[1] Manilius, _Astronomica_, lib. v., 438-443.
[2] Vopiscus, _Carus, Numerianus et Carinus_, ch. xix.
[3] Claudianus, _De consulatu Manlii Theodori_, 325-330.
[4] Vanuzzio Biringuccio, _Pyrotechnia_.
[5] Strutts, _Sports and Pastimes of the English People_.
[6] De Frezier, _Traite des feux d'artifice_ (1707 and 1747).
[7] _Notes and Queries_, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8,
vol. ii. pp. 145 and 254.
[8] J.B. Nichols & Sons, _London Pageants_.
[9] Hall's _Chronicles_.
[10] J. Bate, _Mysteries of Nature and Art_ (1635). This contains a
picture of a green man.
[11] _Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen_ (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee
pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.
[12] See "Fairholts' Collection" bequeathed to the Royal Society of
Antiquaries.
[13] _Journal_ of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. 11.
[14] Somers' _Tracts_, vol. iii.
[15] De Frezier.
[16] Diego Ufano, _Artillery_, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner
Norton, _The Gunner_ and _The Gunner's Dialogue_ (1628); F. de Malthe
(Malthus), _Artificial Fireworks_, in French and English (1628);
"Hanzelet," _Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires et feux
artificiels pour la guerre et recreation_ (1620 and 1630);
Furttenback, master gunner of Bavaria, _Halinitro Pyrobolio_, in
German (1627); (John Babington Matross, _Pyrotechnia_, 1635); Nye,
master gunner of Worcester, _Art of Gunnery_ (Worcester, 1648);
Casimir Siemienowitz, lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of
Poland, _The Great Art of Artillery_, in French (1650).
[17] Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the
surveyor-general of the Ordnance.
[18] "Crace Collection" in the print-room; the King's Prints and
Drawings in the library. See also "The Connection of the Ordnance
Department with National and Royal Fireworks," _R. A. Journal_, vol.
xxii. No. 11.
FIRM, an adjective originally indicating a dense or close consistency,
hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This word, in M. Eng.
_ferme_, is derived through the French, from Lat. _firmus_. The medieval
Latin substantive _firma_ meant a fixed payment, either in the way of
rent, composition for periodic payments, &c.; and this word, often
represented by "firm" in translations of medieval documents, has
produced the English "farm" (q.v.). From a late Latin use of _firmare_,
to confirm by signature, _firma_ occurs in many Romanic languages for a
signature, and the English "firm" was thus used till the 18th century.
From a transferred use came the meaning of a business house. In the
Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered into partnership with one
another are called collectively a firm, and the name under which their
business is carried on is called the firm-name.
FIRMAMENT, the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the word _firmamentum_,
which means in classical Latin a strengthening or support (_firmare_, to
make firm or strong) was used as the equivalent of [Greek: stereoma]
([Greek: stereoein], to make firm or solid) in the LXX., which
translates the Heb. raqiya'. The Hebrew probably signifies literally
"expanse," and is thus used of the expanse or vault of the sky, the verb
from which it is derived meaning "to beat out." In Syriac the verb means
"to make firm," and is the direct source of the Gr. [Greek: stereoma]
and the Lat. _firmamentum_. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the
eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven spheres
of the planets.
FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. _ferman_, a mandate or patent, cognate
with the Sanskrit _pramana_, a measure, authority), an edict of an
oriental sovereign, used specially to designate decrees, grants,
passports, &c., issued by the sultan of Turkey and signed by one of his
ministers. A decree bearing the sultan's sign-manual and drawn up with
special formalities is termed a _hatti-sherif_, Arabic words meaning a
line, writing or command, and lofty, noble. A written decree of an
Ottoman sultan is also termed an _irade_, the word being taken from the
Arab. _irada_, will, volition, order.
FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS, a Latin writer, who lived in the reign of
Constantine and his successors. About the year 346 he composed a work
entitled _De erroribus profanarum religionum_, which he inscribed to
Constantius and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is still
extant. In the first part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of
worship among the Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he
discusses a number of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries.
The whole tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than
argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the eight books
on astronomy (Libri VIII. _Matheseos_) bearing the same author's name,
that the two works have usually been attributed to different writers.
Mommsen (_Hermes_ vol. 29, pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the
astronomy--a work interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit--was
composed about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add to
this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a connexion
with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming the same author
for the two books, though it shows that in the 4th century acceptance of
Christianity did not always mean an advance in ethical standpoint.
The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican
library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been
reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings
of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions are
those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his
_Minucius Felix_ (_Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat._ ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The
Neoplatonist work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has
often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, _Gesch. der
chr. lat. Litt._, ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_,
ed. 1901, p. 354.
FIRMINY, a town of central France in the department of Loire, 8 m. S.W.
of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778. It has important coal mines
known since the 14th century and extensive manufactures of iron and
steel goods, including railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy
woollen hosiery is also manufactured.
FIRST-FOOT, in British folklore, especially that of the north and
Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on Christmas or New
Year's Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be brought the house by
First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is regarded with dread. In
Lancashire a light-haired man is as unlucky as a woman, and it became a
custom for dark-haired males to hire themselves out to "take the New
Year in." In Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first
carol-singer who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire
it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his fairness is
no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always more elaborate than
in England, involving a subsequent entertainment.
FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF THE. By this name we call the great naval
victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of Admiral
Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 1794. No place name can be given to
it, because the battle was fought 429 m. to the west of Ushant.
The French people were suffering much distress from the bad harvest of
the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant ships laden with corn
was expected from America. Admiral Vanstabel of the French navy had been
sent to escort it with two ships of the line in December of 1793. He
sailed with his charge from the Chesapeake on the 11th of April 1794. On
the previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet
Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept the
convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel fleet. He
sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail of the line and 15
smaller vessels, having under his charge nearly a hundred merchant ships
which were to be seen clear of the Channel. On the 4th, when off the
Lizard, the convoy was sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle
ships and 6 or 7 frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to
accompany them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral
Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to cruise on
the look-out for the French convoy between Cape Ortegal and Belle Isle.
These detachments reduced the force under Lord Howe's immediate command
to 26 of the line and 7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant,
and sent frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to
him that the main French fleet, which was under the command of
Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at anchor in
the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which the convoy was
likely to be met with, knowing that if the French admiral came out it
would be to meet the ships with the food and cover them from attack. To
seek the convoy was therefore the most sure way of forcing
Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the 18th the British fleet continued
cruising in the Bay of Biscay. On the 19th Lord Howe returned to Ushant
and again reconnoitred Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had
gone to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had
passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog. On the
19th the French admiral was informed by the "Patriote" (74) that Nielly
had fallen in with, and had captured, the British frigate "Castor" (32),
under Captain Thomas Troubridge, together with a convoy from
Newfoundland. On the same day Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch
convoy of 53 sail from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral
Montagu joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had recaptured
part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that Nielly was to join
Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined force would be 9 sail of the
line. Montagu himself had steered to cruise on the route of the convoy
between the 45th and 47th degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to
meet his subordinate who, he considered, would be in danger from the
main French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch ships
taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that on the 19th the
French fleet had been in latitude 47 deg. 46' N. and in longitude 11
deg. 22' N. and was steering westward. Judging that Montagu was too far
to the south to be in peril from Villaret-Joyeuse, and considering him
strong enough to perform the duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe
decided to pursue the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the
weather hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 A.M. that the
British fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47 deg. 34' N. and 13 deg.
39' W.
The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to windward.
Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m. from the British, and
then hauled to the wind on the port tack. It was difficult for the
British fleet to force an action from leeward if the French were
unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached a light squadron of four ships,
the "Bellerophon" (74), "Russel" (74), "Marlborough" (74), and
"Thunderer" (74) under Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of
the French line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to
windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley's ships
began to come up with the last of the French line, the "Revolutionnaire"
(110). A partial action took place which went on till after dark; other
British vessels joined. The "Revolutionnaire" was so damaged that she
was compelled to leave her fleet, and the British "Audacious" (74) was
also crippled and compelled to return to port. The "Revolutionnaire" was
accompanied by another liner. During the night the two fleets continued
on the same course, and next day Howe renewed his attempts to force an
action from leeward. He tacked his fleet in succession--his first ship
tacking first and the rest in order--in the hope that he would be able
to cut through the French rear and gain the weather-gage.
Villaret-Joyeuse then turned all his ships together and again headed in
the same direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer the
British fleet, and another partial action took place between the van of
each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not disposed to charge
home, Howe at noon once more ordered his fleet to tack in succession.
His signal was poorly obeyed by the van, and his object, which was to
cut through the French line, was not at once achieved. But the admiral
himself finally set an example by tacking his flagship, the "Queen
Charlotte" (100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end
of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse,
seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together
to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable confusion by
these movements, but the British had gained the weather-gage.
Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships cut off, but he had
fallen to leeward and the power to force on a battle had passed to Lord
Howe. During the 30th the fleets lost sight of one another for a time.
The French, who had four ships crippled, had been joined by four others,
and were again 26 in number, including the "Patriote."
The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick weather,
but by the evening the British were close to windward of the French. As
Howe, who had not full confidence in all his captains, did not wish for
a night battle, he waited till the following morning, keeping the French
under observation by frigates. On the 1st of June they were in the same
relative positions, and at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on
the French, throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end,
with orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to place
the British ships on the enemy's line of retreat. It was a very bold
departure from the then established methods of fighting, and most
honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had been trained in the old
school. Its essential merit was that it produced a close _melee_, in
which the better average gunnery and seamanship of the British fleet
would tell. Lord Howe's orders were not fully obeyed by all his
captains, but a signal victory was won,--six of the French line of
battle ships were taken, and one, the "Vengeur," sunk. The convoy
escaped capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the
20th May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at Brest on
the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console the French for
their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten in England in the
pleasure given by the victory.
See James's _Naval History_, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, _Batailles
navales de la France_ (1867). (D. H.)
FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857- ), British historian, was born at
Sheffield on the 16th of March 1857, and was educated at Clifton College
and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his university he took the Stanhope
prize for an essay on the marquess Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at
Pembroke College in 1887, and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He
was Ford's lecturer in English history in 1900, and became regius
professor of modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in
1904. Firth's historical work was almost entirely confined to English
history during the time of the Great Civil War and the Commonwealth; and
although he is somewhat overshadowed by S.R. Gardiner, a worker in the
same field, his books are of great value to students of this period. The
chief of them are: _Life of the Duke of Newcastle_ (1886); _Scotland and
the Commonwealth_ (1895); _Scotland and the Protectorate_ (1899);
_Narrative of General Venables_ (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_ (1900);
_Cromwell's Army_ (1902); and the standard edition of _Ludlow's Memoirs_
(1894). He also edited the _Clarke Papers_ (1891-1901), and Mrs
Hutchinson's _Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson_ (1885), and wrote an
introduction to the _Stuart Tracts_ (1903), besides contributions to the
_Dictionary of National Biography_. In 1909 he published _The Last Years
of the Protectorate_.
FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and philanthropist,
was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819, the son of a steel
smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his brother, left school to
join their father in the foundry where he was employed, and ten years
later the three together started a six-hole furnace of their own. The
venture proved successful, and besides an extensive home business, they
soon established a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works
were erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards
acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels near
Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance was the principal
feature of their business, and they produced also shot and heavy
forgings. They also installed a plant for the production of steel cores
for heavy guns, and for some time they supplied nearly all the metal
used for gun making by the British government and a large proportion of
that used by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth
became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed "Mark Firth's
Almshouses" at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in 1875, when mayor, he
presented to his native place a freehold park of thirty-six acres. He
founded and endowed Firth College, for lectures and classes in connexion
with the extension of university education, which was opened in 1879. He
died on the 28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral.
FIRUZABAD, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72 m. S. of
Shiraz, in 28 deg. 51' N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated in a fertile
plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by the river Khoja which
flows through it from north to south. The town is surrounded by a mud
wall and ditch. Three or four miles north-west of the town are the ruins
of the ancient city and of a large building popularly known as the
fire-temple of Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the
gorge through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian
bas-reliefs.
The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern end, and
according to Persian history it was there that Alexander the Great, when
unable to capture the ancient city, built a dike across the gorge, thus
damming up the water of the river and turning the plain into a lake and
submerging the city and villages. The lake remained until the beginning
of the 3rd century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained
it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gur, and made
it the capital of one of the five great provinces or divisions of Fars.
Firuz (or Peroz, q.v.), one of Ardashir's successors, called the
district after his name Firuzabad ("the abode of Firuz"), but the name
of the city remained Gur until Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982)
changed it to its present name. He did this because he frequently
resided at Gur, and the name meaning also "a grave" gave rise to
unpleasant allusions, for instance, "People who go to Gur (grave) never
return alive; our king goes to Gur (the town) several times a year and
is not dead yet."
The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat and rice. It is
said that the rice of Firuzabad bears sixty-fold. (A. H.-S.)
FIRUZKUH, a small province of Persia, with a population of about 5000,
paying a yearly revenue of about L500. Its chief place is a village of
the same name picturesquely situated in a valley of the Elburz, about 90
m. east of Teheran, at an elevation of 6700 ft. and in 35 deg. 46' N.
and 52 deg. 48' E. It has post and telegraph offices and a population of
2500. A precipitous cliff on the eastern side of the valley is
surmounted by the ruins of an ancient fort popularly ascribed to
Alexander the Great.
FISCHART, JOHANN (c. 1545-1591), German satirist and publicist, was
born, probably at Strassburg (but according to some accounts at Mainz),
in or about the year 1545, and was educated at Worms in the house of
Kaspar Scheid, whom in the preface to his _Eulenspiegel_ he mentions as
his "cousin and preceptor." He appears to have travelled in Italy, the
Netherlands, France and England, and on his return to have taken the
degree of _doctor juris_ at Basel. From 1575 to 1581, within which
period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was probably
associated in the business of, his sister's husband, Bernhard Jobin, a
printer at Strassburg, who published many of his books. In 1581 Fischart
was attached, as advocate to the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of
appeal) at Spires, and in 1583, when he married, was appointed _Amtmann_
(magistrate) at Forbach near Saarbrucken. Here he died in the winter of
1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names, such as Mentzer,
Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros, Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold
Alkofribas Wustblutus, Ulrich Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen
Gilt's Mischen; and it is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt
whether some of the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50
satirical works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic,
among which are--_Nachtrab oder Nebelkrah_ (1570), a satire against one
Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the Roman Catholic Church; _Von
St Dominici des Predigermonchs und St Francisci Barfussers artlichem
Leben_ (1571), a poem with the expressive motto "Sie haben Nasen und
riechen's nit" (Ye have noses and smell it not), written to defend the
Protestants against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that
Luther held communion with the devil; _Eulenspiegel Reimensweis_
(written 1571, published 1572); _Aller Praktik Grossmutter_ (1572),
after Rabelais's _Prognostication Pantagrueline_; _Floh Haz, Weiber
Traz_ (1573), in which he describes a battle between fleas and women;
_Affentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift vom Leben, Rhaten
und Thaten der ... Helden und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und
Pantagruel_, also after Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified
title, _Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung_, 1577); _Neue kunstliche
Figuren biblischer Historien_ (1576); _Anmahnung zur christlichen
Kinderzucht_ (1576); _Das gluckhafft Schiff von Zurich_ (1576,
republished 1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland), a
poem commemorating the adventure of a company of Zurich arquebusiers,
who sailed from their native town to Strassburg in one day, and brought,
as a proof of this feat, a kettleful of _Hirsebrei_ (millet), which had
been cooked in Zurich, still warm into Strassburg, and intended to
illustrate the proverb "perseverance overcomes all difficulties";
_Podagrammisch Trostbuchlein_ (1577); _Philosophisch Ehzuchtbuchlein_
(1578); the celebrated _Bienenkorb des heiligen romischen
Immenschwarms_, &c., a modification of the Dutch _De roomsche
Byen-Korf_, by Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and
reprinted in 1847; _Der heilig Brotkorb_ (1580), after Calvin's _Traite
des reliques_; _Das vierhornige Jesuiterhutlein_, a rhymed satire
against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems. To Fischart
also have been attributed some "Psalmen und geistliche Lieder" which
appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book of 1576.
Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also those of
Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He was a lawyer, a
theologian, a satirist and the most powerful Protestant publicist of the
counter-reformation period; in politics he was a republican. Above all,
he is a master of language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His
satire was levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and
private life of his time--at astrological superstition, scholastic
pedantry, ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the
lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the wildest
witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all this he did with a
serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized by the eloquence and
picturesqueness of his style and the symbolical language he employed.
Thirty years after Fischart's death his writings, once so popular, were
almost entirely forgotten. Recalled to the public attention by Johann
Jakob Bodmer and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his
works have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position in
German literature to be fully understood.
Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart's works
has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin, deals
in his _Fischartstudien_ (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist.
Fischart's poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three
volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke (Leipzig,
1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_
(Stuttgart, 1893); _Die Geschichtklitterung_ and some minor writings
appeared in Scheible's _Kloster_, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart,
1847-1848). _Das gluckhafft Schiff_ has been frequently reprinted,
critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical
details, Erich Schmidt in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol.
7; A.F.C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_; W.
Wackernagel, _Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm_
(2nd ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, _Etude sur Jean Fischart_ (Paris,
1889); and A. Hauffen, "Fischart-Studien" (in _Euphorion_, 1896-1909).
FISCHER, EMIL (1852- ), German chemist, was born at Euskirchen, in
Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852, his father being a merchant
and manufacturer. After studying chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to
Strassburg, where he graduated as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as
assistant to Adolf von Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he
was appointed to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882)
and Wurzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A.W. von Hofmann as professor
of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted himself entirely to organic
chemistry, and his investigations are characterized by an originality of
idea and readiness of resource which make him the master of this branch
of experimental chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too complex
to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more intricate and
involved the subjects of his investigations the more strongly shown is
the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were, atom from atom, until the
molecule stood revealed, and, this accomplished, the same skill combined
atom with atom until the molecule was regenerated. His _forte_ was to
enter fields where others had done little except break the ground; and
his researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in hand,
and where the solution was not entire, his methods and results almost
always contained the key to the situation.
In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer, he
published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new compound
of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (q.v.). He
investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, establishing
their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the readiness
with which they entered into combination with other substances, giving
origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds. Of such condensation
products undoubtedly the most important are the hydrazones, which
result from the interaction with aldehydes and ketones. His
observations, published in 1886, that such hydrazones, by treatment
with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded derivatives of indol,
the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent substance of indigo,
were a valuable confirmation of the views advanced by his master, von
Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and the many substances related to
it. Of greater moment was his discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted
with the sugars to form substances which he named osazones, and
which, being highly crystalline and readily formed, served to identify
such carbohydrates more definitely than had been previously possible.
He next turned to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W.H.
Perkin), and in collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852),
then at Munich and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since
identified himself mainly with the compounds of this and related
groups, he published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably
established that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl
methane. Fischer's next research was concerned with compounds related
to uric acid. Here the ground had been broken more especially by von
Baeyer, but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group
(the word _purin_ appears to have been suggested by the phrase _purum
uricum_) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which
established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine
and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work in this
field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great series of
papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all referred to a
nitrogenous base, purin (q.v.). The base itself was obtained, but only
after much difficulty; and an immense series of derivatives were
prepared, some of which were patented in view of possible
therapeutical applications.[1] These researches were published in a
collected form in 1907 with the title _Untersuchungen in der
Puringruppe_ (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work
successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here the
pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be regarded
as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may be taken
as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled in importance
in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical complexity of these
carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which they could be got into a
manageable form--they generally appeared as syrups--occasioned much
experimental difficulty; but these troubles were little in comparison
with the complications due to stereochemical relations. However,
Fischer synthesized fructose, glucose and a great number of other
sugars, and having showed how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of
the 16 stereoisomeric glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides,
thereby completing a most brilliant experimental research, and
simultaneously confirming the van't Hoff theory of the asymmetric
carbon atom (see STEREO-ISOMERISM). The study of the sugars brought in
its train the necessity for examining the nature, properties and
reactions of substances which bring about the decomposition known as
fermentation (q.v.). Fischer attacked the problem presented by
ferments and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this
complex subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important
discovery, viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical
constitution of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it
down. The magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by
his collected papers, _Untersuchungen uber Kohlenhydrate und Fermente_
(1884-1908), pp. viii. + 912 (Berlin, 1909).
From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject of
the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with life
processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a subject
which bids fair to be Fischer's great lifework, presents difficulties
which are probably without equal in the whole field of chemistry,
partly on account of the extraordinary chemical complexity of the
substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar manner in which
chemical reactions are brought about in the living organism. But by
the introduction of new methods, Fischer succeeded in breaking down
the complex albuminoid substances into amino acids and other
nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions of most of which have been
solved; and by bringing about the recombination of these units,
appropriately chosen, he prepared synthetic peptides which approximate
to the natural products. His methods led to the preparation of an
octadeca-peptide of the molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any
other synthetic compound; but even this compound falls far short of
the simplest natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from
2000 to 3000. He considers, however, that the synthesis of more
complex products is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches
made from 1899 to 1906 have been published with the title
_Untersuchungen uber Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine_ (Berlin,
1907). The extraordinary merit of his many researches has been
recognized by all the important scientific societies in the world, and
he was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his
control the laboratory at Berlin became one of the most important in
existence, and has attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant
pupils, many of whom are to be associated with much of the
experimental work indissolubly connected with Fischer.