The "Tain."

The Ulster cycle may be regarded as Ireland's most important

contribution to the world's literature. The chief and at the same time

the lengthiest romance in which the heroes of this group figure is the

great epic, the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ or the Cattle-raid of Cooley (Co.

Louth). Here we find ourselves in a world of barbaric splendour, and we

are constantly reminded of the Iliad, though the Irish epic from a

purely literary point of view cannot bear comparison with the work of

Homer. The main actors in the drama are Conchobar, king of Ulster, the

great warrior Cuchulinn (see CUCHULINN), Ailill and Medb, king and queen

of Connaught, and Fergus, Conchobar's predecessor as king of Ulster, now

in exile in Connaught. These persons may or may not have actually lived,

but the Irish annalists and synchronists agree in placing them about the

beginning of the Christian era. And there cannot be any doubt as to the

antiquity of the state of civilization disclosed in this great saga. It

has been repeatedly pointed out that the Irish heroes are equipped and

conduct themselves in the same manner as the Gauls described by the

Greek traveller Posidonius, and Prof. W. Ridgeway has shown recently

that several articles of dress and armour correspond exactly to the La

Tene types of the continent. To mention a few primitive traits among

many--the Irish champions of the _Tain_ still fight in chariots,

war-dogs are employed, whilst the heads of the slain are carried off in

triumph and slung round the necks of the horses. It may also be

mentioned that Emain Macha, Conchobar's residence, is reported by the

annalists to have been destroyed in A.D. 323, and that portions of

Meath, which is stated to have been made into a separate province in the

2nd century A.D., are in the _Tain_ regarded as forming part of Ulster.

Noteworthy is the exalted position occupied by the druid in the Ulster

sagas, showing how little the romances were influenced by Christianity.

No Roman soldier ever set foot in Ireland, and this early epic

literature is of supreme value as a monument of primitive Celtic

civilization. Ireland has always been a pastoral country. In early times

no native coins were in circulation: the land belonged to the tribe.

Consequently a man's property consisted mainly of cattle. Cattle-raids

were an event of daily occurrence, and Sir Walter Scott has made us

familiar with similar expeditions on the part of the Scottish

Highlanders in the 18th century. Hence it is not a matter for surprise

that the theme of the greatest Irish epic is a cattle-raid. At the time

there were two wonderful bulls in Ireland, the Bond or Brown Bull of

Cualnge, and the Findbennach or White-horn, belonging to Medb. These two

animals are of no ordinary nature. Other stories represent them as

having existed under many different forms before they were reborn as

bulls. First they appear as swineherds belonging to the supernatural

people of the _sid_ of fairy mounds; then they are metamorphosed

successively as ravens, warriors, sea-monsters and insects. It was Queen

Medb's ambition to gain possession of the Brown Bull of Cualnge, and for

this purpose she collected the united hosts of Ireland to raid the

province of Ulster and carry him off. Medb chooses the season when she

knows the Ulstermen are all incapacitated as the result of a curse laid

upon them by a fairy woman. Cuchulinn alone is exempt from this

debility.

The story is divided into a number of sections, and has been summarized

by Miss Hull as follows:--(1) the prologue, relating, in the form of a

night dialogue between Ailill and Medb, the dispute between them which

brought about the raid; (2) the collecting of Medb's hosts and the

preliminary movements of the army, during which period she first became

aware of the presence and powers of Cuchulinn. Her inquiry of Fergus as

to who this formidable foe is leads to a long section called (3)

Cuchulinn's boy-deeds, in which Fergus relates the remarkable prodigies

of Cuchulinn's youth, and warns Medb that, though the hero is but a

beardless youth of seventeen, he will be more than a match for all her

forces. (4) A long series of single combats, of which the first part of

the tale is made up; they are at first gay and bombastic in character,

but become more grave as they proceed, and culminate in the combat of

Cuchulinn with his old companion, Fer Diad. This section contains the

account of Cuchulinn's "distortion" or frenzy, which always occurred

before any great output of the hero's energy, and of the rout of the

hosts of Medb which followed it. (5) The general awakening of the

warriors of Ulster from their lethargy, and their gathering by septs

upon the Hill of Slane, clan by clan being described as it comes up in

order. (6) The final Battle of Gairech and Ilgairech, followed (7) by

the rout of Medb's army and (8) the tragic death of the bulls.

The text of the _Tain_ has come down to us as a whole or in part in

nearly a score of MSS., most of which, however, are modern. The most

important MSS. containing the story are LU., LL. and YBL. Of these LU.

and YBL. are substantially the same, whilst LL. contains a longer and

fuller text later in both style and language. LL. attempts to give a

complete and consistent narrative in more polished form. In ancient

times there were doubtless other versions now lost, but from the middle

of the 12th century the scribes seem to have taken few liberties with

the text, whilst previously the _filid_ were constantly transforming the

material and adding fresh matter. The YBL. version preserves a number of

forms as old as the O. Ir. glosses (i.e. 8th century or earlier), and a

curious story contained in LL. seems to point to the fact that the

_Tain_ was first committed to writing in the 7th century. Senchan

Torpeist, who lived in the first half of the 7th century and succeeded

Dallan Forgaill as chief _ollam_ of Ireland, summoned the _filid_ to

inquire which of them knew the _Tain_ in its entirety. As they were only

familiar with fragments he despatched them to discover it. One of them

seated himself at the grave of Fergus MacRoig, who appeared to him in a

mist and dictated the whole story to him in three days and three nights.

At this point it will be well to say a few words about the form of the

_Tain_. The old Irish epic is invariably in prose with poems of varying

length interspersed. The narrative and descriptive portions are in prose

and are frequently followed by a brief epitome in verse. Dialogues,

eulogies and laments also appear in metrical form. The oldest poems,

termed rhetoric, which are best represented in LU., seem to be

declamatory passages in rhythmical prose, not unlike the poetical

passages in the Old Testament, and the original _Tain_ may have

consisted of such rhetorics bound together with short connecting pieces

of prose. At a later date poems were inserted in the metres of the

_filid_ (particularly the quatrain of four heptasyllabic lines) which

Thurneysen and Windisch consider to have been developed out of medieval

Latin verse. When in course of time the old rhetorics became

unintelligible they were often omitted altogether or new poems

substituted. Thus the LL. version contains a larger number of poems than

the LU.-YBL. copy, whilst LU. preserves a number of rhetorics which do

not appear in the later MS. The prose portions in LU. are very poor from

a literary point of view. These passages are abrupt, condensed and

frequently obscure, with no striving after literary effect such as we

find in LL. The form in which many episodes are cast is not unlike a

mnemonic, leaving the story-teller to fill in the details himself. In

the 11th century certain portions of the theme possessing great human

interest were vastly extended, new poems were added, and in this manner

such episodes come to form sagas complete in themselves. The most

notable instance of this is the "Fight with Fer Diad," which is not

contained in LU. The genesis of the _Tain_ may thus be briefly

summarized as follows. The story was first committed to writing in the

7th or 8th century, after which it was worked up by the _filid_.

Extended versions existing in the 10th or 11th century form the basis of

the copies we now possess.

Though the sagas of the Ulster cycle are eminently Irish and pagan in

character and origin, it cannot be denied that traces of foreign

influence are to be observed. A number of Latin and Norse loan-words

occur in them, and there can be little doubt that the monkish scribes

consciously thrust the supernatural element into the background.

However, although figures of Vikings are unmistakable in a few cases,

and in one story Cuchulinn is made to fight with Hercules, such foreign

elements can easily be detected in the older tales. They only affect

minor details, and do not influence the body of the romances.

From what we have already said it will be plain that the Irish epic is

in a fluid state. The _Tain_ is of interest in the history of literature

as representing the preliminary stage through which the great verse

epics of other nations have had to pass, but its value as a work of art

is limited by its form. We must now say a few words about the character

and style of these romances. As already stated, the atmosphere is

frankly pagan and barbaric, with none of that courtly element which we

find in the Arthurian epics. The two features which strike one most

forcibly in the medieval Irish romances are dramatic force and humour.

The unexpected and weird is always happening, the effect of which is

considerably heightened by the grim nature of the actors. In particular

the dialogues are remarkably brilliant and clever, and it is a matter

for surprise that this gifted race never developed a drama of its own.

This is doubtless partly due to the political conditions of the island.

And, moreover, we are constantly struck by the lack of sustained effort

which prevented the _filid_ from producing great epics in verse.

Dramatic material is abundantly present in the old epics, but it has

never been utilized. As one might expect from the vernacular literature

of Ireland, these romances are pervaded by a keen sense of humour. We

feel that the story-teller is continually expecting a laugh and he

exaggerates in true Irish fashion, so that the stories are full of

extravagantly grotesque passages. In the later LL. version we notice a

tendency to linger over pathetic situations, but this is unknown in the

earlier stage. Perhaps the most serious defect of all Irish literary

products is the lack of any sense of proportion, which naturally goes

hand in hand with the love of the grotesque. Far too much attention is

paid to trivial incidents and minute descriptions, however valuable the

latter may be to the antiquarian, to the detriment of the artistic

effect. Further, the story-teller does not know when to stop. He goes

meandering on long after the main portion of the story is finished, with

the result that Irish romances are apt to end in a most uninteresting

anticlimax. Finally we are wearied with a constant repetition of the

same epithets and similes, and with turgid descriptions; even the

grotesque exaggerations pall when we find them to be stereotyped. But

the early epics do not offend our sense of propriety in expression to

the same extent as the later Finn cycle.

The _Tain Bo Cualnge_ formed a kind of nucleus round which a number of

other tales clustered. A number of these are called _remscela_ or

introductory stories to the _Tain_. Such are the "Revealing of the Tain"

(already mentioned), the "Debility of the Ultonians" (giving the story

of the curse), "The Cattle-Driving of Regamon, Dartaid and Flidais,"

"_Tain bo Regamna_," "The Cattle-Driving of Fraech," "The Dispute of the

Swineherds," telling the previous history of the Bulls, "The Capture of

the Fairy Mound," "The Dream of Mac oc," the "Adventures of Nera," the

"Wooing of Ferb." Other stories form a kind of continuation of the

_Tain_. Thus the "Battle of Rosnaree" ("_Cath Ruis na Rig_") relates how

Conchobar, as a result of the loss of the Bull, sends an army against

the kings of Leinster and Tara, and would have been routed but for the

prowess of Cuchulinn. The "Great Rout of the Plain of Murthemne" and

"Cuchulinn's Death" tell how the hero's downfall is compassed by a

monstrous brood of ill-shapen beings whose father and brothers had been

slain by him during the _Tain_. He finally meets with his end at the

hands of Lugaid, son of Curoi mac Daire (the central hero of a Munster

cycle which has not come down to us), and Erc, king of Tara. We are also

told of the terrible vengeance taken on the murderers by Conall Cernach.

Other stories deal with the "Conception of Conchobar," the "Conception

of Cuchulinn," "The Glories of Conchobar's Reign," with an account of

how he acquired the Throne from Fergus, "The Wooing of Emer and the

Hero's Education in Scotland under Scathach," "The Siege of Howth,"

"Bricriu's Feast and the Exile of the Sons of Doel Dermait," "The Battle

of the Boyne" (_Eriu_, vol. ii.), "The Deaths of Ailill, Medb and Conall

Cernach," "Destruction of Bruden Da Choca," "The Tragical Death of

Conlaech at the hands of Cuchulinn his father," "The Deaths of Goll and

Garbh," "The Sickbed of Cuchulinn," in which the hero is lured away for

a time into the invisible land by a fairy, Fand, wife of Manandan, "The

Intoxication of the Ultonians," telling of a wild raid by night across

the entire extent of the island from Dun-da-Benn near Coleraine to the

fort of Curoi MacDaire at Temair-Luachra in Kerry, "The Death of

Conchobar," "The Phantom Chariot of Cuchulinn," in which the hero is

brought up from the grave to witness before St Patrick and King Loigaire

to the truth of the Christian doctrine.

Four other stories in connexion with the Ulster cycle remain to be

mentioned. The first is "_Scel mucci Maic Datho_" ("The Story of

MacDatho's Pig"). Various writers of antiquity inform us that at the

feasts of the Gauls the champion received the best portion of meat,

which frequently led to brawls. In this savage but picturesque Irish

story we find the Ulstermen vaunting their achievements against the

Connaughtmen, until at last the contest lies between Conall Cernach and

Cet MacMagach. Nowhere, perhaps, is the dramatic element better brought

out.

Apart from the _Tain_ the greatest and at the same time the longest saga

in which Cuchulinn figures is _Fled Bricrend_ (Bricriu's Feast). Bricriu

is the mischief-maker among the Ulstermen, and he conceives the idea of

building a banqueting hall in order to invite Conchobar and his nobles

to a feast. After much hesitation they consent. Bricriu in turn incites

the three chief heroes, Cuchulinn, Conall Cernach and Loigaire Buadach,

to claim the champion's portion. He does the same thing with the spouses

of the three warriors, who declaim in obscure verse the achievements and

excellences of their several husbands in a passage entitled the "Women's

War of Words." Loosely attached to this story follows a wild series of

adventures in which the powers of the three champions are tested,

Cuchulinn always proving his superiority. In order to decide the

dispute, visits are paid to Medb at Rath Cruachan and to Curoi in Kerry,

and the story ends with the "beheading incident," which occurs in the

romance of "Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight." _Fled Bricrend_ presents

a number of textual difficulties. The text of the oldest MS. (LU.) shows

signs of contamination, and several versions of the story seem to have

been current.

But the story of the Ulster cycle which is better known than any other,

is the story of the "Tragical Death of the Sons of Usnech, or the Life

and Death of Deirdre," one of the "Three Sorrows of Story-telling." This

is the only tale of the group which has survived in the minds of the

common people down to the present day. It is foretold of Deirdre, a

girl-child of great beauty, that she will be the cause of great

misfortunes, but Conchobar, having lost his wife, determines to have her

brought up in solitude and marry her himself. However, the maiden

chances to see a noble youth named Naisi, one of the three sons of

Usnech, and persuades him to carry her off to Scotland, where they live

for many years. At length they are induced to return after several of

the most prominent Ulster warriors have gone bail for their safety. But

Conchobar resorts to treachery, and the three sons of Usnech are slain,

whilst the account of Deirdre's end varies. The oldest version of the

story is found in LL., and the characters are as rugged and

unsophisticated as those of the _Tain_. But in the later versions the

savage features are toned down.

Before passing on, we must mention several old stories which are

independent of the Ulster cycle, but which deal with events which are

represented as having taken place before the Christian era. Few of the

old romances deal directly with what we may call Irish mythology. The

"Battle of Moytura" tells of the tremendous struggle between the Tuatha

De Danann and their enemies, the Fomorian pirates. Connected with the

events of this saga is the story of the "Tragic Deaths of the Sons of

Tuirenn," which, though mentioned in Cormac's glossary, is not found in

any MS. older than the 18th century. The three sons of Tuirenn have

slain Cian, father of Lug Lamfhada, who lays upon them a huge eric-fine.

They go through terrific ordeals and accomplish their task, but return

home to die. This is the second of the "Three Sorrows of Story-telling."

An old story dealing with Tuatha De Danann personages, but having a

certain bearing on the Cuchulinn cycle, is the "Courtship of Etain,"

who, though of supernatural (_sid_) birth, is wedded to Eochaid Airem, a

mortal king. In her previous existence she was the wife of the

supernatural personage Midir of Bri-leith, who wins back Etain from her

mortal husband in a game of chess and carries her off to his fairy

mound.

For sake of completeness we may add the titles of two other well-known

stories here. The one is the "Story of Baile the Sweet-spoken," which

tells of the deaths of two lovers for grief at the false tidings of each

other's death. The other is the "Fate of the Children of Lir," the third

of the "Three Sorrows of Story-telling," which is only known in a modern

dress. It relates how the four daughters of Lir (father of the sea-god

Manandan and the original of Shakespeare's Lear) were changed into swans

by a cruel stepmother, and how, after 900 years of wandering on the

ocean, they at length regain their human form through the

instrumentality of St Mochaomhog.

A large number of sagas, which claim to be founded on historical events,

present a great similarity to the tales of the Ulster cycle. Most of

them are mentioned in the old catalogues. We can only name the more

important here. The "Destruction of Dind-Rig and Exile of Labraid

Loingsech" relates how the kingdom of Leinster was snatched by one

brother from another in the 6th century B.C., and how the son of the

murdered prince with the aid of a British force sacked Dind-Rig, the

fortress of the usurper. The story of the visit of the pigmies to the

court of Fergus MacLeite, king of Ulster in the 2nd century B.C., is

only contained in a 15th-century MS. This tale is commonly stated to

have given Swift the idea of his _Gulliver's Travels to Lilliput_.

"_Caithreim Chonghail Claringnigh_," which only occurs in a modernized

17th-century version, deals with a revolution in the province of Ulster,

supposed to have taken place before the Christian era.

The most important Old Irish saga after the _Tain_ is beyond doubt the

_Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel_, contained in LU. It deals with

events in the reign of the High-King Conaire Mor, who is said by the

annalists to have been slain in 43 B.C. after a reign of seventy years.

Conaire, who was a descendant of the Etain mentioned above, was a just

ruler, and had banished among other lawless persons his own five foster

brothers. These latter devoted themselves to piracy and made common

cause with one Ingcel, a son of the king of Britain, who had been

outlawed by his father. The high-king was returning from Co. Clare when

he found the whole of Meath in flames. He turned aside into Leinster and

made for Da Derga's hostel. The pirates perceive this, and Ingcel is

sent to spy out the hostel and discover the size of Conaire's force.

This gives the story-teller a chance for one of those lengthy minute

descriptions of persons in which his soul delighted. This catalogue

occupies one-half of the whole story. The pirates make their attack, and

the king and most of his followers are butchered.

We can do no more than enumerate the titles of other historical tales:

The "Destruction of the Hostel of MacDareo," describing the insurrection

of the Aithech-Tuatha (1st century A.D.), "The Expulsion of the Deisi"

and the "Battle of Mag Lemna" (2nd century A.D.), "Battle of Mag

Mucrime" (A.D. 195 or A.D. 218), "Siege of Drom Damgaire" (3rd century),

"Adventures of the Sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, father of Niall

Noigiallach" (4th century), "Death of Crimthann" (reigned 366-378),

"Death of Dathi" (d. 428), "Death of Murchertach, son of Erc," and

"Death of Diarmait, son of Cerball" (6th century) "Wooing of Becfola,

who became the wife of Diarmait, son of Aed Slane" (reigned 657-664),

"Battle of Mag Rath" (637), "Battle of Carn Conaill" (c. 648), "Death of

Maelfothartaig MacRonain" (7th century), who was a kind of Irish

Hippolytus, "Battle of Allen" (722).

It will be well to deal here with another class of story in its various

stages of development. We have seen that in the older romances there is

a close connexion between mortals and supernatural beings. The latter

are represented as either inhabiting the _sid_ mounds or as dwelling in

islands out in the ocean, which are pictured as abodes of bliss and

variously called _Mag Mell_ (Plain of Delight), _Tir na n-Oc_ (Land of

Youth) and _Tir Tairngiri_ (Land of Promise). The visits of mortals to

the Irish Elysium form the subject of three romances which we must now

examine. The whole question has been exhaustively dealt with by Kuno

Meyer and Alfred Nutt in the _Voyage of Bran_ (London, 1895-1897).

Condla Caem, son of Conn Cetchathach, was one day seated by his father

on the hill of Usnech, when he saw a lady in strange attire approaching

invisible to all but himself. She describes herself, as coming from the

"land of the living," a place of eternal delight, and invites the prince

to return with her. Conn invokes the assistance of his druid to drive

away the strange visitor, who in parting throws an apple to Condla. The

young man partakes of no food save his apple, which does not diminish,

and he is consumed with longing. At the end of a month the fairy-maiden

again makes her appearance. Condla can hold out no longer. He jumps into

the damsel's skiff of glass. They sail away and were seen no more. This

is the _Imram_ or Adventure of Condla Caem, the oldest text of which is

found in LU. A similar story is entitled _Imram Brain maic Febail_,

contained in YBL. and Rawlinson B 512 (the end also occurs in LU.), only

with this difference that Bran, with twenty-seven companions, puts to

sea to discover _tir na mban_ (the land of maidens). After spending some

time there, one of his comrades is seized with home-sickness. They

return, and the home-sick man, on being set ashore, immediately turns to

dust. A later story preserved in BB., YBL. and the Book of Fermoy, tells

of the visit of Cormac, grandson of Conn Cetchathach, to Tir Tairngiri.

These themes are also worked into tales belonging to the Ossianic cycle,

and Finn and Ossian in later times become the typical warriors who

achieve the quest of the Land of Youth. The romances we have just

mentioned are almost entirely pagan in character, but a kindred class of

story shows us how the old ideas were transformed under the influence of

Christianity. A typical instance is _Imram curaig Maelduin_, contained

in YBL. and in part in LU. Maelduin constructs a boat and sets out on a

voyage with a large company to discover the murderer of his father. This

forms the framework of the story. Numerous islands in the ocean are

visited, each containing some great marvel. _Imram ua Corra_ (Book of

Fermoy) and _Imram Snedgusa ocus Mac Riagla_ (YBL.) contain the same

plan, but in this case the voyage is undertaken as an expiation for

crime. In the 11th century an unknown monkish writer compiled the

_Navigatio S. Brendani_, drawing the material for his episodes from

_Imram curaig Maelduin._ This famous work only appears in an Irish dress

in a confused and disconnected "Life of St Brendan" in the Book of

Lismore. The same MS. contains yet another voyage, the "Adventure of

Tadg MacCein."

Fenian or Ossianic cycle.

We must now turn our attention to the later heroic cycle, commonly

called the Fenian or Ossianic. Unfortunately the origin of the stories

and poems connected with Finn and his warriors is obscure, and scholars

are by no means agreed over the question (see FINN MAC COOL). In the

earlier cycle the figures and the age in which they live are sharply

drawn, and we can have no hesitation in assuming that the _Tain_

represents in the main the state of Ireland at the beginning of the

Christian era. Finn and his companions are nebulous personages, and,

although it is difficult to discover the actual starting-point of the

legend, from the 12th century onwards we are able to trace the

development of the saga with some degree of certainty. A remarkably

small amount of space is devoted to this cycle in the oldest MSS. Of the

134 pages contained in LU. only half-a-dozen deal with Finn as against

58 with Cuchulinn. In LL. the figures are, Ulster cycle 100 pp.,

Ossianic 25 pp., the latter being mainly made up of short ballads,

whilst in 15th-century MSS., such as the Book of Lismore and Laud 610,

the proportion is overwhelmingly in favour of the later group. Again in

Urard MacCoisi's list of tales, which seems to go back to the 10th

century, only two appear to deal with subjects taken from the Ossianic

cycle. In the first instance Finn seems to have been a poet, and as such

he appears in the 12th-century MSS., LU. and LL. Thus the subjects of

the Ossianic cycle in the earliest MSS. appear in a new dress. The

vehicle of the older epic is prose, but the later cycle is clothed in

ballad form. Of these ballads about a dozen, apart from poems in the

_Dindsenchus_ are preserved in LU., LL. and YBL., and none of these

poems are probably much older than the 11th century. In the commentary

to the _Amra_ of Columbkille a beautiful poem on winter is attributed to

Finn. At the same time we do find a few prose tales, e.g. "_Fotha catha_

_Cnucha_" in LU., describing the death of Cumall, Finn's father, and in

LL. and Rawlinson B 502, part of which Zimmer assigns to the 7th

century, we have the first story in which Finn actually occurs. But it

is remarkable that in no case do tales belonging to the Finn cycle

contain any of the old rhetorics which occur in the oldest of the Ulster

romances. Already in LL., by the side of Finn, Ossian, Cailte and Fergus

Finnbel are represented as poets, and the strain of lament over the

glories of the past, so characteristic a feature of the later

developments of the legend, is already sounded. Hence by the 12th

century the stories of the Fiann and their destruction at the battle of

Gabra must have been fully developed, and from this time onward they

appear gradually to have supplanted the Cuchulinn cycle in popular

favour. Several reasons have been assigned for this. In the first place

until the time of Brian Boroime the high-kings of Ireland had almost

without exception been drawn from Ulster, and consequently the northern

traditions were pre-eminent. This exclusiveness on the part of the north

was largely broken down by the Viking invasions, and during the 11th

century the leading poets were attached to the court of Brian and his

descendants. In this manner an opportunity was afforded to the

Leinster-Munster Fenian cycle to develop into a national saga. John

MacNeill has pointed out Finn's connexion with a Firbolg tribe, and

maintains that the Fenian cycle was the property of the subject race.

Zimmer has attempted to prove with great plausibility that Finn and his

warriors were transformed on the model of the Ulster heroes. Thus one

text deals with the boyish exploits of Finn in the manner of Cuchulinn's

youthful feats recorded in the _Tain_. And it is possible that the

_Siaburcharpat Conchulainn_ gave rise to the idea of connecting Ossian

and Cailte with Patrick. As Cuchulinn was opposed to the whole of

Ireland in the _Tain_, so Finn, representing Ireland, is pitted against

the whole world in the _Battle of Ventry_.

We have already stated that the form assumed by the stories connected

with Finn in the earliest MSS. is that of the ballad, and this continued

down to the 18th century. But here again the Irish poets showed

themselves incapable of rising from the ballad to the true epic in

verse, and in the 14th century we find the prose narrative of the older

cycle interspersed with verse again appearing. The oldest composition of

any length which deals with the Ossianic legends is the _Acallam na

Senorach_ or Colloquy of the Old Men, which is mainly preserved in three

15th-century MSS., the Book of Lismore, Laud 610 and Rawlinson 487. In

this text we have the framework common to so much of the later Ossianic

literature. Ossian and Cailte are represented as surviving the battle of

Gabra and as living on until the time of Patrick. The two warriors get

on the best of terms with the saint, and Cailte is his constant

companion on his journey through Ireland. Patrick inquires the

significance of the names of the places they visit, and Cailte recounts

his reminiscences. In this manner we are given nearly a hundred stories,

the subjects of some of which occur in the short ballads in older MSS.,

whilst others appear later as independent tales. A careful comparison of

the _Acallam_ with the Cuchulinn stories, whether from the point of view

of civilization or language or art, discloses that the first lengthy

composition of the Ossianic cycle is but a feeble imitation of the older

group. All that had become unintelligible in the Ulster stories, owing

to their primitive character, is omitted, and in return for that the

reminiscences of the Viking age play a very prominent part.

With the 16th century we reach the later treatment of the legend in the

_Battle of Ventry_. In this tedious story Daire, the king of the whole

world, comes to invade Ireland with all his forces, but is repulsed by

Finn and his heroes. The _Battle of Ventry_, like all later stories, is

a regular medley of incidents taken from the writers of antiquity and

European medieval romance. The inflated style to which the Irishman is

so prone is here seen at its worst, and we are treated to a nauseous

heaping up of epithet upon epithet, e.g. we sometimes find as many as

twenty-seven adjectives accompanying a substantive running in

alliterating sets of three.

Of greater literary interest are the later ballads connected with Finn

and Ossian. The latter has become the typical mouthpiece of the departed

glory of the Fenian warriors, and Nutt has pointed out that there is a

striking difference in spirit between the _Acallam na Senorach_ and the

15th-16th century poems. In the latter Ossian is represented as a

"pagan, defiant and reckless, full of contempt and scorn for the howling

clerics and their churlish low-bred deity," whilst Patrick is a sour and

stupid fanatic, harping with wearisome monotony on the damnation of Finn

and all his comrades. The earliest collection of these later Ossianic

poems is that made in Scotland by James Macgregor, dean of Lismore,

early in the 16th century. Another miscellany is the _Duanaire Finn_, a

MS. in the Franciscan monastery in Dublin, compiled from earlier MSS. in

1627. This "song-book," which has been edited for the Irish Texts

Society by John MacNeill (part i. 1908), contains no less than

sixty-nine Ossianic ballads, amounting in all to some ten thousand

lines. Other Ossianic poems of dates varying from the 15th to the 18th

century have been published in the _Transactions of the Ossianic

Society_ (Dublin, 1854-1861), including amongst others "The Battle of

Gabhra," "Lamentation of Oisin (Ossian) after the Fenians," "Dialogue

between Oisin and Patrick," "The Battle of Cnoc an Air," and "The Chase

of Sliabh Guilleann." These ballads still survive amongst the peasants

at the present day. We further possess a number of prose romances, which

in their present form date from the 16th to the 18th century; e.g. _The

Pursuit of Diarmaid and Grainne_, _Finn and Grainne_, _Death of Finn_,

_The Clown in the Drab Coat_, _Pursuit of the Gilla Decair_, _The

Enchanted Fort of the Quicken-tree_, _The Enchanted Cave of Ceis

Corann_, _The Feast in the House of Conan_.

At the present moment it is impossible to give a complete survey of

the other branches of medieval Irish literature. The attention of

scholars has been largely devoted to the publication of the sagas to

the neglect of other portions of the wide field. An excellent survey

of the subject is given by K. Meyer, _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i.

xi. 1. pp. 78-95 (Berlin-Leipzig, 1909).

Nature poetry.

We have already pointed out that as early as the Old Irish period

nameless Irish poets were singing the praises of nature in a strain

which sounds to our ears peculiarly modern. At the present time it is

difficult to say how much of what is really poetic in Irish literature

has come down to us. Our MSS. preserve whole reams of the learned

productions of the _filid_ which were so much prized in medieval

Ireland, but it is, generally speaking, quite an accident if any of the

delightful little lyrics entered in the margins or on blank spaces in

the MSS. have remained. The prose romances sometimes contain beautiful

snatches of verse, such as the descriptions of Mag Mell in _Serglige

Conculaind_, _Tochmarc Etaine_, and the _Voyage of Bran_ or the _Lament

of Cuchulinn over Fer Diad_. Mention has also been made of the exquisite

nature poems ascribed to Finn, which have been collected into a pamphlet

with English renderings by Kuno Meyer (under the title of "Four Old

Irish Songs of Summer and Winter," London, 1903). The same writer points

out that the ancient treatise on Irish prosody published by Thurneysen

contains no less than 340 quotations from poems, very few of which have

been preserved in their entirety. To Meyer we also owe editions of two

charming little texts which sufficiently illustrate the lyrical powers

of the early poets. The one is a poem referred to the 10th century in

the form of a colloquy between Guaire of Aidne and his brother Marban.

Guaire inquires of his brother why he prefers to live in a hut in the

forest, keeping the herds and swine of the king, to dwelling in the

king's palace. The question calls forth so wonderful a description of

the delights of nature as viewed from a shieling that Guaire exclaims,

"I would give my glorious kingship to be in thy company, Marban" (_King

and Hermit_, ed. with trans. by K. Meyer, London, 1901). Another text

full of passionate emotion and tender regret ascribed to the 9th century

tells of the parting of a young poet and poetess, who after plighting

their troth are separated for ever (_Liadain and Curithir_, ed. with

trans. by K. Meyer, London, 1902). In the _Old Woman of Beare_ (publ. K.

Meyer in _Otia Merseiana_) an old hetaira laments her departed youth,

comparing her life to the ebbing of the tide (10th century).

Professional literature.

We must now step aside from pure literature and turn our attention to

the various productions of the professional learned classes of Ireland

during the middle ages. The range of subjects coming under this heading

is a very wide one, comprising history, genealogies, hagiology,

topography, grammar, lexicography and metre, law and medicine. It will

perhaps be as well first of all to deal with the learned _filid_ whose

works have been preserved. Irish tradition preserves the names of a

number of antiquarian poets of prehistoric or early medieval times, such

as Amergin, one of the Milesian band of invaders; Moran Roigne, son of

Ugaine Mor, Adna and his successor Ferceirtne, Torna (c. 400), tutor to

Niall Noigiallach, Dallan Forgaill, Senchan Torpeist, and Cennfaelad (d.

678), but the poems attributed to these writers are of much later date.

We can only enumerate the chief of those whose works have been

preserved. To Maelmura (d. 887) is attributed a poem on the Milesian

migrations. About the same time lived Flanagan, son of Cellach, who

wrote a long composition on the deaths of the kings of Ireland,

preserved in YBL., and Flann MacLonain (d. 918), called by the Four

Masters the Virgil of Ireland, eight of whose poems have survived,

containing in all about 1000 lines. Cormacan, son of Maelbrigde (d.

946), composed a vigorous poem on the circuit of Ireland performed by

Muirchertach, son of Niall Glundub. A poet whose poems are most valuable

from an antiquarian point of view is Cinaed Ua h-Artacain (d. 975). Some

800 lines of his have been preserved in LL. and elsewhere. Contemporary

with him is Eochaid O'Flainn (d. c. 1003), whose chief work is a long

chronological poem giving a list of the kings of Ulster from Cimbaeth

down to the destruction of Emain in 331. A little later comes MacLiac

(d. 1016), who celebrated in verse the glories of the reign of Brian

Boroime. His best-known work is a lament over Kincora, the palace of

Brian. Contemporary with MacLiac is MacGilla Coim Urard MacCoisi (d.

1023). To Cuan ua Lothchain (d. 1024), chief poet in the reign of

Maelsheachlainn II., are ascribed poems on the antiquities of Tara.

Sixteen hundred lines of his have come down to us. A writer who enjoyed

a tremendous reputation in medieval Ireland was Flann Mainstrech (d.

1056), who in spite of his being a layman was head of the monastery

school at Monasterboice. He is the author of no fewer than 2000 lines in

LL., and many other poems of his are contained in other MSS. His

best-known work is a _Book of Synchronisms_ of the kings of Ireland and

those of the ancient world. We have also poems from his pen on the

monarchs descended from Niall Noigiallach and on the chronology of the

high-kings and provincial kings from the time of Loigaire. Flann's

successor, Gilla Coemgin (d. 1072), gives us a chronological poem

dealing with the annals of the world down to A.D. 1014. He also is the

author of the Irish version of Nennius which contains substantial

additions dealing with early Ireland. Minor writers of the same nature

whose works have come down to us are Colman O'Sesnain (d. 1050), Neide

ua Maelchonaire (d. 1136), Gilla na noem ua Duinn (d. 1160), Gilla

Moduda O'Cassidy (1143). In the 13th century these historical poems

become very rare. In the next century we again find antiquarian poets of

whom the best-known is John O'Dugan (d. 1372). His most valuable

composition treats of the tribes of the northern half of Ireland at the

time of the northern conquest. This work, containing 1660 lines in all

in debide metre, was completed by his younger contemporary Gilla na naem

O'Huidhrin. From the beginning of the 13th century the official poets

began to give way to the hereditary bards and families of scribes. Among

the chief bardic families we may mention the O'Dalys, the MacWards, the

O'Higinns, the MacBrodys and the MacDaires. We must here content

ourselves with glancing at a few of the more prominent names. Muiredach

Albanach (c. 1214-1240), whose real name was O'Daly, has left behind in

addition to the religious verses a considerable number of poems in

praise of various patrons in Ireland and Scotland. He is said by Skene

to be the first of the Macvurrichs, bards to Macdonald of Clanranald. A

number of his compositions are preserved in the Book of the Dean of

Lismore. Gilla Brigde MacConmidhe was a contemporary of the

last-mentioned bard. He wrote a number of poems in praise of the

O'Neills and O'Donnells. We may next mention the name of an abbot of

Boyle, Donnchad Mor O'Dalaig (d. 1244), a writer whose extant poems are

usually of a religious character. Many of them are addressed to the

Virgin. Most of them appear in late MSS., but some few are preserved in

the Book of the Hy Maine. Donnchad Mor is said to be the greatest

religious poet that Ireland has produced. Many other members of the

O'Daly family belonging to the 14th and 15th centuries have left poems

behind them, but we cannot mention them here. Angus O'Daly, who lived in

the second half of the 16th century, was employed by the English to

satirize the chief Gaelic families in Ireland. Two members of the

O'Higinn family deserve mention, Tadg mor O'Higinn (d. 1315). and Tadg

Og O'Higinn (d. 1448), a voluminous writer who eulogized the O'Neills,

O'Connors and O'Kellys. Tadg Og also composed a number of religious

poems, which enjoyed enormous popularity in both Ireland and Scotland. A

_duanaire_ was inserted into YBL., which contains some forty poems by

him.

Closely connected with the compositions of the official poets are the

works of native topography. Most of the sagas contain a number of

explanations of the origins of place-names. The _Dindsenchus_ is a

compilation of such etymologies. But its chief value consists in the

amount of legendary matter it contains, adduced in support of the

etymologies given. The _Dindsenchus_ has come down to us in various

forms both in prose and in verse. Irish tradition ascribes it to Amergin

MacAmalgaid, who lived in the 6th century, but if the kernel of the work

goes back as early as this it must have been altered considerably in the

course of the centuries. Both prose and verse forms of it are contained

in LL. A kindred compilation is the _Coir Anmann_ (Fitness of Names),

which does for personal names what the _Dindsenchus_ does for

geographical names. We further possess a versified compendium of

geography for educational purposes dealing with the three continents,

from the pen of Airbertach MacCosse-dobrain (10th century).

History.

No people on the face of the globe have ever been more keenly interested

in the past of their native country than the Irish. This will already

have been patent from the compositions of the _filid_, and now we may

describe briefly the historical works in prose which have come down to

us. The latter may be divided into two classes, (1) works containing a

connected narrative, (2) annals. Closely allied to these are the sagas

dealing with the high-kings. Even in the serious historical compositions

we often find the manner of the sagas imitated, e.g. the supernatural

plays a prominent part, and we are treated to the same exaggerated

descriptions. The earliest of these histories is the wars of the Gael

and Gall (_Cogad Gaedel re Gallaib_), which gives an account of the

Viking invasions of Ireland, the career of Brian Boroime and the

overthrow of the Norsemen at the battle of Clontarf. This composition, a

portion of which is contained in LL., is often supposed to be in part

the work of MacLiac, and it is plain from internal evidence that it must

have been written by an eye-witness of the battle, or from materials

supplied by a person actually present. Numerous shorter tracts dealing

with the same period exist, but as yet few of them have been published.

_Caithreim Cellachain Caisil_ treats of the conflicts between the

Vikings and the Irish, and the _Leabhar Oiris_ gives an account of Irish

history from 979 to 1027. Compilations relating to local history are the

Book of Fenagh and the Book of Munster. Another ancient work also partly

preserved in LL. is the Book of Invasions (_Leabhar Gabhala_). This

deals with the five prehistoric invasions of Ireland (see IRELAND:

_Early History_) and the legendary history of the Milesians. The most

complete copy of the _Leabhar Gabhala_ which has been preserved was

compiled by Michael O'Clery about 1630. The _Boroma_ or History of the

Leinster Tribute contained in LL. belongs rather to romance. Another

history is the _Triumphs of Turlough O'Brian_, written about the year

1459 by John MacCraith, a Munster historian (edited by S.H. O'Grady,

Camb. Press). This inflated composition is an important source of

information on Munster history from the landing of the Normans to the

middle of the 14th century. We also possess several documents in Irish

concerning the doings of the O'Neills and O'Donnells at the close of the

16th century. A life of Hugh Roe O'Donnell, by Lughaidh O'Clery, has

been published, and a contemporary history of the _Flight of the Earls_,

by Tadhg O'Cianan, was being prepared in 1908. But the most celebrated

Irish historian is certainly Geoffrey Keating (c. 1570-1646), who is at

the same time the greatest master of Irish prose. Keating was a Munster

priest educated in France, who drew down upon himself the displeasure of

the English authorities and had to go into hiding. He travelled up and

down Ireland examining all the ancient records, and compiled a history

of Ireland down to the Norman Conquest. His work, entitled _Forus Feasa

ar Eirinn_, was never published, but it circulated from end to end of

Ireland in MS. Keating's history is anything but critical. Its value for

the scholar lies in the fact that the author had access to many

important sources of information now lost, and has preserved accounts of

events independent of and differing from those contained in the Four

Masters. In addition to the history and a number of poems, Keating is

also the author of two theological works in Irish, the Defence of the

Mass (_Eochairsgiath an Aifrinn_) and a collection of sermons entitled

the Three Shafts of Death (_Tri biorghaoithe an Bhais_), which are

models of Irish prose.

From the writers of historical narrative we turn to the annalists, the

most important sources of information with regard to Irish history. We

have already mentioned the _Synchronisms_ of Flann Mainistrech. Apart

from this work the earliest collection of annals which has come down to

us is the compilation by Tigernach O'Braein (d. 1088), abbot of

Clonmacnoise. Tigernach, whose work is partly in Latin, partly in Irish,

states that all Irish history previous to 305 B.C. is uncertain. No

perfect copy is known of this work, but several fragments are in

existence. The _Annals of Innisfallen_ (a monastery on an island in the

Lower Lake of Killarney), which are also in Latin and Irish, were

perhaps compiled about 1215, though they may have begun two centuries

earlier. The invaluable _Annals of Ulster_ were compiled on Belle Isle

on Upper Lough Erne by Cathal Maguire (d. 1498), and afterwards

continued by two different writers down to 1604. This work, which deals

with Irish affairs from A.D. 431, exists in several copies. The _Annals

of Loch Ce_ (near Boyle in Roscommon) were copied in 1588 and deal with

Irish events from 1014 to 1636. The _Annals of Connaught_ run from 1224

to 1562. The _Chronicon Scotorum_, one copy of which was transcribed

about 1650 by the famous antiquary Duald MacFirbis, deals with Irish

affairs down to 1135. The _Annals of Boyle_ extend down to 1253. The

_Annals of Clonmacnoise_, which come down to 1408, only exist in an

English translation made by Connell MacGeoghegan in 1627. The most

important of all these collections is the _Annals of the Four Masters_

(so christened by Colgan), compiled in the Franciscan monastery of

Donegal by Michael, Conary and Cucogry O'Clery and Ferfesa O'Mulconry.

The O'Clerys were for a long period the hereditary ollams to the

O'Donnells. Michael O'Clery (1575-1643), the greatest of the four, was a

lay brother in the order of St Francis, and devoted his whole life to

the history of Ireland. He collected all the historical MSS. he could

find, and was encouraged in his undertaking by Fergal O'Gara, prince of

Coolavin, who paid all expenses. The great work, which was begun in 1632

and finished in 1636, begins with the arrival in Ireland of Ceasair,

granddaughter of Noah, and comes down to 1616. Nearly all the materials

from which O'Clery drew his statements are now lost. O'Clery is also the

author of a catalogue of the kings of Ireland, the genealogies of the

Irish saints, and the Martyrology of Donegal and the Book of Invasions.

Of less interest, but every whit as important, are the lists of

genealogies which occupy a great deal of space in LL., YBL. and BB., and

two Trinity College, Dublin, MSS. (H. 3.18 and H. 2.4). But by far the

most important collection of all is that made by the last great

shanachie Duald MacFirbis, compiled between 1650 and 1666 in the college

of St Nicholas at Galway. The only portions of any considerable length

which have as yet been published deal with two Connaught tribes; viz.

the Hy Fiachrach from Duald mac Firbis and the Hy Maine (O'Kellys), and

a Munster tribe, the Corcalaidhe, both from YBL. Valuable information

with regard to early Irish history is often contained in the prophecies

or, as they are sometimes termed, _Baile_ (_raptures, visions_), a

notable example of which is _Baile in Scail_ (Vision of the Phantom).

Religious literature.

When we turn from secular to religious themes we find that Ireland is

also possessed of a very extensive Christian literature, which is

extremely valuable for the comparative study of medieval literature.

Apart from the martyrologies already mentioned in connexion with Oengus

the Culdee, a number of lives of saints and other ecclesiastical

literature have come down to us. One of the most important documents is

the Tripartite Life of St Patrick, which cannot very well have been

composed before the 10th or 11th century, as it is full of the

extravagant miracles which occur in the later lives of saints. The work

consists of three separate homilies, each complete in itself. A later

version of the Tripartite Life was printed by Colgan in 1647. The

_Leabhar Breac_ contains a quantity of religious tracts, most of which

have been published. R. Atkinson issued a number of them under the title

of _Passions and Homilies from Leabhar Breac_ (Dublin, 1887). These are

not original Irish compilations, but translations from Latin lives of

saints. Nor do they deal with the lives of any Irish saints. Stokes has

published nine lives of Irish saints from the Book of Lismore, including

Patrick, Brigit, Columba, Brendan, Findian (Clonard), Ciaran, Senan,

Findchua and Mochua. They are written in the form of homilies preceded

by short explanations of a text of scripture. These lives also occur in

the _Leabhar Breac_. Other lives of saints have been published by

O'Grady in _Silva Gadelica_. The longest life of St Columba was compiled

in 1536 at the command of Manus O'Donnell. This tedious work is a

specimen of hagiology at its worst. The _Leabhar Breac_ further contains

a number of legends, such as those on the childhood of Christ, and

scattered through many MSS. are short anecdotes of saints which are very

instructive.

But the most interesting Irish religious text is the _Vision of Adamnan_

(preserved in LU.), which Stokes assigns to the 11th century. The soul

of Adamnan is represented as leaving his body for a space to visit

heaven and hell under the conduct of an angel. The whole treatment of

the theme challenges comparison with Dante's great poem, but the Irish

composition contains many ideas peculiar to the land of its origin.

Later specimens of this kind of literature tend to develop into

grotesque buffoonery. We may mention the _Vision of Fursae_, the _Vision

of Tundale_ (Tnugdal), published by V. Friedel and K. Meyer (Paris,

1907), Laisren's _Vision of Hell_ and the _Vision of Merlino_. A further

vision attributed to Adamnan contains a stern denunciation of the Irish

of the 11th century. Another form of religious composition, which was

very popular in medieval Ireland, was the prophecy in verse, but

scarcely any specimens have as yet been published. Kuno Meyer edited a

tract on the Psalter in his _Hibernica Minora_ from a 15th century

Oxford MS., but he holds that the text goes back to 750. A number of

collections of monastic rules both in prose and verse have been edited

in _Eriu_, and the MSS. contain numerous prayers, litanies and religious

poems.

In LU. are preserved two sermons, _Scela na esergi_ (Tidings of

Resurrection) and _Scela lai bratha_ (Tidings of Doomsday); and a number

of other homilies have been published, such as the "Two Sorrows of the

Kingdom of Heaven," "The Penance of Adam," the "Ever-new Tongue," and

one on "Mortals' Sins." All the homilies contained in LB. have been

published by R. Atkinson in his _Legends and Homilies from Leabhar

Breac_ (Dublin, 1887), and E. Hogan, _The Irish Nennius_ (Dublin, 1895).

The popular "Debate of the Body and the Soul" appears in Ireland in the

form of a homily. A collection of maxims and a short moral treatise have

been published by K. Meyer.

For the religious literature in general the reader may refer to

O'Curry, _Lectures on the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History_ (pp.

339-434), and G. Dottin, "Notes bibliographiques sur l'ancienne

litterature chretienne de l'Irlande," in _Revue d'histoire et de

litterature religieuses_, v. 162-167. See also _Revue celtique_, xi.

391-404. ib. xv. 79-91.

Here we may perhaps mention an extraordinary production entitled

_Aisling Meic Conglinne_, the Vision of Mac Conglinne, found in LB. and

ascribed to the twelfth century (ed. K. Meyer, London, 1892). Cathal

MacFinguine, king of Munster (d. 737), was possessed by a demon of

gluttony and is cured by the recital of a strange vision by a vagrant

scholar named MacConglinne. The composition seems to be intended as a

satire on the monks, and in particular as a travesty of medieval

hagiology. Another famous satire, entitled the Proceedings of the Great

Bardic Institution, holds up the professional bards and their

extortionate methods to ridicule. This curious work contains the story

of how the great epic, the _Tain bo Cualnge_, was recovered (see

_Transactions of the Ossianic Society_, vol. v.).

Gnomic literature.

Collections of pithy sayings in the form of proverbs and maxims must

have been made at a very early period. Not the least remarkable are the

so-called Triads (publ. K. Meyer, Dublin, 1906), which illustrate every

statement with 3 examples. Over 200 such triads were brought together in

the 9th century. There are also two documents attributed to 1st-century

personages, "The Testament of Morann MacMoin to his son Feradach," which

is quoted as early as the 8th century, and "The Instructions of

Cuchulinn to his foster-son Lugaid." K. Meyer has published _Tecosca

Cormaic_ or the Precepts of Cormac MacAirt to his son Cairpre (Dublin,

1909). Other collections such as the _Senbriathra Fithail_ still await

publication.

Classical stories.

With that enthusiasm for the classics which is characteristic of the

Irish, it is not strange that we should find medieval versions of some

of the better-known authors of antiquity. It is interesting to note that

only those works are translated that could be utilized by the

professional story-teller. So much so, that in the ancient (10th

century) catalogue of sagas enumerated by Urard MacCoisi we find mention

of _Togail Troi_ and _Scela Alexandir maic Pilip_. We get descriptions

of battle weapons and clothing similar to those occurring in the native

sagas. _Togail Troi_ is taken from the medieval prose version, _Historia

de Excidio Troiae_ of Dares Phrygius. The oldest Irish copy is found in

LL. This version is exceedingly valuable, as it enables us to determine

the meaning of words and formulas in the sagas which are otherwise

obscure. An Irish abstract of the _Odyssey_, following an unknown

source, and part of the story of Theseus have been published by K.

Meyer. _Scela Alexandir_ is preserved in LB. and BB. _Imthechta

Aeniusa_, taken from the _Aeneid_, is contained in BB. A number of MSS.

contain the _Cath Catharda_, a version of books vi. and vii. (?) of

Lucan's _Pharsalia_, which has been published by Wh. Stokes. There is

further at least one MS. containing a version of Statius's _Thebaid_ and

of Heliodorus's _Aethiopica_. Somewhat later, the medieval literature of

western Europe comes to be represented in translations. Thus we have

Irish versions, amongst others of the _Gesta Romanorum_, the _Historia

Brittonum_, the Wars of Charlemagne, the History of the Lombards, Sir

John Maundeville's Travels (trans. by Fingin O'Mahony in 1475), the Book

of Ser Marco Polo (abridged), Guy Earl of Warwick, Bevis of Southampton,

the Quest of the Holy Grail, Octavian, the chronicle of Turpin, Barlaam

and Josaphat, and the story of Fierabras. The Arthurian cycle is

developed in independent fashion in the Adventures of the Eagle Boy and

the Adventures of the Crop-eared Dog. For translation literature see M.

Nettlau, _Revue celtique_, x. pp. 184, 460-461.

Philology.

Hand in hand with the interest of the medieval Irish scholars in the

history of their island goes the cultivation of the native tongue. Owing

to the profound changes produced by the working of the Irish laws of

accent and initial mutation, it is doubtful if any other language lends

itself so well to wild etymological speculation. By the beginning of the

Middle Irish period a good part of the cumbrous Old Irish verb-system

had become obsolete, and texts which were at all faithfully copied had

to be plentifully supplied with glosses. Moreover, if, as is probable,

all the historical and legal lore was in verse, a large part of it must

have been unintelligible except to those who knew the _berla fene_. But

even before this Cormac mac Cuillenain, the bishop-king of Cashel (d.

903), had compiled a glossary of archaic words which are accompanied by

explanations, etymologies, and illustrative passages containing an

amount of invaluable information concerning folk-lore and legendary

history. This glossary has come down to us in various recensions all

considerably later in date than the original work (the oldest copy is in

LB.). Later collections of archaic words are O'Mulconry's Glossary (13th

century), the Lecan Glossary (15th century), which draws principally

from the glosses in the _Liber Hymnorum_, O'Davoren's Glossary (16th

century), drawn principally from the Brehon Laws, a 16th century list of

Latin and Irish names of plants employed in medicine, and O'Clery's

Glossary (published at Louvain, 1643). BB. contains a curious tract on

Ogamic writing. An Irish treatise on grammar, called _Uraicept na

n-eces_, the Poet's Primer, traditionally ascribed to Cennfaelad and

others, is contained in BB. and YBL. It appears to be a kind of medley

of Donatus and the notions of the medieval Irish concerning the origin

of their language. The St Gall glosses on Priscian contain Irish terms

for all the nomenclature of the Latin grammarians, and show how

extensive was the use made of Irish even in this department of learning.

Prosody.

Thurneysen had edited from BB., Laud 610 and a TCD. MS. three treatises

on metric which give an account of the countless metres practised by the

_filid_. It is impossible for us here to enter into the question of

Irish prosody in any great detail. We have seen that there is some

reason for believing that the primitive form of Irish verse was a kind

of rhythmical alliterative prose as contained in the oldest versions of

the sagas. The _filid_ early became acquainted with the metres of the

Latin church hymns, whence rhyme was introduced into Ireland. (This is

the view of Thurneysen and Windisch. Others like Zeuss have maintained

that rhyme was an invention of the Irish.) In any case the _filid_

evolved an intricate system of rhymes for which it is difficult to find

a parallel. The medieval metres are called by the general name of _Dan

Direch_, "Direct Metre." Some of the more general principles were as

follows. The verses are grouped in stanzas of four lines, each stanza

being complete in itself. Each line must contain a fixed number of

syllables, whilst the different metres vary as to the employment of

internal and end rhyme, assonance and alliteration. The Irish elaborated

a peculiar system of consonantal correspondence which counted as rhyme.

The consonants were divided with a considerable degree of phonetic

accuracy into six groups, so that a voiceless stop (c) rhymes with

another voiceless stop (t, p), a voiced stop (b) with another voiced

stop (d, g), and so forth. The commonest form of verse is the four-line

stanza of seven syllables. Such a verse with rhymes _abab_ and

monosyllabic or dissyllabic finals belongs to the class _rannaigecht_. A

similar stanza with _aabb_ rhymes is the basis of the so-called _debide_

(cut in two) metres. A peculiarity of the latter is that the rhyming

word ending the second line must contain at least one syllable more than

the rhyming word which ends the first. Another frequently employed metre

is the _rindard_, consisting of lines of six syllables with dissyllabic

endings. In the metrical treatises examples are given of some 200 odd

metres. The result of the complicated technique evolved in Ireland was

an inclination to sacrifice sense to musical harmony. See K. Meyer, _A

Primer of Irish Metrics_ (Dublin,1909).

Law.

We can conclude this survey of medieval Irish literature by mentioning

briefly two departments of learning to which much attention was paid in

Ireland. These are law and medicine. The so-called Brehon Laws (q.v.)

are represented as having been codified and committed to writing in the

time of St Patrick. There is doubtless some grain of truth in this

statement, as a fillip may have been given to this codification by the

publication of the Theodosian Code, which was speedily followed by the

codes of the various Teutonic tribes. The Brehon Laws were no doubt

originally transmitted from teacher to pupil in the form of verse, and

traces of this are to be found in the texts which have been preserved.

But the Laws as we have them do not go back to the 5th century. In our

texts isolated phrases or portions of phrases are given with a

commentary, and this commentary is further explained by some later

commentators. Kuno Meyer has pointed out that in the commentary to one

text, _Crith Gablach_, there are linguistic forms which must go back to

the 8th century, and Arbois de Jubainville, who apart from Sir Henry

Maine is the only scholar who has dealt with the subject, has attempted

to prove from internal evidence that part of the oldest tract, the one

on _Athgabail_ or Seizure, cannot, in its present form, be later than

the close of the 6th century. Cormac's Glossary contains a number of

quotations from the commentary to _Senchus Mor_, which would therefore

seem to have been in existence about 900. The Irish Laws were

transcribed by O'Donovan and O'Curry, and have been published with a

faulty text and translation in five volumes by the government

commissioners originally appointed in 1852. A number of other law tracts

must have existed in early times, and several which have been preserved

are still unedited. Kuno Meyer has published the _Cain Adamnain_ or

Adamnan's Law from an Oxford MS. Adamnan succeeded in getting a law

passed which forbade women to go into battle. An interesting but

little-investigated text in prose and verse called _Leabhar na gCeart_

or Book of Rights was edited with an English translation by O'Donovan

(1847). It deals with the rights to tribute of the high-king and the

various provincial kings. The text of the Book of Rights is preserved in

YBL. and BB. In its present form it shows distinct traces of the

influence of the Viking invasions, and cannot go back much beyond the

year 1000. At one time it was incorporated in a larger work now lost,

the Psalter of Cashel. We also possess a 9th-century treatise on Sunday

observance (_Cain Domnaig_).

Medicine.

The medical profession in Ireland was hereditary in a number of

families, such as the O'Lees (from Irish _liaig_, "a leech"), the

O'Hickeys (Irish _icide_, "the healer"), the O'Shiels, the O'Cassidys,

and many others. These families each had their own special leech-books,

some of which are still preserved. In addition to these there are many

others. The medical literature which has come down to us is contained in

MSS. ranging from the 13th to the 18th centuries. The Irish MSS. are

translations from the Latin with the invariable commentary, and they

further contain additions derived from experience. YBL. contains four of

these tracts, and amongst others we may mention the Book of the

O'Hickeys, a translation of the _Lilium Medicinae_ of Bernard Gordon

(written 1303), the Book of the O'Lees (written in 1443), the Book of

the O'Shiels, transcribed in 1657, and the Book of MacAnlega,

transcribed in 1512. Of these texts only two have been published as yet

from MSS. in Edinburgh. O'Curry drew up a MS. catalogue of the medical

MSS. in the Royal Irish Academy, and many more are described in

O'Grady's catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum. Some few MSS.

deal with the subject of astronomy, but up to the present no description

of the texts has been published.

Later Irish literature.

With the steady advance of the English power after 1600 it was only

natural that the school of bardic poets should decline. But at the

beginning of the 17th century for the last time they gave a great

display of their resources. Tadhg MacDaire, the ollam of the earl of

Thomond, composed a poem in elaborate verse exalting the line of Eber

(represented by the reigning families of Munster) at the expense of the

line of Eremon (represented by the reigning families of the other

provinces). In a body of verse attributed to Torna Eces (c. 400), but

obviously of more recent origin, the Eremonian, Niall Noigiallach, is

lavishly praised, and Tadhg's attack takes the form of a refutation of

Torna's pretensions. The challenge was immediately taken up by Lughaidh

O'Clery. The recriminations of the two bards extend to nearly 3000 lines

of verse, and naturally drew down the attention of the whole Irish world

of letters. Soon all the hereditary poets were engaged in the conflict,

which raged for many years, and the verses of both parties were

collected into a volume of about 7000 lines in _debide_ metre, known as

the _Contention of the Poets_. Amongst the prominent poets of the period

may be mentioned Tadhg Dall O'Higinn (d. shortly before 1617) and

Eochaidh O'Hussey, who between them have left behind nearly 7000 lines

in the classical metres, Bonaventura O'Hussey and Ferfesa O'Cainti. The

intricate classical measures gradually broke down. Dr Douglas Hyde gives

it as his opinion that the exceedingly numerous metres known in Middle

Irish had become restricted to a couple of dozen, and these nearly all

heptasyllabic. Nevertheless they continued to be employed till into the

18th century. However, during the 17th century we find a new school

arising with new principles and new methods. These consisted in (1) the

adoption of vowel rhyme in place of consonantal rhyme, (2) the adoption

of a certain number of accents in each line in place of a certain number

of syllables. Thus, according to what we have just said, the accented

syllables in a line with four accents in one line will fall on, say, the

following vowels e, u, u, e, and the line rhyming with it will have

the same sounds in the same or a different sequence. (For English

imitations see Hyde, _A Literary History of Ireland_, pp. 548 ff.)

The consequences of the changed political conditions were of the

greatest importance. The bards, having lost their patrons in the general

upheaval, threw behind them the old classical metres and turned to the

general public. At the same time they had to abandon the countless

chevilles and other characteristics of the old bardic language, which

were only understood by the privileged few. But to compensate for this

much more freedom of expression and naturalness were possible for the

first time in Irish verse. The new metres made their appearance in

Ireland about 1600, and the learned Keating himself was one of the first

to discard the ancient prosody. During the latter half of the 17th

century and throughout the 18th century the body of verse produced in

Ireland voices the sorrows and aspirations of the whole nation, and the

literary activity in almost every county was correspondingly great. It

is only during the last few years that the works of any of the poets of

this period have been published. Pierce Ferriter was the last chieftain

who held out against Cromwell's army, and he was hanged in 1653. His

poems have been edited by P.S. Dinneen (Dublin, 1903). The bard of the

Williamite wars was David O'Bruadar (d. 1697-1698). From this period

date three powerful satires on the state of affairs in Munster, and in

particular on the Cromwellian settlers. They are of a coarse and savage

nature, for which reason they have never been printed. Their titles are

the Parliament of Clan Thomas, the Adventures of Clan Thomas, and the

Adventures of Tadhg Dubh (by Egan O'Rahilly). A description of the

parliament of Clan Thomas is given by Stern in the _Zeitschr. f. celt.

Phil._ v. pp. 541 ff.

A little later we come across a band of Jacobite poets. The gallant

figure of Charles Edward was so popular with Irish bards that a

conventional stereotyped form arose in which the poet represents himself

as wandering in a wood and meeting a beautiful lady. We are treated to a

full description of all her charms, and the poet compares her to all the

fair heroines of antiquity. But she replies that she is none of these.

She is Erin seeking refuge from the insults of foreign suitors and

looking for her mate. The idea of such poems is a beautiful one, but

they become tedious when one has read a dozen of them only to find that

there are scores of others in exactly the same strain. Besides the

Visions (_Aisling_), as they are termed, there are several noteworthy

war-songs, whilst other poems are valuable as giving a picture of the

state of the country at the time. We can do no more than mention the

names of John O'Neaghtan (d. c. 1720; edition of his poems by A.

O'Farrelly, Dublin, 1908), Egan O'Rahilly, who flourished between 1700

and 1726; Tadhg O'Naghten, Andrew MacCurtin (d. 1479), Hugh MacCurtin,

author of a grammar and part editor of O'Begley's _Dictionary_; John

Clarach MacDonnell (1691-1754), John O'Tuomy (d. 1775); Andrew Magrath,

Tadhg Gaolach O'Sullivan (d. c. 1795), author of a well-known volume of

religious poems, a valuable source of information for the Munster

dialect; and Owen Roe O'Sullivan (d. 1784), the cleverest of the

Jacobite poets (his verses and _bons mots_ are still well known in

Munster). These poets hailed mostly from the south, and it is chiefly

the works of the Munster poets that have been preserved. Ulster and

Connaught also produced a number of writers, but very little beyond the

mere names has been preserved except in the case of the Connaught poet

Raftery (1784-1835), whose compositions have been rescued by Hyde

(_Abhrain an Reachtuire_, Dublin, 1903). Torlough O'Carolan (1670-1738),

"the last of the bards," was really a musician. Having become blind he

was educated as a harper and won great fame. His poems, which were

composed to suit his music, are mostly addressed to patrons or fair

ladies. His celebrated "Ode to Whisky" is one of the finest bacchanalian

songs in any language. Michael Comyn (b. c. 1688) is well known as the

author of a version based upon older matter of "Ossian in the Land of

Youth." This appears to be the only bit of deliberate creation in the

later Ossianic literature. Comyn also wrote a prose story called "The

Adventures of Torlogh, son of Starn, and the Adventures of his Three

Sons." Brian MacGiolla Meidhre or Merriman (d. 1808) is the author of

perhaps the cleverest sustained poem in the Irish language. His work,

which is entitled the _Midnight Court_, contains about 1000 lines with

four rhymes in each line. It describes a vision in which Aoibhill, queen

of the Munster fairies, is holding a court. A handsome girl defends

herself against an old man, and complains to the queen that in spite of

all her charms she is in danger of dying unwed. Merriman's poem, which

was written in 1781, has recently been edited with a German translation

by L.C. Stern (_Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, v. 193-415).

Donough MacConmara (Macnamara) (d. c. 1814) is best known as the author

of a famous lyric "The Fair Hills of Holy Ireland," but he also wrote a

mock epic describing his voyage to America and how the ship was chased

by a French cruiser. He is carried off in a dream by the queen of the

Munster fairies to Elysium, where, instead of Charon, he finds Conan,

the Thersites among the Fenians, acting as ferryman (_Eachtra Ghiolla an

Amarain, or The Adventures of a Luckless Fellow_, edited by T. Flannery,

Dublin, 1901).

During the first half of the 19th century nothing new was produced of a

high order, though the peasants retained their love for poetry and

continued to copy the MSS. in their possession. Then came the famine and

the consequent drain of population which gave Irish the death-blow as a

living literary force. The modern movement has been dealt with above in

the section on Irish language.

It remains for us to glance briefly at the later religious literature

and the collections of folk-tales. The translation of the New Testament

made by William O'Donnell and published in 1603 was first undertaken in

the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who sent over to Dublin the first fount of

Irish type. Bishop Bedell, one of the very few Protestant clergymen who

undertook to learn Irish, translated the remainder of the Scriptures

with the help of a couple of natives, but the whole Bible was not

translated and published until 1686. This version naturally never became

popular, but it is a valuable source of information with regard to

Modern Irish. It is perhaps of interest to note that the earliest

specimen of printing in Irish is a ballad on Doomsday (Dublin, 1571). A

version of the English Prayer Book was published in 1716.

The scholars of the various Irish colleges on the continent were

particularly active in the production of manuals of devotion mainly

translated from Latin. We can mention only a few of the more important.

_Sgathan an chrabhaidh_ (The Mirror of the Pious), published in 1626 by

Florence Conry; _Sgathan sacramente na h-Aithrighe_ (Mirror of the

Sacrament of Penance), by Hugh MacCathmhaoil, published at Louvain,

1618; _The Book of Christian Doctrine_, by Theobald Stapleton (Brussels,

1639); _Parrthas an Anma, or The Paradise of the Soul_, by Anthony

Gernon (Louvain, 1645); a book on _Miracles_, by Richard MacGilla Cody

(1667); _Lochran na gcreidmheach, or Lucerna Fidelium_, by Francis

O'Mulloy (Louvain, 1676); O'Donlevy's _Catechism_ (1742). O'Gallagher,

bishop of Raphoe, published a collection of sermons which went through

twenty editions and are still known at the present day. He is one of the

earliest writers in whom the characteristics of the speech of the north

are noticeable. The only Catholic version of any considerable portion of

the Scriptures up till quite recently was the translation of the

Pentateuch by Archbishop MacHale, who also turned six books of the

_Iliad_ into Irish. It is only within recent years that attention has

been paid to the collection of folk-songs and tales in Irish, although

as long ago as 1825 Crofton Croker published three volumes of folk-lore

in the south of Ireland which attracted the attention of Sir Walter

Scott. Nor do the classic stories of Carleton fall within our province.

We may mention among others Patrick O'Leary's _Sgeuluidheacht Chuige

Mumhan_ (Dublin, 1895); Hyde's _Beside the Fire_ (London, 1890) and _An

Sgeuluidhe Gaedhealach_, reprinted from vol. x. of the _Annales de

Bretagne_ (London, 1901); Daniel O'Fogharta's _Siamsa an Gheimhridh_

(Dublin, 1892); J. Lloyd's _Sgealaidhe Oirghiall_ (Dublin, 1905); and

Larminie's _West Irish Folk-Tales_ (London, 1893). The most important

collections of folk-songs are _Love-Songs of Connaught_ (Dublin, 1893)

and _Religious Songs of Connaught_ (Dublin, 1906), both published by

Hyde. The most extensive collection of proverbs is the one entitled

_Seanfhocla Uladh_ by Henry Morris (Dublin, 1907). See also T.

O'Donoghue, _Sean-fhocail na Mumhan_ (Dublin, 1902).

AUTHORITIES.--In the absence of a comprehensive history, the best

manual is Eleanor Hull's _Text Book of Irish Literature_ (2 parts,

London, 1904-1908; vol. 2 contains a bibliographical appendix). D.

Hyde's larger _History of Irish Literature_ (London, 1899) is only

trustworthy as regards the more _modern_ period. A full bibliography

of all published material is contained in G. Dottin's article "La

litterature gaelique de l'Irlande" (_Revue de synthese historique_,

vol. iii. pp. 1 ff.). Dottin's article has been translated into

English and supplemented by Joseph Dunn under the title of _The Gaelic

Literature of Ireland_ (Washington, 1906, privately printed). The

following are important works:--W. Stokes and J. Strachan, _Thesaurus

Palaeohibernicus_ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1901-1903); J.H. Bernard and R.

Atkinson, _Liber Hymnorum_ (London, 1895); E. O'Curry, _Lectures on

the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History_ (Dublin, 1873) and

_Lectures on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_ (3 vols.,

Dublin, 1873); P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (2

vols., London, 1903); E. O'Reilly, _Irish Writers_ (Dublin, 1820);

S.H. O'Grady, _Catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum_ (London,

1901); H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Introduction a l'etude de la

litterature celtique_ (Paris, 1883), _Essai d'un catalogue de la

litterature epique de l'Irlande_ (Paris, 1883), _L'Epopee celtique en

Irlande_ (Paris, 1892), _La Civilisation des Celtes et celle de

l'epopee homerique_ (Paris, 1899); E. Windisch, _Tain Bo Cualnge_, ed.

with an introd. and German trans. (Leipzig, 1905); L. Winifred

Faraday, _The Cattle-Raid of Cualnge_ (London, 1904); the Irish text

according to LU. and YBL. has been published as a supplement to

_Eriu_; Eleanor Hull, _The Cuchulinn-saga_ (London, 1899); W.

Ridgeway, "The Date of the First Shaping of the Cuchulinn Cycle,"

_Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol. ii. (London, 1907); A.

Nutt, _Cuchulin, the Irish Achilles_ (London, 1899); H. Zimmer,

"Keltische Beitrage" in _Zeitschrift f. deutsches Altertum_, vols. 32,

33 and 35, and "Uber den compilatorischen Charakter der irischen

Sagentexte in sogenannten Lebor na hUidre," Kuhn's _Zeitschr._ xxviii.

pp. 417-689. We cannot here enumerate the numerous heroic texts which

have been edited. For texts published before 1883 see d'Arbois's

_Catalogue_, and the same writer gives a complete list in _Revue

Celtique_, vol. xxiv. pp. 237 ff. The series of _Irische Texte_, vols.

i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1880-1901), by E. Windisch (vols. ii.-iv. in

conjunction with W. Stokes), contains a number of important texts.

Others, more particularly those belonging to the Ossianic cycle, are

to be found in S.H. O'Grady's _Silva Gadelica_ (2 vols. London, 1892).

See also R. Thurneysen, _Sagen aus dem alten Irland_ (Berlin, 1901);

P.W. Joyce, _Old Celtic Romances_ (London[2], 1901).

For the Ossianic cycle see H. Zimmer, "Keltische Beitrage III." in

vol. 35 of the _Zeitschr. f. deutsches Altertum_, also _Gottinger

Gelehrte Anzeigen_, 1887, pp. 153-199; A. Nutt, _Ossian and the

Ossianic Literature_ (London, 1899); L.C. Stern, "Die ossianischen

Heldenlieder," in _Zeitschr. f. vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte_

for 1895, trans. by J.L. Robertson in _Transactions of the Inverness

Gaelic Society_, vol. xxii.; J. MacNeill, _Duanaire Finn_ (London,

1908); _Book of the Dean of Lismore_, ed. by T. Maclauchlan

(Edinburgh, 1862), and in vol. i. of A. Cameron's _Reliquiae Celticae_

(Edinburgh, 1892); _Transactions of the Ossianic Society_ (6 vols.,

Dublin, 1854-1861); Miss Brooke, _Reliques of Ancient Irish Poetry_

(Dublin, 1789).

Keating's _History_ was translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1866).

The first part was edited with Eng. trans. by W. Halliday

(Dublin,1811) and the whole work in 3 vols. for the Irish Texts

Society by D. Comyn and P. Dinneen (London, 1901-1908). Comparatively

few specimens have been published of the older bards. Several from a

Copenhagen MS. were printed by Stern in the _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._

vol. ii.; J. Hardiman, _Irish Minstrelsy_ (2 vols., Dublin, 1831);

J.C. Mangan, _The Poets and Poetry of Munster_ (Dublin^4, no date); G.

Sigerson, _The Bards of the Gael and Gall_ (Dublin, 1906). Editions of

the poems of Ferriter, Geoffrey O'Donoghue, O'Rahilly, John O'Tuomy,

Andrew Magrath, John Claragh MacDonnell, Tadhg Gaolach and Owen Roe

O'Sullivan by Dinneen, Gaelic League, Dublin, and Irish Texts Society,

London, 1900-1903. (E. C. Q.)

II. SCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATURE.--It is not until after the Forty-five

that we find any great manifestation of originality in the literature of

the Scottish Highlands. The reasons for this are not far to seek. Just

as the dialects of Low German in the middle ages were overshadowed by

the more brilliant literary dialect of the south, so Scotch Gaelic was

from the outset seriously handicapped by the great activity of the

professional literary class in Ireland. We may say that down to the

beginning of the 18th century the literary language of the Highlands was

the Gaelic of Ireland. During the dark days of the penal laws and with

the extinction of the men of letters and their patrons in Ireland, an

opportunity was given to the native Scottish muse to develop her powers.

Another potent factor also made itself felt. After Culloden the causes

of the clan feuds and animosities of the past were removed. The

Highlands, perhaps for the first time in history, formed a compact whole

and settled down to peace and quietude. A remarkable outburst of

literary activity ensued, and the latter half of the 18th century is the

period which Scottish writers love to call the golden age of Gaelic

poetry. But before we attempt to deal with this period in detail, we

must examine the scanty literary products of Gaelic Scotland prior to

the 18th century.

"Book of Deer."

The earliest document containing Gaelic matter which Scotland can claim

is the _Book of Deer_, now preserved in the Cambridge University

Library. This MS. contains portions of the Gospels in Latin written in

an Irish hand with illuminations of the well-known Irish type. At the

end there occurs a colophon in Irish which is certainly as old as the

9th century. Inserted in the margins and blank spaces are later notes

and memoranda partly in Latin, partly in Gaelic. The Gaelic entries were

probably made between 1000 and 1150. They relate to grants of land and

other privileges made from time to time to the monastery of Deer

(Aberdeenshire). The most interesting portion deals with the legend of

Deer and its traditional foundation by St Columba. The language of these

entries shows a striking departure from the traditional orthography

employed in contemporary Irish documents. The Advocates' Library in

Edinburgh contains a number of MSS. probably written in Scotland between

1400 and 1600, but with one exception the language is Irish.

"Book of the Dean of Lismore."

The solitary exception just mentioned is the famous codex known as the

_Book of the Dean of Lismore_. The pieces contained in this volume are

written in the crabbed current Roman hand of the period, and the

orthography is phonetic, both of which facts render the deciphering of

this valuable MS. a task of supreme difficulty. The contents of this

quarto volume of 311 pages are almost entirely verse compositions

collected and written down by Sir James Macgregor, dean of Lismore in

Argyllshire, and his brother Duncan, between the years 1512 and 1526. A

disproportionate amount of space is allotted to the compositions of

well-known Irish bards such as Donnchadh Mor O'Daly (d. 1244),

Muiredhach Albanach (c. 1224), Tadhg Og O'Higgin (d. 1448), Diarmaid

O'Hiffernan, Torna O'Mulconry (d. 1468). But native bards are also

represented. We can mention Allan Mac Rorie, Gillie Calum Mac an Ollav,

John of Knoydart, who celebrates the murder of the young lord of the

isles by his Irish harper in 1490, Finlay MacNab, and Duncan Macgregor,

the transcriber of the greater part of the volume. The poems of the

last-mentioned writer are in praise of the Macgregors. A few other poems

are by Scottish authors such as Campbell, Knight of Glenorchy (d. 1513),

the earl of Argyll and Countess Isabella. A number consist of satires on

women. These Scottish writers are still under the influence of Irish

metric, and regularly employ the four-lined stanza. They do not appear

to adhere to the stricter Irish measures, but delight rather in the

freer forms going by the name of _oglachas_. The Irish rules for

alliteration and rhyme are not rigidly observed.

The linguistic peculiarities of the Dean's Book await investigation, but

among the pieces which represent the Scottish vernacular of the day are

the _Ossianic Ballads_. These, twenty-eight in number, extend to upwards

of 2500 lines, and form by far the most important part of the

collection. Thus the Dean's Book was compiled a full hundred years

before the earliest similar collection of heroic ballads was made in

Ireland. In Scotland the term Ossianic is used loosely of both the

Ulster and the Fenian cycles, and it may be as well to state that three

of the pieces in the volume deal with Fraoch, Conlaoch and the Bloody

Rout of Conall Cearnach. It is interesting to note that nine of the

poems are directly attributed to Ossian, two to Ferghus File, one to

Caoilte Mac Ronan, and one to Conall Cearnach, whilst others are

ascribed to Allan MacRorie, Gillie Calum Mac an Ollav and Caoch

O'Cluain, who are otherwise unknown. The Dean's Book was first

transcribed by Ewen MacLachlan in 1813. Thomas MacLauchlan published the

text of the Ossianic ballads with modern Gaelic and English renderings

in 1862. In the same volume W.F. Skene gave a useful description of the

MS. and its contents. Alexander Cameron revised the text of the portion

printed by MacLauchlan, and his amended text is printed in his

_Reliquiae Celticae_, vol. i. (See also L.C. Stern, _Zeitschr. f. celt.

Phil._ i. 294-326.)

"Book of Fernaig."

Between the Book of the Dean and the Forty-five we find another great

gap, which is only bridged over by a collection which presents many

points of resemblance to Macgregor's compilation. The _Book of Fernaig_,

which is also written in a kind of phonetic script, was compiled by

Duncan Macrae of Inverinate between 1688 and 1693. The MS. contains

about 4200 lines of verse of different dates and by different authors.

The contents of the collection are mainly political and religious, with

a few poems which are termed didactic. As in the Dean's Book love-songs

and drinking-songs are conspicuously absent, whilst the religious poetry

forms about one-half of the contents. In state politics the authors are

Jacobite, and in church politics Episcopalian. The Ossianic literature

is represented by 36 lines. There are a number of poems by 16th-century

writers, among whom is Bishop Carsewell. Mackinnon has pointed out that

the language of the _Book of Fernaig_ corresponds exactly to the dialect

spoken in Kintail at the present day. The text of the _Book of Fernaig_

is printed in its entirety in vol. ii. of Cameron's _Reliquiae

Celticae_, and many of the poems are to be found in standard orthography

in G. Henderson's _Leabhar nan Gleann_. The metres employed in the poems

show the influence of the English system of versification. (See Stern,

_Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ ii. pp. 566 ff.)

"Red and Black Books of Clanranald."

Two other Highland MSS. remain to be noticed. These are the _Red_ and

_Black Books of Clanranald_, which are largely taken up with the

histories of the families of Macdonald and with the achievements of

Montrose, written in the ordinary Irish of the period by the Macvurichs,

hereditary bards to the Clanranald chiefs. The _Red Book_ was obtained

by Macpherson in 1760 from Neil Macvurich, nephew of the last great

bard, and it figured largely in the Ossianic controversy. In addition to

poems in Irish by Neil Macvurich, who died at a great age some time

after 1715, and other bardic matter, the MSS. now contain only three

Ossianic poems, and these are in Irish. During the Ossianic controversy

the _Red Book of Clanranald_ was supposed to contain the originals of

much of Macpherson's famous work; but, on the book coming into the hands

of the enthusiastic Gaels of the closing years of the 18th century, and

on its contents being examined and found wanting, the MS. was tampered

with.

Mary Macleod.

Mackenzie's _Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ contains poems written by a

number of writers who flourished towards the end of the 17th century and

at the beginning of the 18th. These are Mary Macleod, John Macdonald

(Iain Lom), Archibald Macdonald, Dorothy Brown, Cicely Macdonald, Iain

Dubh Iain 'Ic. Ailein (b. c. 1665), the Aosdan Matheson (one of his

poems was rendered in English by Sir Walter Scott under the title of

"Farewell to Mackenzie, High Chief of Kintail"), Hector Maclean (also

known through a translation by Scott called "War-song of Lachlan, High

Chief of Maclean"), Lachlan Mackinnon, Roderick Morrison (an Clarsair

Dall), and John Mackay of Gairloch, but we can here only notice the

first two. The famous Mary Macleod, better known as Mairi Nighean

Alastair Ruaidh (c. 1588-1693), was family bard to Sir Norman Macleod

of Bernera, and later to John "Breac" Macleod of Macleod, in honour of

whom most of her poems were composed. Like very many of the Highland

poets Mary had little or no education, and it would seem that none of

the poems which have come down to us were composed before 1660. Her

pieces are composed in the modern Irish metres with the characteristic

vowel rhymes of the accented syllables. As might perhaps be expected it

was only the Macvurichs (the professional bards of the Clanranald) who

went on practising the classical _debide_ metre. This they still

continued to do during the first quarter of the 18th century. Mary

Macleod's best-known pieces comprise a dirge on the drowning of Iain

Garbh (Mac'Ille Chalum) in the Minch, a song "An Talla 'm bu ghnath le

MacLeoid," and an ode to Sir Norman Macleod of Bernera, produced during

her exile in Mull, which begins "'S mi'm shuidhe air an tulaich." For

the details of her career, which are the subject of some dispute, the

reader may be referred to a paper by Alexander Mackenzie in the

_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, vol. xxii. pp. 43-66.

Mary Macleod is accounted one of the most musical and original of the

Highland bards.

"Iain Lom."

John Macdonald, better known as Iain Lom (d. c. 1710), was a vigorous

political poet whose verses exercised an extraordinary influence during

his lifetime. He is said to have received a yearly pension from Charles

II. for his services to the Stuart cause. His best-known poems are _Mort

na Ceapach_, on the murder of the heir of Keppoch, who was eventually

avenged through the poet's efforts, and a piece on the battle of

Inverlochay (1645). However great the inspiration of Mary Macleod and

Iain Lorn, they were after all but political or family bards. In

succession to them there arose a small band of men with loftier

thoughts, a wider outlook and greater art. The literature of the

Scottish Highlands culminates in the names of Alexander Macdonald,

Duncan Ban MacIntyre and Dugald Buchanan.

Alexander Macdonald.

Alexander Macdonald, commonly called Alasdair MacMaighstir Alasdair (b.

c. 1700), was the son of an Episcopalian clergyman in Moidart. He was

sent to Glasgow University to fit himself for a professional career. But

an imprudent marriage caused him to abandon his studies, and about 1729

he received an appointment as a Presbyterian teacher in his native

district. He was moved from place to place, and from 1739 to 1745 he

taught at Corryvullin on the Sound of Mull, the scene of some of his

most beautiful lyrics. About 1740 he was invited to compile a Gaelic

vocabulary, which was published in 1741. Macdonald has thus the double

distinction of being the author of the first book printed in Scotch

Gaelic and of being the father of Highland lexicography. The news of the

landing of the Pretender brought visions of release to the

poverty-stricken poet, who was by this time heartily sick of teaching

and farming. He turned Roman Catholic, and was present at the unfurling

of the Stuart standard. He was given the rank of captain, but rendered

greater services to the Jacobite cause with his stirring poems than with

the sword. After Culloden he suffered great privations. But in 1751 he

visited Edinburgh and brought out a collection of his poetry, which has

the honour of being the first original work printed in Scotch Gaelic.

His volume was therefore entitled _Ais-eiridh na Seann Chanain

Albannaich_ (Resurrection of the Ancient Scottish Tongue). Till the day

of his death he led a more or less wandering life, as he was dependent

on the generosity of Clanranald. Only a small part of Macdonald's

compositions have been preserved (thirty-one in all). These naturally

fall into three groups--love-songs, descriptive poems and patriotic and

Jacobite poems. In his love-songs and descriptive poems Macdonald struck

an entirely new note in Gaelic literature. His _Moladh Moraig_ and

_Cuachag an Fhasaich_ (also called _A'Bhanarach Dhonn_) are his

best-known compositions in the amatory style. But he is distinctly at

his best in the descriptive poems. We have already seen that even as

early as the 8th century the poets of Ireland gave expression to that

intimate love of nature which is perhaps the most striking feature in

Celtic verse. Macdonald had a wonderful command of his native Gaelic.

His verse is always musical, and his skilful use of epithet, often very

lavishly strewn, enables him to express with marvellous effect the

various aspects of nature in her gentler and sterner moods alike. His

masterpiece, the _Birlinn of Clanranald_, which is at the same time,

apart from Ossianic ballads, the longest poem in the language, describes

a voyage from South Uist to Carrickfergus. Here Macdonald excels in

describing the movement of the ship and the fury of the storm. In _Allt

an t-Siucair_ (The Sugar Brook) we are given an exquisite picture of a

beautiful scene in the country on a summer morning. Other similar poems

full of melody and colour are _Failte na Mor-thir_ (Hail to the

Mainland), _Oran an t-Samhraidh_ (Ode to Summer), and _Oran an

Gheamhraidh_ (Ode to Winter). When this gifted son of the muses

identified himself with the Stuart cause he poured forth a stream of

inspiring songs which have earned for him the title of the Tyrtaeus of

the Rebellion. Among these we may mention _Oran nam Fineachan Gaelach_

(The Song of the Clans), _Brosnachadh nam Fineachan gaidhealach_ (A Call

to the Highland Clans), and various songs to the prince. But

incomparably the finest of all is _Oran Luaighe no Fucaidh_ (Waulking

Song). Here the prince is addressed as a young girl with flowing locks

of yellow hair on her shoulders, and called Morag. She had gone away

over the seas, and the poet invokes her to return with a party of

maidens (i.e. soldiers) to dress the red cloth, in other words, to beat

the English red-coats. The song contains forty-seven stanzas in all,

with the characteristic refrain of the waulking-songs. _Am Breacan

Uallach_ is a spirited poem in praise of the kilt and plaid, which had

been forbidden by the English government. Macdonald is also the author

of a number of poems in MS. which have been called the quintessence of

indecency. His works have gone through eight editions, the last of which

is dated 1892.

In connexion with Macdonald's Jacobite songs it will be well to mention

here the name of a kindred spirit, John Roy Stuart (Iain Ruadh

Stiubhart). Stuart was a gallant soldier who was serving in Flanders

with the French against the English when the rebellion broke out. He

hurried home and distinguished himself on the field of battle. After

Culloden he gave vent to his dejection in two pathetic songs, one on the

battle itself, while the other deals with the sad lot of the Gael.

Duncan Ban.

The only poet of nature who can claim to rival Macdonald is a man of a

totally different stamp. Duncan Ban Maclntyre (Donnachadh Ban,

1724-1812) was born of poor parents in Glenorchy, and never learned to

read and write or to speak English. He was present on the English side

at the battle of Falkirk, on which he wrote a famous ode, and shortly

afterwards he was appointed gamekeeper to the earl of Breadalbane in

Coire Cheathaich and Ben Dorain, where he lived for many years until he

accepted a similar appointment from the duke of Argyll in

Buachaill-Eite. Stewart of Luss is credited with having taken down the

6000 lines of verse of his own composition which MacIntyre had carried

about with him for many years, and his works were published in 1768. In

his later years he was first a volunteer and afterwards a member of the

city guard in Edinburgh. In addition to his poems descriptive of nature

MacIntyre composed a number of Jacobite martial songs, songs of love and

sentiment, and comic and satiric pieces. The poem _Mairi bhan og_

addressed to his wife is, on account of its grace and delicate

sentiment, generally held to be the finest love-song in the language.

But it is above all as the poet of ben and corrie that MacIntyre is

remembered. He has been called the Burns of the Highlands, but the

bitterness and intellectual power of the Ayrshire poet are absent in

MacIntyre. Duncan Ban describes fondly and tenderly the glories of his

native mountains as only one can who spends his life in daily communion

with them. His two great compositions are styled _Ben Dorain_ and _Coire

Cheathaich_. The former is a long poem of 550 lines divided into eight

parts, alternating with a sort of strophe and antistrophe, one slow

called _urlar_ in stately trochees, the other swift called _siubhal_ in

a kind of galloping anapaests; the whole ending with the _crunluath_ or

final quick motion. It is said to follow very accurately the lilt of a

pipe-tune. The poem, which might be called the "Song of the Deer," has

been well done into English by J. S. Blackie. _Coire Cheathaich_ (The

Misty Corrie), a much shorter poem than Ben Dorain, gives a loving

description of all the prominent features in the landscape--the flowers,

the bushes, the stones, the hillocks with the birds and game, and the

whirling eddies with the glistening salmon. MacIntyre's works went

through three editions in his lifetime, and a twelfth was issued in

1901.

Rob Donn.

John MacCodrum.

From Duncan Ban we pass on to consider the compositions of two men who

hailed from the outlying parts of Gaeldom. Robert Mackay, or, as he is

generally called, Rob Donn (1714-1778), was a native of Strathmore,

Sutherlandshire, who, like Duncan Ban, never learned to read or write.

His life, which was uneventful, was spent almost entirely within the

confines of the county of his birth. He left behind a large number of

poems which may be roughly classified as elegiac, love and satiric

poems. His elegies are of the typical Highland kind. The singer is

overwhelmed with sadness and despairing in his loss. His best-known

composition in this style is "The Death-Song of Hugh." Having just heard

of the death of Pelham, the prime minister, Mackay finds a poor friend

of his dying alone amid squalor in the heart of the mountains. In a poem

composed on the spot the poet contrasts the positions of the two men and

reflects on the vanity of human existence. Among his love-poems the

"Shieling Song" is deservedly famous. But it was above all as a satirist

that Mackay excelled during his lifetime. Indeed he seems to have had

the sharpest tongue of all the Highland bards. We have already seen what

powers were attributed to satirical poets in Ireland in medieval times,

and though bodily disfigurements were no longer feared in the 18th

century, nothing was more dreaded, both in Ireland and Scotland, than

the lash of the bard. Hence many of Rob Donn's compositions have lost

their point, and opinions have been greatly divided as to his merits as

a poet. His collected poems were first published in 1829, a second

edition appeared in 1871, and in 1899 two new editions were issued

simultaneously, the one by Hew Morrison, the other by Adam Gunn and

Malcolm Macfarlane. Another satirical poet who enjoyed a tremendous

reputation in his own day was John MacCodrum, a native of North Uist and

a contemporary of the men just mentioned. It is related of MacCodrum

that the tailors of the Long Island refused to make any clothes for him

in consequence of a satire he had directed against them. He was

encountered in a ragged state by the Macdonald, who on learning the

cause of his sorry condition promoted him to the dignity of bard to his

family. Consequently a number of his compositions are addressed to his

patrons, but one delightful poem entitled _Smeorach Chlann-Domhnuill_

(The Mavis of Clan Donald) describes in verses full of melody the

beauties of his beloved island home.

Dugald Buchanan.

In the lyrical outburst which followed the Forty-five it was only to be

expected that religious poetry should be represented. We have seen that

much of the space in the Dean's Book and in the _Book of Fernaig_ is

allotted to verse of a pious order, though apart from the works of such

Irish singers as Donnchadh O'Daly the poems do not reach a very high

pitch of excellence. The first religious poem to be printed in Scotch

Gaelic was a long hymn by David Mackellar, published in 1752. But

incomparably the greatest writer of hymns and sacred poems is Dugald

Buchanan (1716-1768). Buchanan was born in Strathyre in Perthshire and

was the son of a miller. He received a desultory kind of education and

tried his hand at various trades. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster

at Drumcastle near Kinloch Rannoch. He was selected to assist Stewart of

Killin in preparing the first Highland version of the New Testament for

the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge (published 1767), and at

the same time he issued an edition of his own poems. Of all Gaelic books

this has been far and away the most popular, having gone through no less

than forty editions. Buchanan seems to have been very susceptible to

religious influences, and the stern Puritan doctrines of retribution and

eternal damnation preached around him so worked on his mind that from

his ninth to his twenty-sixth year he was a prey to that mental anguish

so eloquently described by Bunyan. The awful visions which presented

themselves to his vivid imagination find expression in his poems, the

most notable of which are "The Majesty of God," "The Dream," "The

Sufferings of Christ," "The Day of Judgment," "The Hero," "The Skull,"

"Winter" and "Prayer." In the "Day of Judgment," a poem of about 120

stanzas, we are given in sublime verses a vivid delineation of the crack

of doom as the archangel sounds the last trumpet. The poet then goes on

to depict the awful scenes consequent upon the wreck of the elements,

and pictures the gathering together of the whole human race before the

Throne. But Buchanan's masterpiece is admittedly "The Skull." Traces of

the influence of English writers have been observed in all the poet's

writings, and it seems certain that the subject of his greatest poem was

suggested by Shakespeare. The poet seated by a grave espies a skull. He

takes it up and muses on its history. This poem in 44 stanzas concludes

with a picture of the torments of hell and the glories of heaven.