._--The administration of the fisheries of the

United States of America is under the control of the several coastal

states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, which reports to the

secretary of commerce and labour, conducts a vast amount of scientific

fishery investigation, issues admirable statistical and biological

reports, and conducts on a very large scale work on the replenishment of

the fishing stations by artificial means (see PISCICULTURE). Although in

recent years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support to

the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an amount

actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great Britain, the

fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds that of Canada.

A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American ships from the

Newfoundland coasts and from those of other British provinces, is landed

at American ports, but as the following recent table shows, it is much

less than that taken from American waters.

_Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston and

Gloucester, Mass., in 1905._

+------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+

| | Quantities. | Value. |

+------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+

|(a) From fishing grounds off U.S. | | |

| coasts | 152,241,139 | L669,640 |

|(b) From fishing grounds off Newfoundland | 17,165,083 | 103,145 |

|(c) From fishing grounds off other | | |

| British provinces | 32,608,343 | 192,517 |

+------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+

The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase from year

to year. There has been a decline in some important branches owing to

indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects of civilization on

certain kinds of animal life and in certain restricted areas. Such

diminution has been more than compensated for by growth resulting from

the invasion of new fishing grounds made possible by increase in the

sea-going capacity of the vessels employed, by improvement in the

preservation and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization

of products which until comparatively recently were disregarded or

considered without economic value. The annual value of the water

products taken and sold by the United States fishermen now amounts to

over L11,000,000, and this sum does not include the very large

quantities taken by the fishermen for home consumption or captured by

sportsmen and amateurs. Between two and three hundred thousand persons

make a livelihood by the industry, and the capital involved exceeds

L16,000,000.

The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output of the

United States industry exceeds the combined output of all other

countries in the world. The most notable feature of this fishery is that

nearly half the total yield now comes from cultivated grounds, so that

the business is being placed on a secure basis. Virginia has now taken

the first rank as an oyster-producing state, oyster farming being now

highly developed with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.

The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel,

herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity, the

annual value being between one and two million pounds. The lobster

fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the diminution having been

progressive since about 1890, and being attributed to over-fishing and

violation of the restrictive regulations. At present a large part of the

lobsters consumed in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there

is evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural

operations now being carried out.

The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry of the

country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific and Arctic

oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, uncertain and often

unremunerative. The annual value of the take is now under L200,000.

The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon, shad,

alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the rivers from the

ocean) has continued to provide an increasing source of income to

fishermen, the combined value of the catch on the Atlantic and Pacific

seaboards now amounting to over L3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of

the Great Lakes yield about L600,000 annually. (W. Ga.; P. C. M.)

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre" Volume 10, Slice 4 · 第 31 / 53 题