The writers whom we have been discussing are practically unknown save to
those who are able to read them in the original. Now we have to turn our
attention to a man whose works have never been popular in the Highlands,
but who nevertheless plays a prominent part in the history of European
literature. Though the precise origin of the Fenian cycle may remain a
moot-point to all time, the development of the literature centring in
the names of Finn and Ossian is at any rate clear from the 11th century
onwards. The interest taken in Celtic studies since the middle of the
19th century in Ireland and Scotland and elsewhere has accumulated a
body of evidence which has settled for all time the celebrated dispute
as to the authenticity of Macpherson's Ossian. James Macpherson
(1736-1796), a native of Kingussie, showed a turn for versification
whilst yet a student at college. Whilst acting as tutor at Moffat he was
asked by John Home as to the existence of ancient Gaelic literature in
the Highlands. After some pressing Macpherson undertook to translate
some of the more striking poems, and submitted to Home a rendering of
"The Death of Oscar." Blair, Ferguson and Robertson, the foremost men in
the Edinburgh literary circles of the day, were enthusiastic about the
unearthing of such unsuspected treasures, and at their instance
Macpherson published anonymously in 1760 his _Fragments of Ancient
Poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland and translated from the
Gaelic or Erse Language_. This publication contained in all fifteen
translations, preceded by a preface from the pen of Blair. Published
under such auspices, Macpherson's venture was bound to succeed. In the
preface it was stated that among other ancient poems an epic of
considerable length existed in Gaelic, and that if sufficient
encouragement were forthcoming the author of the versions would
undertake to recover and translate the same. A subscription was raised
at once, and Macpherson set out on a journey of exploration in the
Highlands and islands. As the result of this tour, on which he was
accompanied by two or three competent Gaelic scholars, Macpherson
published in London in 1762 a large quarto containing his epic styled
_Fingal_ with fifteen other smaller poems. In the following year a still
larger epic appeared with the title of _Temora_. It was in eight books,
and contained a number of notes in addition to _Cath-Loda_ and other
pieces, along with the seventh book of _Temora_ in Gaelic as a specimen
of the original. Ten years later a new edition of the whole was issued.
The authenticity of Macpherson's translations was soon impugned by Dr
Johnson, Hume and Malcolm Laing, and the author was urged by his friends
to publish the originals. Macpherson prevaricated, even though the
Highlanders of India sent him a cheque for L1000 to enable him to
vindicate the antiquity of their native literature. Macpherson at
different times, and particularly towards the end of his life, seems to
have had some intention of publishing the Gaelic of his Ossian, but he
was naturally deterred by the feeling that his knowledge of Gaelic was
becoming shakier with his continued absence from the Highlands. At any
rate he left behind a quantity of Gaelic matter in MS. which was
ultimately published by the Highland Society of London in 1807. This
MS., however, was revised and transcribed by Ross and afterwards
destroyed, so that we are ignorant of its nature. The Highland Society
also instituted an inquiry into the whole question, but their
conclusions were somewhat negative. They succeeded in establishing that
the characters introduced by Macpherson were familiar in the Highlands
and that Ossianic ballads really existed, which Macpherson had utilized.
Macpherson's claims still found ardent advocates, such as Clark, in the
'seventies, but the question was finally disposed of in papers by
Alexander Macbain (1885) and L.C. Stern (1895). We can here only
summarize briefly the main lines of argument. (1) Macpherson's Ossian is
full of reminiscences of Homer, Milton and the Hebrew prophets. (2) He
confuses the Ulster and the Fenian heroic cycles in unpardonable
fashion. (3) The Gaelic text of 1807 only represents one-half of the
English versions (11 poems out of 22 poems). Some Gaelic fragments from
different pens appeared prior to 1807, but these differ considerably
from the "official" version. (4) In the Gaelic text of 1807 the version
of the passage from _Temora_ is quite different from that published in
1763. (5) Macpherson's Gaelic is full of offences against idiom and
unnaturally strained language. (6) The names Morven and Selma are
entirely of his own invention (see also MACPHERSON, JAMES). As a result
of the stir caused by Macpherson's work a number of men set about
collecting the genuine popular literature of the Highlands. A few years
before the appearance of _Fingal_, Jeremy Stone, a schoolmaster at
Dunkeld, had collected ten Ossianic ballads and published one of them in
an English versified translation. For this collection see a paper by D.
Mackinnon in the _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, vol.
xiv. pp. 314 ff. Unfortunately other persons were led to follow
Macpherson's example. The chief of these imitators were (1) John Clark,
who in 1778 published, along with several others, an English poem
_Mordubh_, later translated into Gaelic by Gillies; (2) R. Macdonald,
son of Alexander Macdonald, who is the author of _The Wish of the Aged
Bard_; (3) John Smith of Campbeltown (d. 1807), author of fourteen
Ossianic poems styled _Seandana_, published in English in 1780 and in
Gaelic in 1787; (4) D. MacCallum of Arisaig, who in 1821 published
_Collath_ and a complete _Mordubh_ "by an ancient bard Fonar."
Later poets.
We have now reviewed in turn the greatest writers of the Scottish
Highlands. The men we have dealt with created a kind of tradition which
others have attempted to carry on. Ewen Maclachlan (1775-1822), the
first transcriber of the Dean's Book, was assistant librarian of King's
College and rector of the grammar school of Aberdeen. Amongst other
things he translated the greater part of seven books of Homer's _Iliad_
into Gaelic heroic verse, and he also had a large share in the
compilation of the Gaelic-English part of the Highland Society's
_Dictionary_. A number of Gaelic poems were published by him in 1816.
These consist of poems of nature, e.g. _Dain nan Aimsirean, Dan mu
chonaltradh, Smeorach Chloinn-Lachuinn_, and of a well-known love-song,
the _Ealaidh Ghaoil_. William Ross (1762-1790), a schoolmaster at
Gairloch, is the typical Highland poet of the tender passion, and he is
commonly represented as having gone to an early grave in consequence of
unrequited affection. His finest compositions are _Feasgar Luain_ and
_Moladh na h-oighe Gaelich_. Another exquisite song _Cuachag nan
Craobh_, is usually attributed to this poet, but it seems to go back to
the beginning of the 18th century. A fifth edition of Ross's poems
appeared in 1902. The most popular writer of sacred poems after Buchanan
is undoubtedly Peter Grant, a Baptist minister in Strathspey, whose
_Dain Spioradail_ (first published in 1809) reached a twentieth edition
in 1904, Sweetness, grace and simplicity are the characteristics which
have endeared him to the heart of the Gael. Two other well-known
hymn-writers spent their lives in Nova Scotia--James Macgregor
(1759-1830) and John Maclean, a native of Tiree. The compositions of the
latter have been published under the title _Clarsach na Coille_
(Glasgow, 1881). But John Morrison (1790-1852), the poet-blacksmith of
Rodel, Harris, is the most worthy of the name of successor to Buchanan.
His works have been carefully edited in two volumes by George Henderson
(2nd edition, 1896). His poems are remarkably musical and imaginative.
Two of the most characteristic are _An Iondruinn_ and _Tha duin' og agus
seann duin' agam_. William Livingston or MacDhunleibhe (1808-1870) was a
native of Islay. He received scarcely any education, and was apprenticed
as a tailor, but he early made his way to the mainland. He was ever a
fierce Anglophobe, and did his best to make up for the deficiencies of
his early training. He published in English a _Vindication of the Celtic
Character_, and attempted to issue a _History of Scotland_ in parts. His
poems, which have been at least twice published (1858, 1882), are
equally powerful in the expression of ruthless fierceness and tearful
sorrow. In _Fios thun a' Bhaird_ he sings pathetically of the passing of
the older order in Islay, and another powerful poem entitled _Duan
Geall_ deals with the campaign of the Highlanders under Sir Colin
Campbell in the Crimea. Livingston's contemporary, Evan Maccoll
(1808-1898), the son of a small farmer on Lochfyneside, in his early
years devoured eagerly all the English literature and Gaelic lore that
came in his way. In 1836 he issued a volume of songs called the
_Mountain Minstrel_, containing his productions in Gaelic and English.
Two years later two volumes appeared, one entirely in Gaelic, styled
_Clarsach nam Beann_, the other in English under the old title. A third
edition of the Gaelic collection was published in 1886. Maccoll acted
for many years as clerk in the custom-house at Liverpool, and afterwards
he filled a similar post at Kingston, Canada. He has been called the
Moore of Highland song. His spirit is altogether modern, and his poems
are much nearer the Lowland type than those of the older bards. Among
his best-known pieces are _Bas Mairi_ and _Duanag Ghaoil_. We can do no
more than mention the names of John Maclachlan of Rahoy (1804-1874),
James Munro (1794-1870), well known as a grammarian, Dugald Macphail (b.
1818), Mrs Mary Macpherson, Angus Macdonald (1804-1874), Mrs Mary
Mackellar (1834-1890) and Neil Macleod (b. 1843), author of a popular
collection _Clarsach an Doire_ (1st ed., 1883; 3rd ed., 1904). Neil
Macleod is also the writer of the popular song _An Gleann's an robh mi
og_. Others whom we cannot mention here are known as the authors of one
or more songs which have become popular. It is natural to compare the
state of affairs at the beginning of the 20th century with that
obtaining in 1800. In the dawn of the 19th century every district in the
Highlands had its native poet, whilst a century later not a single
Gaelic bard of known reputation existed anywhere within its borders. It
is only too evident that the new writers prefer English to Gaelic as a
medium of literature, partly because they know it better, but also
because in it they appeal to a far wider public.
Prose writers.
It will have been observed that we have said nothing about prose works
written in Gaelic. Original Gaelic prose is conspicuous by its absence.
The first printed work is the translation of Knox's _Liturgy_ by Bishop
Carsewell, published in 1567 (reprinted in 1873). Calvin's Catechism is
said to have been issued in 1631. The Psalms and Shorter Catechism
appeared in 1659, while two other psalters saw the light before the end
of the century, one by Kirke (1684), the other issued by the Synod of
Argyll (1694). The language of all these publications may, however, be
termed Irish. Apart from reprints of the catechism and psalter, the only
other Gaelic matter which appeared in print before 1750 were Kirke's
Irish version of the Bible in Roman type with a vocabulary (1690), and
the _Vocabulary_ by Alexander Macdonald (1741). But from the middle of
the 18th century translations of the works of English religious writers
streamed from the various presses. Alleine, Baxter, Boston, Bunyan,
Doddridge and Jonathan Edwards were all prime favourites, and their
works have gone through many editions. Apart from a well-meant but
wholly inadequate version of Schiller's _Tell_, the only non-religious
work which can be termed literature existing in a Gaelic translation is
a portion of the _Arabian Nights_, though fragments of other classics
such as Lamb's _Tales from Shakespeare_ have appeared in magazines. The
one-sided character of Gaelic literature, in addition to exercising a
baneful influence on Highland character, has in the long run of
necessity proved adverse to the vitality of the language. The best
standard of Gaelic is by common consent the language of the Scriptures.
James Stewart of Killin's version of the New Testament, published by the
Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, was followed by a
translation of the Old Testament in four parts (1783-1801), the work of
John Stewart of Luss and John Smith of Campbeltown. The whole Gaelic
Bible saw the light in 1807. But the revision of 1826 is regarded as
standard. The translators and revisers had no norm to follow, and it is
difficult to say how far they were influenced by Irish tradition. Much
in the Gaelic version seems to savour of Irish idiom, and it is a pity
that some competent scholar such as Henderson has not investigated the
question. Of original prose works we can mention two. The one is a
_History of the Forty-five (Eachdraidh a' Phrionnsa, no Bliadhna
Thearlaich_), published in 1845 by John Mackenzie, the compiler of the
_Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ (1806-1848). A second edition of this book
appeared in 1906. The other is the more famous _Caraid nan Gaedheal_, by
Norman Macleod (new edition, 1899). This volume consists mainly of a
number of dialogues dealing with various departments of Highland life,
which were originally contributed to various magazines from 1829 to
1848. Macleod's style is racy and elegant, and his work is deservedly
popular.
In conclusion we must take notice of the more important collections of
folklore. Gaelic, like Irish, is extraordinarily rich in proverbs. The
first collection of Gaelic proverbs was published in 1785 by Donald
Macintosh. This work was supplemented and enlarged in 1881 by Alexander
Nicolson, whose book contains no fewer than 3900 short sayings. A large
collection of Gaelic folk-tales was gleaned and published by J.F.
Campbell under the title of _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_ (4
vols., Edinburgh, 1862). Alexander Carmichael published a version of the
_Tain Bo Calnge_, called _Toirioc na Taine_, which he collected in South
Uist (_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, ii. 25-42),
also the story of Deirdre and the sons of Uisneach in prose taken down
in Barra (ib. xiii. 241-257). Five volumes of popular stories, collected
by J.G. Campbell, D. MacInnes, J. Macdougall and Lord Archibald
Campbell, have been published (1889-1895) by Nutt under the title _Waifs
and Strays of Celtic Tradition_. These collections contain a good deal
of matter pertaining to the old heroic cycles. Seven ballads dealing
with the Ulster cycle were collected and printed by Hector Maclean under
the title _Ultonian Hero-ballads_ (Glasgow, 1892). Macpherson gave a
fillip to collectors of Ossianic lore, and a number of MSS. going back
to his time are deposited in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. J.F.
Campbell spent twelve years searching for variants, and his results were
published in his _Leabhar na Feinne_ (1872). This volume contains 54,000
lines of heroic verse. The Edinburgh MSS. were transcribed by Alexander
Cameron, and published after his death by Alexander Macbain and John
Kennedy in his _Reliquiae Celticae_. This work is therefore a complete
corpus of Gaelic heroic verse. Finally the charms and incantations of
the Highlands have been collected and published by Alexander Carmichael
in two sumptuous volumes under the title _Carmina Gadelica_ (1900).
AUTHORITIES.--The standard work is Magnus Maclean, _The Literature of
the Highlands_ (London, 1904); see also various chapters in the same
writer's _Literature of the Celts_ (London, 1902); L.C. Stern, _Die
Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp. 98-109; Nigel MacNeill, _The
Literature of the Highlanders_ (Inverness, 1892); J.S. Blackie, _The
Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands_ (Edinburgh, 1876);
P.T. Pattison, _Gaelic Bards_ (1890); L. Macbean, _Songs and Hymns of
the Scottish Highlands_ (Edinburgh, 1888); John Mackenzie, _Sarobair
nam Bard Gaelach_, or _The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ (new ed.,
Edinburgh, 1904); A. Sinclair, _An t-Oranaiche_ (Glasgow, 1879); _The
Book of Deer_, edited for the Spalding Club by Dr Stuart (1869);
Alexander Macbain, _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_,
vols. xi. and xii.; _The Book of the Dean of Lismore_, edited by T.
Maclauchlan (1862); Alexander Cameron, _Reliquiae Celticae_
(Inverness, 1892-1894); John Reid, _Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica_
(Glasgow, 1832); _Catalogue_ of the books in the Celtic department,
Aberdeen University Library (1897); George Henderson, _Leabhar nan
Gleann_ (Inverness, 1898); D. Mackinnon, "The Fernaig MS." in
_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, xi. 311-339; J.S.
Smart, _James Macpherson, An Episode in Literature_ (London, 1905);
L.C. Stern, "Die Ossianischen Heldenlieder" in _Zeitschrift fur
vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte_ (1895), translated by J.L.
Robertson in _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, xxv.
257-325; G. Dottin, _Revue de synthese historique_, viii. 79-91; M.C.
Macleod, _Modern Gaelic Bards_ (Stirling, 1908). (E. C. Q.)
III. MANX LITERATURE.--The literary remains written in the Manx language
are much slighter than those of any other Celtic dialect. With one small
exception nothing pertaining to the saga literature of Ireland has been
preserved. The little we possess naturally falls under two
heads--original compositions and translations. With regard to the first
category we must give the place of honour to an Ossianic poem contained
in a MS. in the British Museum (written in 1789), which relates how
Orree, Finn's enemy, was tormented by the women of Finn's household when
the latter was away hunting, how he in revenge set fire to the house,
and how Finn had him torn in pieces by wild horses. Most of the existing
literature of native origin, however, consists of ballads and carols,
locally called carvels. These used to be sung on Christmas eve in the
churches, the members of the congregation each bringing a candle. Any
one who pleased could get up and sing one. These carvels deal largely
with the end of the world, the judgment-day and the horrors of hell.
About eighty of them were published under the title of _Carvalyn
Gailckagh_ (Douglas, 1891). An attempt is being made by _Yn Cheshaght
Gailckagh_ to revive the _Oiel Voirrey_ (=Irish _Oidhche Fheile
Mhuire_), "the feast of Mary," as the festival used to be called, and
gatherings in the old style have been held in Peel for the last two or
three years. Apart from the carvels there are other ballads in
existence, the most important of which were printed in vol. xvi. of the
_Publications of the Manx Society_. The earliest is an 18th-century song
of Manannan Mac y Lheir, traditionally supposed to have been written in
the 16th century, and which tells of the conversion of the island by St
Patrick. Then comes _Baase Ittiam Dhone_ (The Death of Brown William),
dealing with the death of William Christian, who was shot as a traitor
in 1662. The best-known Manx song is _Mylecharaine_ (=Irish
_Maolchiaran_). It is directed against a man of this name who was the
first to give a dowry to his daughter, the custom having previously been
for the bridegroom to pay money to the father of the bride. Others are
_Ny Kirree fo Sniaghtey_ (The Sheep under the Snow), a song about the
loss of the Douglas herring fleet in 1787 (reprinted at Douglas, 1872),
and _O Vannin Veg Veen_ (Dear little Mona). A further ballad was taken
down by J. Strachan and is published in the _Zeitschrift fur celtische
Philologie_, i. 79. In 1760 Joseph Bridson wrote a "Short Account of the
Isle of Man" in Manx (_Coontey Ghiare jeh Ellan Vannin ayns Gailck_),
which was reprinted in vol. xx. of the _Publications of the Manx
Society_. The translated literature is almost entirely of a religious
character. Jenner prints a list of twenty-three volumes in his article
referred to below, but we can only here mention the most important. The
first is the translation of the English Prayer-Book by Bishop Phillips,
1610 (published by A.W. Moore, Oxford, 1895). The _Sermons_ of Bishop
Wilson in 3 vols. (1783) are a very rare work, highly important for our
knowledge of Manx prose, and it is to be hoped that _Yn Cheshaght
Gailckagh_ will see their way to reprint it. A translation of parts of
Milton's _Paradise Lost_ (_Pargys Caillit_) by Thomas Christian, 1796,
is reprinted in vol. xx. of the _Publications of the Manx Society_. The
later translation of the Church of England Prayer-Book was printed in
1765 and again in 1777 and 1840. But by far the most important of all is
the translation of the Bible. The energetic Bishop Wilson managed to get
parts of the Scriptures translated and the Gospel of St Matthew was
printed in 1748. Wilson's successor, Bishop Hildesley, completed the
work, and in 1775 the whole Bible appeared. The last reprint of the
Bible appeared in 1819, that of the New Testament in 1810 (?). As a
curiosity it may be mentioned that recently _Aesop's Fables_ have been
translated into the vernacular (Douglas, 1901).
AUTHORITIES.--H. Jenner, "The Manx Language: its Grammar, Literature
and Present State," _Transactions of the London Philological Society_
(1875), pp. 172 ff.; _Publications of the Manx Society_, vols. xvi.,
xx., xxi.; L.C. Stern, _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp.
110-11.
Early MSS.
IV. WELSH LITERATURE.--The oldest documents consist of glosses of the
9th and 10th centuries found in four MSS.--Oxoniensis prior and
posterior, the Cambridge Juvencus and Martianus Capella. These glosses
were published by J. Loth in his _Vocabulaire vieux-breton_ (1884), but
their value is entirely philological. In addition, we possess two short
verses, written in Irish characters, preserved in the Juvencus
Manuscript in the University Library at Cambridge (printed in Skene's
_Four Ancient Books of Wales_). This manuscript is a versification of
the Gospels dating from the 9th century. The value of these two verses
is threefold: they give us, in the first place, a specimen of the Welsh
language at a time when the modern laws of euphony were in a
comparatively elementary stage; secondly, they are of the utmost
importance to the historian tracing the development of Welsh
versification, and, in future research, they must be taken into account
by the historian of modern metres in other languages; and, thirdly, the
similarity of their form and diction to other verses, attributed to
Llywarch Hen, and preserved in a much later orthography, will be a
serious consideration to the higher critic in Welsh literature.
"Black Book of Carmarthen."
"Book of Aneirin."
"Book of Taliessin."
"Red Book of Hergest."
All the prose and verse of the succeeding centuries, that is to say from
the 10th to the beginning of the 14th, is preserved in four important
manuscripts, written during the latter half of the period. The first of
these manuscripts is the _Black Book of Carmarthen_, a small quarto
vellum manuscript of fifty leaves, written in Gothic letters by various
hands during the reign of Henry II. (published in facsimile by
Gwenogvryn Evans, Oxford, 1907). This book belonged originally to the
priory of Black Canons at Carmarthen, from whom it passed to the church
of St David; at the suppression of the monasteries in the reign of Henry
VIII. it was presented by the treasurer of that church to Sir John
Price, one of the king's commissioners, and from him it passed
eventually into the hands of Sir Robert Vaughan, the owner of the famous
Hengwrt collection. It is now among the Peniarth Manuscripts,
undoubtedly the most valuable collection of Welsh manuscripts in the
United Kingdom. The second manuscript is the _Book of Aneirin_, a small
quarto manuscript of nineteen leaves of vellum, written about 1250. It
was at one time in the possession of Sir Thomas Phillips of Middlehill,
and now belongs to the free library of the city of Cardiff. The third is
the _Book of Taliessin_, in the Hengwrt and subsequently in the Peniarth
collection. It is a small quarto manuscript containing thirty-eight
leaves, written in Gothic letters, about the early part of the 14th
century. The fourth manuscript, and in some respects the most important,
is the _Red Book of Hergest_, so called from Hergest Court, one of the
seats of the Vaughans. It is a folio volume of 360 leaves written by
different hands between the beginning of the 14th and the middle of the
15th century. This manuscript, which is the most extensive compilation
of the medieval prose and verse of Wales, is now in the possession of
Jesus College, Oxford, and is kept in the Bodleian Library of that
university. The main body of the poems contained in these four MSS. was
printed by W. F. Skene with a tentative English version in his _Four
Ancient Books of Wales_.
The other Welsh manuscripts, ranging down from the 15th to the 18th
century, are far too numerous to notice, and it is outside the scope of
this article to deal minutely with the original sources of the text of
Welsh writings.
We will now only endeavour to sketch the history of Welsh literature
from these early centuries down to our own times, and to show how the
Celtic people of Wales have developed a literature true to their own
genius, and how that literature stands to this day both a minister to
the culture of the Welsh people and a sure indication of it.