They consist of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman and Cayman Brac, and are
situated between 79 deg. 44' and 80 deg. 26' W. and 19 deg. 44' and 19
deg. 46' N., forming a dependency of Jamaica, which lies 178 m. E.S.E.
Grand Cayman, a rock-bound island protected by coral reefs, is 17 m.
long and varies from 4 m. to 7 m. in breadth. It has two towns,
Georgetown and Boddentown. Little Cayman and Cayman Brac are both about
70 m. E.N.E. of Grand Cayman. Excepting near the rocky coast, the
islands are fruitful, mahogany and other valuable timbers with some
dyewood are grown, and large quantities of coco-nuts are produced by
the two smaller islands. Phosphate deposits of considerable value are
worked, but the principal occupation of the inhabitants is catching
turtles for export to Jamaica. The people are excellent shipwrights and
do a considerable trade in schooners built of native wood. The islands
are governed by a commissioner, and the laws passed by the local
legislative assembly are subject to the assent of the governor of
Jamaica. The population of the group is about 5000. The islands were
discovered by Columbus, who named them Tortugas from the turtles with
which the surrounding sea abounds. They were never occupied by the
Spaniards and were colonized from Jamaica by the British.
CAZALES, JACQUES ANTOINE MARIE DE (1758-1805), French orator and
politician, was born at Grenade in Languedoc, of a family of the lower
nobility. Before 1789 he was a cavalry officer, but in that year was
returned as deputy to the states general. In the Constituent Assembly he
belonged to the section of moderate royalists who sought to set up a
constitution on the English model, and his speeches in favour of
retaining the right of war and peace in the king's hands and on the
organization of the judiciary gained the applause even of his opponents.
Apart from his eloquence, which gave him a place among the finest
orators of the Assembly, Cazales is mainly remembered for a duel fought
with Barnave. After the insurrection of the 10th of August 1792, which
led to the downfall of royalty, Cazales emigrated. He fought in the army
of the _emigres_ against revolutionary France, lived in Switzerland and
in England, and did not return to France until 1803. He died on the 24th
of November 1805. His son, Edmond de Cazales, wrote philosophical and
religious studies.
See _Discours de Cazales_, edited by Chare (Paris, 1821), with an
introduction; F.A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1905.)
CAZALIS, HENRI (1840-1909), French poet and man of letters, was born at
Cormeilles-en-Parisis (Seine-et-Oise) in 1840. He wrote under the
pseudonyms of Jean Caselli and Jean Lahor. His works include: _Chants
populaires de l'Italie_ (1865); _Vita tristis_, _Reveries fantastiques_,
_Romances sans musique_ (1865); _Le Livre du neant_ (1872); _Henry
Regnault, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1872); _L'Illusion_ (1875-1893);
_Melancholia_ (1878); _Cantique des cantiques_ (1885); _Les Quatrains
d'Al-Gazali_ (1896); _William Morris_ (1897). The author of the _Livre
du neant_ has a predilection for gloomy subjects and especially for
pictures of death. His oriental habits of thought earned for him the
title of the "Hindou du Parnasse contemporain." He died in July 1909.
See a notice by P. Bourget in _Anthologie des poetes fr. du XIX^e
siecle_ (1887-1888); J. Lemaitre, _Les Contemporains_ (1889); E.
Faguet in the _Revue bleue_ (October 1893).
CAZEMBE, the hereditary name of an African chief, whose territory was
situated south of Lake Mweru and north of Bangweulu, between 9 deg. and
11 deg.S. In the end of the 18th century the authority of the Cazembe
was recognized over a very extensive district. The kingdom, known also
as the Cazembe, continued to exist, though with gradually diminishing
power and extent, until the last quarter of the 19th century, when the
Cazembe sank to the rank of a petty chief. The country is now divided
between Great Britain and Belgian Congo. The British half, lying east of
the Luapula, forms part of Rhodesia, and the chief town in it is called
Kazembe. The native state, ruled by a negro race who overcame the
aboriginals, had attained a certain degree of civilization. Agriculture
was diligently followed, and cotton cloth, earthenware and iron goods
manufactured. The country contains rich deposits of copper, and copper
ore was one of the principal articles of export. The Cazembe had
despotic power and used it in barbarous fashion. He had hundreds of
wives, and his chiefs imitated his example according to their means. On
his accession every new Cazembe chose a new site for his residence. In
1796 the Cazembe was visited by Manoel Caetano Pereira, a Portuguese
merchant; and in 1798 a more important journey to the same region was
undertaken by Dr Francisco Jose Maria de Lacerda. He died in that
country on the 18th of October that year, but left behind him a
valuable journal. In 1802 two native traders or _pombeiros_, Pedro Joao
Baptista and Amaro Jose, were sent by the Portuguese on a visit to the
Cazembe; and in 1831 a more extensive mission was despatched by the
Portuguese governor of Sena. It consisted of Major Jose Monteiro and
Antonio Gamitto, with an escort of 20 soldiers and 120 negro slaves as
porters; but its reception by the Cazembe was not altogether
satisfactory. In 1868 David Livingstone visited the Cazembe, whose
capital at that time numbered no more than 1000 souls. Since 1894, when
the country was divided between Britain and the Congo State, it has been
thoroughly explored. An important copper mining industry is carried on
in the Congo division of the territory.
See _The Lands of the Cazembe_, published by the Royal Geographical
Society in 1873, containing translations of Lacerda and Baptista's
journals, and a resume of Gamitto's _O Muata Cazembe_ (Lisbon, 1854);
also Livingstone's _Last Journals_ (London, 1874).
CAZIN, JEAN CHARLES (1840-1901), French landscape-painter, son of a
well-known doctor, F.J. Cazin (1788-1864), was born at Samer,
Pas-de-Calais. After studying in France, he went to England, where he
was strongly influenced by the pre-Raphaelite movement. His chief
earlier pictures have a religious interest, shown in such examples as
"The Flight into Egypt" (1877), or "Hagar and Ishmael" (1880,
Luxembourg); and afterwards his combination of luminous landscape with
figure-subjects ("Souvenir de fete," 1881; "Journee faite," 1888) gave
him a wide repute, and made him the leader of a new school of idealistic
subject-painting in France. He was made an officer of the Legion of
Honour in 1889. His charming and poetical treatment of landscape is the
feature in his painting which in later years has given them an
increasing value among connoisseurs. His wife, Marie Cazin, who was his
pupil and exhibited her first picture at the Salon in 1876, the same
year in which Cazin himself made his debut there, was also a well-known
artist and sculptor.
CAZOTTE, JACQUES (1719-1792), French author, was born at Dijon, on the
17th of October 1719. He was educated by the Jesuits, and at
twenty-seven he obtained a public office at Martinique, but it was not
till his return to Paris in 1760 with the rank of commissioner-general
that he made a public appearance as an author. His first attempts, a
mock romance, and a coarse song, gained so much popularity, both in the
Court and among the people, that he was encouraged to essay something
more ambitious. He accordingly produced his romance, _Les Prouesses
inimitables d'Ollivier, marquis d'Edesse_. He also wrote a number of
fantastic oriental tales, such as his _Mille et une fadaises, Contes a
dormir debout_ (1742). His first success was with a "poem" in twelve
cantos, and in prose intermixed with verse, entitled _Ollivier_ (2
vols., 1762), followed in 1771 by another romance, the _Lord Impromptu_.
But the most popular of his works was the _Diable amoureux_ (1772), a
fantastic tale in which the hero raises the devil. The value of the
story lies in the picturesque setting, and the skill with which its
details are carried out. Cazotte possessed extreme facility and is said
to have turned off a seventh canto of Voltaire's _Guerre civile de
Geneve_ in a single night. About 1775 Cazotte embraced the views of the
Illuminati, declaring himself possessed of the power of prophecy. It was
upon this fact that La Harpe based his famous _jeu d'esprit_, in which
he represents Cazotte as prophesying the most minute events of the
Revolution. On the discovery of some of his letters in August 1792,
Cazotte was arrested; and though he escaped for a time through the love
and courage of his daughter, he was executed on the 25th of the
following month.
The only complete edition is the _OEuvres badines et morales,
historiques et philosophiques de Jacques Cazotte_ (4 vols.,
1816-1817), though more than one collection appeared during his
lifetime. An edition de luxe of the _Diable amoureux_ was edited
(1878) by A.J. Pons, and a selection of Cazotte's _Contes_, edited
(1880) by Octave Uzanne, is included in the series of _Petits Conteurs
du XVIII^e siecle_. The best notice of Cazotte is in the _Illumines_
(1852) of Gerard de Nerval.
CEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rhamnaceae,
containing about forty species of shrubs or small trees, natives of
North America. They are very attractive from their dense panicles of
white or blue flowers, and several species are known as garden plants.
The leaves of one of these, _C. americanus_, New Jersey tea, or
red-root, are used instead of the true tea; the root, which contains a
red colouring matter, has long been employed by the Indians as a
febrifuge.
CEARA, a northern maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by the Atlantic,
E. by the Atlantic and the states of Rio Grande do Norte and Parahyba,
S. by Pernambuco, and W. by Piauhy; and having an area of 40,253 sq. m.
It lies partly upon the north-east slope of the great Brazilian plateau,
and partly upon the sandy coastal plain. Its surface is a succession of
great terraces, facing north and north-east, formed by the denudation of
the ancient sandstone plateau which once covered this part of the
continent; the terraces are seamed by watercourses, and their valleys
are broken by hills and ranges of highlands. The latter are usually
described as mountain ranges, but they are, in fact, only the remains of
the ancient plateau, capped with horizontal strata of sandstone, and
having a remarkably uniform altitude of 2000 to 2400 ft. The flat top of
such a range is called a _chapada_ or _taboleira_, and its width in
places is from 32 to 56 m. The boundary line with Piauhy follows one of
these ranges, the Serra de Ibiapaba, which unites with another range on
the southern boundary of the state, known as the Serra do Araripe.
Another range, or escarpment, crosses the state from east to west, but
is broken into two principal divisions, each having several local names.
These ranges are not continuous, the breaking down of the ancient
plateau having been irregular and uneven. The higher ranges intercept
considerable moisture from the prevailing trade winds, and their flanks
and valleys are covered with forest, but the plateaus are either thinly
wooded or open campo. These upland forests are of a scrubby character
and are called _catingas_.
The sandy, coastal plain, with a width of 12 to 18 m., is nearly bare of
vegetation. The rivers of the state are small and, with one or two
exceptions, become completely dry in the dry season. The largest is the
Jaguaribe, which flows entirely across the state in a north-east
direction with an estimated length of 210 to 465 m. The year is divided
into a rainy and dry season, the rains beginning in January to March and
lasting until June. The dry season, July to December, is sometimes
broken by slight showers in September and October, but these are of very
slight importance. The soil is thin and porous and does not retain
moisture, consequently the long, dry season turns the country into a
barren desert, relieved only by vegetation along the river courses and
mountain ranges, and by the hardy, widely-distributed carnahuba palm
(_Copernicia cerifera_), which in places forms groves of considerable
extent. Sometimes the rains fail altogether, and then a drought
(_secca_) ensues, causing famine and pestilence throughout the entire
region. The most destructive droughts recorded are those of 1711, 1723,
1777-1778, 1790, 1825, 1844-1845, and 1877-1878, the last-mentioned
destroying nearly all the live-stock in the state, and causing the death
through starvation and pestilence of nearly half-a-million people, or
over half the population. The climate, which is generally described as
healthful, is hot and humid on the coast, tempered by the cool trade
winds; but in the more elevated regions it is very hot and dry, although
the nights are cool. The sandy zone along the coast is nearly barren,
but behind this is a more elevated region with broken surfaces and sandy
soil which is amenable to cultivation and produces fruit and most
tropical products when conditions are favourable.
The higher plateau is devoted almost exclusively to cattle-raising, once
the principal industry of the state, though recurring seccas have been
an insuperable obstacle to its profitable development. There is still a
considerable export of cattle, hides and skins, but no effort is made to
develop the production of jerked beef on a large scale. Horses are
raised to a limited extent; also goats, sheep and swine. The principal
agricultural products are cotton, coffee, sugar, mandioca and tropical
fruits. The production of cotton has increased largely since the
development of cotton manufactures in Brazil. The natural vegetable
productions are important, and include _manicoba_ or Ceara rubber,
carnahuba wax and fibre, caju wine and ipecacuanha.
There are two lines of railway running inland from the coast: the
Baturite line from Fortaleza to Senador Pompeu, 179 m., and the Sobral
line from Camocim (a small port) to Ipu, 134 m. These railways were
built by the national government after the drought of 1877-1878 to give
work to the starving refugees, and are now operated under leases. Great
dams were also begun for irrigation purposes.
The misfortunes and poverty of the people have hindered their material
development to a large extent, but another obstacle is to be found in
their racial and social composition. Only a very small percentage of the
population which numbered 805,687 in 1890, and 849,127 in 1900, is of
pure European origin, the great majority being of the coloured races and
their mixtures with the whites. The number of landed proprietors,
professional men, merchants, &c., is comparatively small (about
one-sixth), and a part of these are of mixed blood; the remaining
five-sixths own no property, pay no taxes, and derive no benefits from
the social and political institutions about them beyond the protection
of the proprietors upon whose estates they live, the nominal protection
of the state, and an occasional day's wage. Education has made no
impression upon such people, and is confined almost exclusively to the
upper classes, from which some of the most prominent men in Brazilian
politics and literature have come. The state of Ceara has formed a
bishopric of the Roman Catholic Church since 1853, the bishop having his
residence at Fortaleza. The state is represented in the national
congress by three senators and ten deputies. Its local government is
vested in a president and legislative assembly of one chamber elected
for a period of four years. Three vice-presidents are elected at the
same time who succeed to the presidency in case of a vacancy according
to the number of votes received. The judicial organization consists of
the tribunal da Relacao at the state capital and subordinate courts in
the _comarcas_ and _termos_. The judges of the higher courts are
appointed for life. The capital of the state is Fortaleza, sometimes
called Ceara, which is also the principal commercial centre and shipping
port. The principal towns are Aracaty, Baturite, Acarahu, Crato,
Maranguape and Sobral.
The territory of Ceara includes three of the _capitanias_ originally
granted by the Portuguese crown in 1534. The first attempts to settle
the territory failed, and the earliest Portuguese settlement was made
near the mouth of the Rio Camocim in 1604. The French were already
established on the coast, with their headquarters at Saint Louis, now
Maranhao. Ceara was occupied by the Dutch from 1637 to 1654, and became
a dependency of Pernambuco in 1680; this relationship lasted until 1799,
when the _capitania_ of Ceara was made independent. The _capitania_
became a province in 1822 under Dom Pedro I. A revolution followed in
1824, the president of the province was deposed fifteen days after his
arrival, and a republic was proclaimed. Internal dissensions immediately
broke out, the new president was assassinated, and after a brief reign
of terror the province resumed its allegiance to the empire. Ceara was
one of the first provinces of Brazil to abolish slavery.
See Rodolpho Theophilo, _Historia da Secca do Ceara, 1877 a 1880_
(Fortaleza, 1883); Professor and Mrs Louis Agassiz, _A Journey in
Brazil_ (Boston, 1869); George Gardiner, _Travels in the Interior of
Brazil_ (London, 1846); C.F. Hartt, _Geology and Physical Geography of
Brazil_ (Boston, 1870); and H.H. Smith, _Brazil: the Amazon and the
Coast_ (New York, 1879).
CEAWLIN (d. 593), king of the West Saxons, first mentioned in the
_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 556 as fighting with his father
Cynric against the Britons at the battle of Beranbyrig or Barbury Hill.
Becoming king in 560, he began a career of conquest. Silchester was
taken, and moving eastwards Ceawlin and his brother Cutha defeated the
forces of AEthelberht, king of Kent, at the battle of Wibbandun in 568.
In 577 he led the West Saxons from Winchester towards the Severn valley;
gained an important victory over some British kings at Deorham, and
added the district round Gloucester, Bath and Cirencester to his
kingdom. A further advance was begun in 583. Uriconium, a town near the
Wrekin, and Pengwyrn, the modern Shrewsbury, were destroyed; but soon
Ceawlin was defeated by the Britons at Fethanleag or Faddiley, near
Nantwich, and his progress was effectually checked. Intestine strife
among the West Saxons followed. In 591 Ceawlin lost the western part of
his kingdom, and in 592 Was defeated by his nephew, Ceolric, at
Wanborough, and driven from Wessex. He was killed in 593, possibly in an
attempt to regain his kingdom. Ceawlin is included in the _Chronicle_
among the Bretwaldas.
See _Two of the Saxon Chronicles_, ed. by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892);
_Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. ix (London, 1887); E. Guest,
_Origines Celticae_, vol. ii. (London, 1883).
CEBES, the name of two Greek philosophers, (1) CEBES OF CYZICUS,
mentioned in Athenaeus (iv. 156 D), seems to have been a Stoic, who
lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Some would attribute to him
the _Tabula Cebetis_ (see below), but as that work was well known in the
time of Lucian, it is probably to be placed earlier. (2) CEBES OF
THEBES, a disciple of Socrates and Philolaus. He is one of the speakers
in the _Phaedo_ of Plato, in which he is represented as an earnest
seeker after virtue and truth, keen in argument and cautious in
decision. Three dialogues, the [Greek: Hebdome], the [Greek: Phrynichos]
and the [Greek: Pinax] or _Tabula_, are attributed to him by Suidas and
Diogenes Laertius. The two former are lost, and most scholars deny the
authenticity of the _Tabula_ on the ground of material and verbal
anachronisms. They attribute it either to Cebes of Cyzicus (above) or to
an anonymous author, of the 1st century A.D., who assumed the character
of Cebes of Thebes. The work professes to be an interpretation of an
allegorical picture in the temple of Cronus at Athens or Thebes. The
author develops the Platonic theory of pre-existence, and shows that
true education consists not in mere erudition, but rather in the
formation of character.
The _Tabula_ has been widely translated both into European languages
and into Arabic (the latter version published with the Greek text and
Latin translation by Salmasius in 1640). It is usually printed
together with Epictetus. Separate editions by C.S. Jerram (with
introduction and notes, 1878), C. Prachter (1893), and many others.
See Zeller's _History of Greek Philosophy_; F. Klopfer, _De Cebetis
Tabula_ (1818-1822); C. Prachter, _Cebetis Tabula quanam aetate
conscripta esse videatur_ (1885).
CEBU, a city and municipality, port of entry, and the capital of the
province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, a
little N. of the centre. Pop. (1903) of the city proper, 18,330; of the
municipality, 31,079; in the same year, after the census enumeration,
the neighbouring municipalities of Mabolo (pop. 1903, 8454) and El Pardo
(pop. 6461) were added to the municipality of Cebu. The surrounding
country, which is level and fertile, is traversed by several good
carriage roads. The port, formed by the north-west shore of the island
of Mactan, is well protected from violent winds, and in front of it
stands a picturesque Spanish fort. The streets are wide and regularly
laid out. The government buildings are fairly good, and the church
buildings very fine. Cebu is an episcopal see, and the palace of the
bishop, although small, is widely known for its interior decorations.
The Augustinian church is famous for its so-called miraculous image of
Santo Nino. The Recoleto monastery and the seminary of San Carlos are
worthy of mention. The cathedral was finished toward the end of the
eighteenth century. The San Jose hospital here was founded by one of the
religious orders. There was a leper hospital in the outskirts of the
city until 1906, when a leper colony was established on the island of
Culion. Commercially, Cebu is the second city of the Philippines. Hemp,
tobacco, sugar and copra are the most important exports. In addition to
the trade with foreign ports, an important domestic commerce is carried
on with Manila, Bohol, Negros and northern Mindanao. Salt, pottery and
fabrics of silk, sinamay, hemp and cotton are manufactured, and sugar
sacks are woven in considerable quantity. The island of Cebu is known
for its excellent mangoes and for the rare cornucopia-shaped sponges,
called Venus's flower basket (_Euplectella aspergillum_), found here.
Historically Cebu is famous as the scene of Magellan's landing in 1521.
A cross, said to be the one first erected by him, is still preserved in
the cathedral. The great explorer lost his life in the neighbouring
island of Mactan; a monument marks the place where he was killed. The
first Spanish settlement in the Philippines was established at Cebu in
1565, and from that year to 1571 it was the capital of the colony. The
city is unincorporated. The language is Cebu-Visayan.
CECCO D'ASCOLI (1257-1327), the popular name of FRANCESCO DEGLI STABILI,
a famous Italian encyclopaedist and poet--Cecco being the diminutive of
Francesco, and Ascoli, in the marshes of Ancona, the place of the
philosopher's birth. He devoted himself to the study of mathematics and
astrology, and in 1322 was made professor of the latter science at the
university of Bologna. It is alleged that he entered the service of Pope
John XXII. at Avignon, and that he cultivated the acquaintance of Dante
only to quarrel with the great poet afterwards; but of this there is no
evidence. It is certain, however, that, having published a commentary on
the sphere of John de Sacrobosco, in which he propounded audacious
theories concerning the employment and agency of demons, he got into
difficulties with the clerical party, and was condemned in 1324 to
certain fasts and prayers, and to the payment of a fine of seventy
crowns. To elude this sentence he betook himself to Florence, where he
was attached to the household of Carlo di Calabria. But his
free-thinking and plain speaking had got him many enemies; he had
attacked the _Commedia_ of Dante, and the _Canzone d'Amore_ of Guido
Cavalcanti; and his fate was sealed. Dino di Garbo, the physician, was
indefatigable in pursuit of him; and the old accusation of impiety being
renewed, Cecco was again tried and sentenced, this time to the stake. He
was burned at Florence the day after sentence, in the seventieth year of
his age.
Cecco d'Ascoli left many works in manuscript, most of which have never
been given to the world. The book by which he achieved his renown and
which led to his death was the _Acerba_ (from _acervus_), an
encyclopaedic poem, of which in 1546, the date of the last reprint, more
than twenty editions had been issued. It is unfinished, and consists of
four books in _sesta rima_. The first book treats of astronomy and
meteorology; the second of stellar influences, of physiognomy, and of
the vices and virtues; the third of minerals and of the love of animals;
while the fourth propounds and solves a number of moral and physical
problems. Of a fifth book, on theology, the initial chapter alone was
completed. A man of immense erudition and of great and varied abilities,
Cecco, whose knowledge was based on experiment and observation (a fact
that of itself is enough to distinguish him from the crowd of savants of
that age), had outstripped his contemporaries in many things. He knew of
metallic aerolites and shooting stars; the mystery of the dew was plain
to him; fossil plants were accounted for by him through terrene
revolutions which had resulted in the formation of mountains; he is even
said to have divined the circulation of the blood. Altogether a
remarkable man, he may be described as one of the many Cassandras of the
middle ages--one of the many prophets who spoke of coming light, and
were listened to but to have their words cast back at them in
accusations of impiety and sentences of death.
The least faulty of the many editions of the _Acerba_ is that of
Venice, dated 1510. The earliest known, which has become excessively
rare, is that of Brescia, which has no date, but is ascribed to 1473
or thereabouts.
CECIL, the name of a famous English family. This house, whose two
branches hold each a marquessate, had a great statesman and
administrator to establish and enrich it. The first Lord Burghley's many
inquiries concerning the origin of his family created for it more than
one splendid and improbable genealogy, although his grandfather is the
first ascertained ancestor. In the latter half of the 15th century a
family of yeomen or small gentry with the surname of Seyceld, whose
descendants were accepted by Lord Burghley as his kinsmen, lived on
their lands at Allt yr Ynys in Walterstone, a Herefordshire parish on
the Welsh marches. Of the will of Richard ap Philip Seyceld of Allt yr
Ynys, made in 1508, one David ap Richard Seyceld, apparently his younger
son, was overseer. This David seems identical with David Cyssell,
Scisseld or Cecill, a yeoman admitted in 1494 to the freedom of Stamford
in Lincolnshire. He may well have been one of those men from the Welsh
border who fought at Bosworth, for at the funeral of Henry VII. he
appears as a yeoman of the guard and is given a livery of black cloth.
At Stamford he prospered, being three times mayor and three times member
of parliament for the borough, and he served as sheriff of
Northamptonshire in 1532-1533. Remaining in the service of Henry VIII.
he was advanced to be yeoman of the chamber and sergeant-at-arms, being
rewarded with several profitable leases and offices. His first wife was
the daughter of a Stamford alderman, and his second the already twice
widowed heir of a Lincolnshire squire. By the first marriage David Cecil
left at his death in 1536 a son and heir, Richard Cecil, who enjoyed a
place at court as yeoman of the king's wardrobe under Henry VIII. and
Edward VI. A gentleman of the privy chamber and sometime sheriff of
Rutland, Richard Cecil had his share at the distribution of abbey lands,
St Michael's priory in Stamford being among the grants made to him.
William Cecil, only son of Richard, was born, by his own account, in
1520, at Bourne in Lincolnshire. He advanced himself first in the
service of the protector Somerset, after whose fall, his great abilities
being necessary to the council, he was made a secretary of state and
sworn of the privy council. In 1571 he was created Lord Burghley, and
from 1572, when he was given the Garter, he was lord high treasurer and
principal minister to Queen Elizabeth. By his first wife, Mary Cheke,
sister of the scholar Sir John Cheke, tutor to Edward VI., he was father
to Thomas, first earl of Exeter. By a second wife, Mildred Cooke, the
most learned lady of her time, he had an only surviving son, Robert
Cecil, ancestor of the house of Salisbury.
Created earl of Exeter by James I., the second Lord Burghley was more
soldier than statesman, and from his death to the present day the elder
line of the Cecils has taken small part in public affairs. William
Cecil, 2nd earl of Exeter, took as his first wife the Lady Roos,
daughter and heir of the 3rd earl of Rutland of the Manners family. The
son of this marriage inherited the barony of Roos as heir general, and
died as a Roman Catholic at Naples in 1618 leaving no issue. A third son
of the 1st earl was Edward Cecil, a somewhat incompetent military
commander, created in 1625 Lord Cecil of Putney and Viscount Wimbledon,
titles that died with him in 1638, although he was thrice married. In
1801 a marquessate was given to the 10th earl of Exeter, the story of
whose marriage with Sarah Hoggins, daughter of a Shropshire husbandman,
has been refined by Tennyson into the romance of "The Lord of Burleigh."
This elder line is still seated at Burghley, the great mansion built by
their ancestor, the first lord.
The younger or Hatfield line was founded by Robert Cecil, the only
surviving son of the great Burghley's second marriage. As a secretary of
state he followed in his father's steps, and on the death of Elizabeth
he may be said to have secured the accession of King James, who created
him Lord Cecil of Essendine (1603), Viscount Cranborne (1604), and earl
of Salisbury (1605). Forced by the king to exchange his house of
Theobalds for Hatfield, he died in 1612, worn out with incessant labour,
before he could inhabit the house which he built upon his new
Hertfordshire estate. Of Burghley and his son Salisbury, "great
ministers of state in the eyes of Christendom," Clarendon writes that
"their wisdom and virtues died with them." The 2nd earl of Salisbury, "a
man of no words, except in hunting and hawking," was at first remarked
for his obsequiousness to the court party, but taking no part in the
Civil War came at last to sit in the Protector's parliament. After the
Restoration, Pepys saw him, old and discredited, at Hatfield, and notes
him as "my simple Lord Salisbury." The 7th earl was created marquess of
Salisbury in 1789.
Hatfield House, a great Jacobean mansion which has suffered much from
restoration and rebuilding, contains in its library the famous series of
state papers which passed through the hands of Burghley and his son
Salisbury, invaluable sources for the history of their period. (O. Ba.)
CECILIA, SAINT, in the Catholic Church the patron saint of music and of
the blind. Her festival falls on the 22nd of November. It was long
supposed that she was a noble lady of Rome who, with her husband and
other friends whom she had converted, suffered martyrdom, c. 230, under
the emperor Alexander Severus. The researches of de Rossi, however
(_Rom. sott._ ii. 147), go to confirm the statement of Fortunatus,
bishop of Poitiers (d. 600), that she perished in Sicily under Marcus
Aurelius between 176 and 180. A church in her honour existed in Rome
from about the 4th century, and was rebuilt with much splendour by Pope
Paschal I. about the year 820, and again by Cardinal Sfondrati in 1599.
It is situated in the Trastevere near the Ripa Grande quay, where in
earlier days the Ghetto was located, and gives a "title" to a cardinal
priest. Cecilia, whose musical fame rests on a passing notice in her
legend that she praised God by instrumental as well as vocal music, has
inspired many a masterpiece in art, including the Raphael at Bologna,
the Rubens in Berlin, the Domenichino in Paris, and in literature, where
she is commemorated especially by Chaucer's "Seconde Nonnes Tale," and
by Dryden's famous ode, set to music by Handel in 1736, and later by Sir
Hubert Parry (1889).
Another St Cecilia, who suffered in Africa in the persecution of
Diocletian (303-304), is commemorated on the 11th of February.
See U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques_ (1905), i. 826
f.
CECROPIA, in botany, a genus of trees (natural order Moraceae), native
of tropical America. They are of very rapid growth, affording a light
wood used for making floats. _C. peltata_ is the trumpet tree, so-called
from the use made of its hollow stems by the Uaupe Indians as a musical
instrument. It is a tree reaching about 50 ft. in height with a large
spreading head, and deeply lobed leaves 12 in. or more in diameter. The
hollows of the stem and branches are inhabited by ants, which in return
for the shelter thus afforded, and food in the form of succulent growths
on the base of the leaf-stalks, repel the attacks of leaf-cutting ants
which would otherwise strip the tree of its leaves. This is an instance
of "myrmecophily," i.e. a living together for mutual benefit of the ants
and the plant.
CECROPS ([Greek: Kekrops]), traditionally the first king of Attica, and
the founder of its political life (Pausanias ix. 33). He was said to
have divided the inhabitants into twelve communities, to have instituted
the laws of marriage and property, and a new form of worship. The
introduction of bloodless sacrifice, the burial of the dead, and the
invention of writing were also attributed to him. He is said to have
acted as umpire during the dispute of Poseidon and Athena for the
possession of Attica. He decided in favour of the goddess, who planted
the first olive tree, which he adjudged to be more useful than the horse
(or water) which Poseidon caused to spring forth from the Acropolis rock
with a blow of his trident (Herodotus viii. 55; Apollodorus iii. 14). As
one of the autochthones of Attica, Cecrops is represented as human in
the upper part of his body, while the lower part is shaped like a dragon
(hence he is sometimes called [Greek: diphues] or _geminus_, Diod. Sic.
i. 28; Ovid, _Metam_. ii. 555). Miss J. E. Harrison (in _Classical
Review_, January 1895) endeavours to show that Cecrops is the husband of
Athene, identical with the snake-like Zeus Soter or Sosipolis, and the
father of Erechtheus-Erichthonius.
CEDAR (Lat. _cedrus_, Gr. [Greek: kedros]), a name applied to several
members of the natural order Coniferae. The word has been derived from
the Arabic _Kedr_, worth or value, or from _Kedrat_, strong, and has
been supposed by some to have taken its origin from the brook Kedron, in
Judaea.
_Cedrus Libani_, the far-famed Cedar of Lebanon, is a tree which, on
account of its beauty, stateliness and strength, has always been a
favourite with poets and painters, and which, in the figurative language
of prophecy, is frequently employed in the Scriptures as a symbol of
power, prosperity and longevity. It grows to a vertical height of from
50 to 80 ft.--"exalted above all trees of the field"--and at an
elevation of about 6000 ft. above sea-level. In the young tree, the bole
is straight and upright, and one or two leading branches rise above the
rest. As the tree increases in size, however, the upper branches become
mingled together, and the tree is then clump-headed. Numerous lateral
ramifying branches spread out from the main trunk in a horizontal
direction, tier upon tier, covering a compass of ground the diameter of
which is often greater than the height of the tree. William Gilpin, in
his _Forest Scenery_, describes a cedar which, at an age of about 118
years, had attained to a height of 53 ft. and had a horizontal expanse
of 96 ft. The branchlets of the cedar take the same direction as the
branches, and the foliage is very dense. The tree, as with the rest of
the fir-tribe, except the larch, is evergreen; new leaves are developed
every spring, but their fall is gradual. In shape the leaves are
straight, tapering, cylindrical and pointed; they are about 1 in. long
and of a dark green colour, and grow in alternate tufts of about thirty
in number. The male and female flowers grow on the same tree, but are
separate. The cones, which are on the upper side of the branches, are
flattened at the ends and are 4 to 5 in. in length and 2 in. wide; they
take two years to come to perfection and while growing exude much resin.
The scales are close pressed to one another and are reddish in colour.
The seeds are provided with a long membranous wing. The root of the tree
is very strong and ramifying. The cedar flourishes best on sandy, loamy
soils. It still grows on Lebanon, though for several centuries it was
believed to be restricted to a small grove in the Kadisha valley at 6000
ft. elevation, about 15 m. from Beyrout. The number of trees in this
grove has been gradually diminishing, and as no young trees or seedlings
occur, the grove will probably become extinct in course of time. Cedars
are now known to occur in great numbers on Mt. Lebanon, chiefly on the
western slopes, not forming a continuous forest, but in groves, some of
which contain several thousands of trees. There are also large forests
on the higher slopes of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains. Lamartine
tells us that the Arabs regard the trees as endowed with the principles
of continual existence, and with reasoning and prescient powers, which
enable them to prepare for the changes of the seasons.
The wood of the cedar of Lebanon is fragrant, though not so strongly
scented as that of the juniper or red-cedar of America. The wood is
generally reddish-brown, light and of a coarse grain and spongy texture,
easy to work, but liable to shrink and warp. Mountain-grown wood is
harder, stronger, less liable to warp and more durable.
The cedar of Lebanon is cultivated in Europe for ornament only. It can
be grown in parks and gardens, and thrives well; but the young plants
are unable to bear great variations of temperature. The cedar is not
mentioned in Evelyn's _Silva_ (1664), but it must have been introduced
shortly afterwards. The famous Enfield cedar was planted by Dr Robert
Uvedale, (1642-1722), a noted schoolmaster and horticulturist, between
1662-1670, and an old cedar at Bretby Park in Derbyshire is known to
have been planted in 1676. Some very old cedars exist also at Syon
House, Woburn Abbey, Warwick Castle and elsewhere, which presumably date
from the 17th century. The first cedars in Scotland were planted at
Hopetoun House in 1740; and the first one said to have been introduced
into France was brought from England by Bernard de Jussieu in 1734, and
placed in the Jardin des Plantes. Cedar-wood is earliest noticed in
Leviticus xiv. 4, 6, where it is prescribed among the materials to be
used for the cleansing of leprosy; but the wood there spoken of was
probably that of the juniper. The term _Eres_ (cedar) of Scripture does
not apply strictly to one kind of plant, but was used indefinitely in
ancient times, as is the word cedar at present. The term _arz_ is
applied by the Arabs to the cedar of Lebanon, to the common pine-tree,
and to the juniper; and certainly the "cedars" for masts, mentioned in
Ezek. xxvii. 5, must have been pine-trees. It seems very probable that
the fourscore thousand hewers employed by Solomon for cutting timber did
not confine their operations simply to what would now be termed cedars
and fir-trees. Dr John Lindley considered that some of the cedar-trees
sent by Hiram, king of Tyre, to Jerusalem might have been procured from
Mount Atlas, and have been identical with _Callitris quadrivalvis_, or
arar-tree, the wood of which is hard and durable, and was much in
request in former times for the building of temples. The timber-work of
the roof of Cordova cathedral, built eleven centuries ago, is composed
of it. In the time of Vitruvius "cedars" were growing in Crete, Africa
and Syria. Pliny says that their wood was everlasting, and therefore
images of the gods were made of it; he makes mention also of the oil of
cedar, or _cedrium_, distilled from the wood, and used by the ancients
for preserving their books from moths and damp; papyri anointed or
rubbed with cedrium were on this account called _ced ati libri_. Drawers
of cedar or chips of the wood are now employed to protect furs and
woollen stuffs from injury by moths. Cedar-wood, however, is said to be
injurious to natural history objects, and to instruments placed in
cabinets made of it, as the resinous matter of the wood becomes
deposited upon them. _Cedria_, or cedar resin, is a substance similar to
mastic, that flows from incisions in the tree; and cedar manna is a
sweet exudation from its branches.
The genus _Cedrus_ contains two other species closely allied to _C.
Libani_--_Cedrus Deodara_, the deodar, or "god tree" of the Himalayas,
and _Cedrus atlantica_, of the Atlas range, North Africa. The deodar
forms forests on the mountains of Afghanistan, North Beluchistan and the
north-west Himalayas, flourishing in all the higher mountains from Nepal
up to Kashmir, at an elevation of from 5500 to 12,000 ft.; on the peaks
to the northern side of the Boorung Pass it grows to a height of 60 to
70 ft. before branching. The wood is close-grained, long-fibred,
perfumed and highly resinous, and resists the action of water. The
foliage is of a paler green, the leaves are slender and longer, and the
twigs are thinner than those of _C. Libani_. The tree is employed for a
variety of useful purposes, especially in building. It is now much
cultivated in England as an ornamental plant. _C. atlantica_, the Atlas
cedar, has shorter and denser leaves than _C. Libani_; the leaves are
glaucous, sometimes of a silvery whiteness, and the cones smaller than
in the other two forms; its wood also is hard, and more rapid in growth
than is that of the ordinary cedar. It is found at an altitude above the
sea of from 4000 to 6000 ft.
The name cedar is applied to a variety of trees, including species of
several genera of Conifers, _Juniperus_, _Thuja_, _Libocedrus_ and
_Cupressus_. _Thuja gigantea_ of western North America is known in the
United States as White (or Yellow) cedar, and the same name is applied
to _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, the Port Orford or Oregon cedar, a native of
the north-west States, and one of the most valuable juniper trees of
North America. The Bermuda cedar (_Juniperus bermudiana_) and the red or
American cedar (_J. virginiana_) are both much used in joinery and in
the manufacture of pencils; though other woods are now superseding them
for pencil-making. The Japanese cedar (_Cryptomeria japonica_) is a kind
of cypress, the wood of which is very durable. Another species of
cypress (_Cupressus thyoides_, also known as _Chamaecyparis thyoides_ or
_sphaeroidea_), found in swamps in the south of Ohio and Massachusetts,
is known as the American white cedar. It has small leaves and fibrous
bark, the wood is light, soft and easily-worked, and very durable in
contact with the soil, and is much used for boat-building and for making
fences and coopers' staves. The Spanish cedar is a name applied to
_Juniperus thurifera_, a native of the western Mediterranean region, and
also to another species, _J. Oxycedrus_, a common plant in the
Mediterranean region, forming a shrub or low tree with spreading
branches and short, stiff, prickly leaves. The latter was much used by
the Greeks for making images; and its empyreumatic oil, Huile de Cade,
is used medicinally for skin-diseases. A species of cypress, _Cupressus
lusitanica_, which has been naturalized in the neighbourhood of Cintra
is known as the cedar of Goa. The genus _Widdringtonia_ of tropical and
South Africa is also known locally as cedar. _W. juniperoides_ is the
characteristic tree of the Cederberg range in Cape Colony, while _W.
Whytei_, recently discovered in Nyasaland and Rhodesia (the Mlanje
cedar) is a fine tree reaching 150 ft. in height, and yielding an
ornamental light yellow-brown wood, suitable for building. The order
Cedrelaceae (which is entirely distinct from the Conifers) includes,
along with the mahoganies and other valuable timber-trees, the Jamaica
and the Australian red cedars, _Cedrela odorata_, and _C. Toona_
respectively. The cedar-wood of Guiana, used for making canoes, is a
species of the natural order Burseraceae, _Icica altissima_. It is a
large tree, reaching 100 ft. in height, the wood is easily worked,
fragrant and durable.
See Gordon's _Pinetum_; Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, _Histoire du cedre du
Liban_ (Paris, 1838); Loudon, _Arboretum Britannicum_, vol. iv. pp.
2404-2432 (London, 1839); Marquis de Chambray, _Traite pratique des
arbres resineux coniferes_ (Paris, 1845); J.D. Hooker, _Nat. Hist.
Review_ (January, 1862), pp. 11-18; Brandis, _Forest Flora of
North-west and Central India_, pp. 516-525 (London, 1874); Veitch,
_Manual of Coniferae_ (2nd ed., London, 1900).
CEDAR CREEK, a small branch of the North Fork of the Shenandoah river,
Virginia, U.S.A. It is known in American history as the scene of a
memorable battle, which took place on the 19th of October 1864, between
the Union army under Major-General P.H. Sheridan and the Confederates
under Lieut.-General J.A. Early. (See SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS.)
CEDAR FALLS, a city of Black Hawk county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar
river, about 100 m. W. of Dubuque. Pop. (1890) 3459; (1900) 5319; (1905,
state census) 5329 (872 being foreign-born); (1910) 5012. It is served
by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Illinois Central, the Chicago
Great Western, and the Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern railways. Its
manufactures include flour, ground feed, other cereal preparations,
hardware specialties, canned vegetables (especially Indian corn), and
planing-mill products. It is the seat of the state normal school (1876),
and has a public library. The settlement of the place, the oldest in the
county, was begun in 1847; it was laid out as a town in 1851,
incorporated as a village in 1857, chartered as a city in 1865, and for
a short time in 1853 was the county-seat.
CEDAR RAPIDS, a city of Linn county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar river,
in the east central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 18,020; (1900)
25,656, of whom 4478 were foreign-born, an unusually large and
influential part being Bohemians; (1910 census) 32,811. It is served by
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (which has repair shops here), and the
Illinois Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city
has an air of substantial prosperity; its principal streets are from 80
ft. to 120 ft. wide, paved with brick and asphalt, and well shaded.
Prominent among its buildings are the federal building, the auditorium,
the public library and the Masonic library, which contains one of the
best collections of Masonic literature in the world. The city has two
well-equipped hospitals, a home for aged women, a home for the
friendless, and four parks. The grounds of the Cedar Rapids country club
comprise 180 acres. Cedar Rapids is in a rich agricultural country. The
name of the city was suggested from the rapids in the river, which
afford abundant water power and have enabled the city to take first rank
in Iowa (1905) as a manufacturing centre. From 1900 to 1905 there was an
increase in the value of its manufactured products from $11,135,435 to
$16,279,706, or 46.2%. More than one-fourth of the value of its
manufactures is in Quaker Oats and other food preparations; among those
of less importance are lumber and planing-mill products, foundry and
machine-shop products, furniture, patent medicines, pumps, carriages and
waggons, packed meats and agricultural implements. Cedar Rapids has also
a large grain trade and a large jobbing business, especially in dry
goods, millinery, groceries, paper and drugs. At Cedar Rapids are Coe
College (co-educational; Presbyterian), which grew out of the Cedar
Rapids Collegiate Institute (1851), was named in honour of Daniel Coe, a
benefactor, and was chartered under its present name and opened in 1881;
the Interstate Correspondence schools, and the Cedar Rapids business
college. The first settlers came in 1838; but the city's early growth
was slow, and it was not incorporated until 1856. It has been governed
by commission since 1908.
CEFALU (anc. _Cephaloedium_), a seaport and episcopal see of the
province of Palermo, Sicily, 42 m. E. of Palermo by rail. Pop. (1901)
13,273. The ancient town (of Sicel origin, probably, despite its Greek
name) takes its name from the headland ([Greek: kephale], head) upon
which it stood (1233 ft.); its fortifications extended to the shore, on
the side where the modern town now is, in the form of two long walls
protecting the port. There are remains of a wall of massive rectangular
blocks of stone at the modern Porta Garibaldi on the south. It does not
appear in history before 396 B.C., and seems to have owed its importance
mainly to its naturally strong position. The only ancient remains on the
mountain are those of a small building in good polygonal work (a style
of construction very rare in Sicily), consisting of a passage on each
side of which a chamber opens. The doorways are of finely-cut stone, and
of Greek type, and the date, though uncertain, cannot, from the careful
jointing of the blocks, be very early. On the summit of the promontory
are extensive remains of a Saracenic castle. The new town was founded at
the foot of the mountain, by the shore, by Roger II. in 1131, and the
cathedral was begun in the same year. The exterior is well preserved,
and is largely decorated with interlacing pointed arches; the windows
also are pointed. On each side of the facade is a massive tower of four
storeys. The round-headed Norman portal is worthy of note. The interior
was restored in 1559, though the pointed arches of the nave, borne by
ancient granite columns, are still visible: and the only mosaics
preserved are those of the apse and the last bay of the choir: they are
remarkably fine specimens of the art of the period (1148) and, though
restored in 1859-1862, have suffered much less than those at Palermo and
Monreale from the process. The figure of the Saviour is especially fine.
The groined vaulting of the roof is visible in the choir and the right
transept, while the rest of the church has a wooden roof. Fine
cloisters, coeval with the cathedral, adjoin it. (See G. Hubbard in
_Journal of the R.I.B.A._ xv. 333 sqq., 1908.) The harbour is
comparatively small. (T. As.)
CEHEGIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on
the right bank of the river Caravaca, a small tributary of the Segura.
Pop. (1900) 11,601. Cehegin has a thriving trade in farm produce,
especially wine, olive oil and hemp; and various kinds of marble are
obtained from quarries near the town. Some of the older houses, however,
as well as the parish church and the convent of San Francisco, which
still has well-defined Roman inscriptions on its walls, are built of
stone from the ruins of _Begastri_, a Roman colony which stood on a
small adjacent hill known as the Cabecico de Roenas. The name _Cehegin_
is sometimes connected by Spanish antiquaries with that of the _Zenaga_,
_Senhaja_ or _Senajeh_, a North African tribe, which invaded Spain in
the 11th century.
CEILING (from a verb "to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed
etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. _ciel_, Lat. _caelum_,
sky), in architecture, the upper covering of a church, hall or room.
Ceilings are now usually formed of plaster, but in former times they
were commonly either boarded (of which St Albans cathedral is perhaps
the earliest example), or showed the beams and joists, which in England
were moulded and carved, and in France and Italy were richly painted and
gilded. Sometimes the ceilings were horizontal, sometimes canted on two
sides, and sometimes they take the form of a barrel-vault. Ribs are
sometimes planted on the boarding to divide up the surface, and their
intersections are enriched with bosses. About the middle of the 16th
century the ceilings were formed in plaster with projecting ribs,
interlaced ornament and pendants, and the characteristics of the
Elizabethan style. At Bramall Hall, Broughton Castle, Hatfield, Knowle,
Sizergh and Levens in Westmorland, and Dorfold in Cheshire, are numerous
examples, some with pendants. In Italy, at the same period, the plaster
ceilings were based on the forms taken by vaulting; they were of
infinite variety and were richly decorated with sunk panels containing
the Roman conventional foliage. Raphael, about 1520, reproduced in the
Vatican some of the stucco-duro ornament which he had studied in the
Golden House of Nero, excavated under his directions. Later, about the
middle of the 16th century, great coves were formed round the room,
which were decorated with cartouches and figures in relief, garlands and
swags. The great halls of the Ducal Palace at Venice and the galleries
of the Pitti Palace at Florence were ceiled in this way. These coved
ceilings were introduced into England in the middle of the 17th century.
In Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh there is a fine ceiling of 1671, with
figures (probably executed by Italian craftsmen) and floral wreaths.
At Coleshill, Berkshire, a ceiling by Inigo Jones (1650) shows a type
which became more or less universal for a century, viz. deeply sunk
panels with modillions round, and bands enriched with foliage, fruit,
&c., in bold relief. Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, James Gibbs, John Webb
and other architects continued on the same lines, and in 1760 Robert
Adam introduced his type of ceiling, sometimes horizontal, and sometimes
segmental, in which panels are suggested only, with slight projecting
lines and rings of leaves, swags and arabesque work, which, like
Raphael's, was found on the ceilings of the Roman tombs and baths in
Rome and Pompeii. George Richardson followed with similar work, and Sir
W. Chambers, in the rooms originally occupied by the Royal Academy and
the learned societies in Somerset House, designed many admirable
ceilings. The moulds of all the ornamental devices of Robert Adam are
preserved and are still utilized for many modern ceilings.
(R. P. S.)
CEILLIER, REMY (1688-1761), Benedictine monk of the Lorraine
congregation of St Vannes. He was the compiler of an immense Patrology,
_Histoire generale des auteurs sacres et ecclesiastiques_ (23 vols.,
Paris, 1720-1763), being a history and analysis of the writings of all
the ecclesiastical writers of the first thirteen centuries. He put
infinite trouble and time into the work, and many portions of it are
exceedingly well done. A later and improved edition was produced in
Paris, 1858, in 14 vols. Ceillier's other work, _Apologie de la morale
des peres de l'eglise_ (Paris, 1718), also won some celebrity.
CELAENAE, an ancient city of Phrygia, situated on the great trade route
to the East. Its acropolis long held out against Alexander in 333 and
surrendered to him at last by arrangement. His successor, Eumenes, made
it for some time his headquarters, as did Antigonus until 301. From
Lysimachus it passed to Seleucus, whose son Antiochus, seeing its
geographical importance, refounded it on a more open site as Apamea
(q.v.). West of the acropolis were the palace of Xerxes and the Agora,
in or near which is the cavern whence the Marsyas, one of the sources of
the Maeander, issues. According to Xenophon, Cyrus had a palace and
large park full of wild animals at Celaenae.
See G. Weber, _Dineir-Celenes_ (1892).
CELANDINE, _Chelidonium majus_, a member of the poppy family, an erect
branched herb from 1 to 2 ft. high with a yellow juice, much divided
leaves, and yellow flowers nearly an inch across, succeeded by a narrow
thin pod opening by a pair of thin valves, separating upwards. The plant
grows in waste places and hedgerows, and is probably an escape from
cultivation. The lesser celandine is a species of _Ranunculus_ (_R.
Ficaria_), a small low-growing herb with smooth heart-shaped leaves and
bright yellow flowers about an inch across, borne each on a stout stalk
springing from a leaf-axil. It flowers in early spring, in pastures and
waste-places.
CELANO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 73 m.
E. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901) 9725. It is finely situated on a hill
above the Lago Fucino, and is dominated by a square castle, with round
towers at the angles, erected in its present form in 1450. It contains
three churches with 13th century facades in the style of those of
Aquila. The origin of the town goes back to Lombard times. A count of
Celano is first mentioned in 1178. It was the birthplace of Thomas of
Celano, the author of the _Dies Irae_.
CELEBES,[1] one of the four Great Sunda Islands in the Dutch East
Indies. Its general outline is extremely irregular, and has been
compared to that of a starfish with the rays torn off from one side,
corresponding to the west side of the island. It consists of four great
peninsulas, extending from a comparatively small nucleus towards the
north-east, east, south-east and south, and separated by the three large
gulfs of Tomini or Gorontalo, Tolo or Tomaiki, and Boni. Of these gulfs
the first is by far the largest, the other two having much wider
entrances and not extending so far inwards. Most important among the
smaller inlets are the bays of Amurang, Kwandang and Tontoli on the
north coast, Palos and Pare-Pare on the west, and Kendari or Vosmaer on
the east. Of the numerous considerable islands which lie north-east,
east and south of Celebes (those off the west coast are few and small),
the chief are prolongations of the four great peninsulas--the Sangir and
Talaut islands off the north-east, the Banggai and Sula off the east,
Wuna and Buton off the south-east, and Saleyer off the south. Including
the adjacent islands, the area of Celebes is estimated at 77,855 sq. m.,
and the population at 2,000,000; without them the area is 69,255 sq. m.
and the population 1,250,000.
The scenery in Celebes is most varied and picturesque. "Nowhere in the
archipelago," wrote A. R. Wallace, "have I seen such gorges, chasms and
precipices as abound in the district of Maros" (in the southern
peninsula); "in many parts there are vertical or even overhanging
precipices five or six hundred feet high, yet completely clothed with a
tapestry of vegetation." Much of the country, especially round the Gulf
of Tolo, is covered with primeval forests and thickets, traversed by
scarcely perceptible paths, or broken with a few clearings and villages.
A considerable part of the island has been little explored, but the
general character seems to be mountainous. Well-defined ranges prolong
themselves through each of the peninsulas, rising in many places to a
considerable elevation. Naturally there are no great river-basins or
extensive plains, but one of the features of the island is the frequent
occurrence, not only along the coasts, but at various heights inland, of
beautiful stretches of level ground often covered with the richest
pastures. Minahassa, the north-eastern extremity, consists of a plateau
divided into sections by volcanoes (Klabat, 6620 ft., being the
highest). Sulphur springs occur here. In the west of the northern
peninsula the interior consists in part of plateaus of considerable
extent enclosed by the coast ranges. Near Lake Posso, in the centre of
the island, the mountains are higher; the Tampiko massif has a height of
nearly 5000 ft., the chains south and west of the lake have a general
altitude of about 5450 ft., with peaks still loftier. In the southern
peninsula two chains stretch parallel with the west and east coasts; the
former is the higher, with a general altitude of 3200 ft. In the south
it joins the Peak of Bonthain, or Lompo-battang, a great volcanic mass
10,088 ft. high. In the east central part of the island the mountain
Koruve exceeds 10,000 ft., and is supposed to be the highest in the
island. An alluvial coast plain, 7 to 9 m. wide, stretches along the
foot of the western chain, and between the two chains is the basin of
the Walannae river, draining northward into Lake Tempe. Little is known
of the orography of the eastern peninsula. At the base of the
south-eastern there is another large lake, Tovieti. In this peninsula
there are parallel ranges on the east and west flanks. The trench
between them is partly occupied by the vast swamp of Lake Opa.
The rivers of the narrow mountainous peninsulas form many rapids and
cataracts; as the Tondano, draining the lake of the same name to the
north-west coast of Minahassa at Menado; the Rano-i-Apo, flowing over
the plateau of Mongondo to the Gulf of Amurang; the Poigar, issuing from
a little-known lake of that plateau; the Lombagin, traversing narrow
canons; and the river of Boni, which has its outfall in the plain of
Gorontalo, near the mouth of the Bolango or Tapa, the latter connected
by a canal with the Lake of Limbotto. All these rivers are navigable by
praus or rafts for only a few miles above the mouth. In central Celebes,
the Kodina flows into Lake Posso, and the Kalaena discharges to the Gulf
of Boni; the Posso, navigable by _blottos_ (canoes formed of hollowed
tree-trunks), is the only river flowing from the lake to the Gulf of
Tomini. The rivers of the southern peninsula, owing to the relief of the
surface, are navigable to a somewhat greater extent. The Walannae flows
into Lake Tempe, and, continued by the Jenrana (Tienrana), which
discharges into the Gulf of Boni, is navigable for small boats; the
Sadang, with many affluents, flows to the west coast, and is navigable
by _sanpans_. The Jenemaja is a broad river, navigable far from the
mouth. The coasts of Celebes are often fertile and well populated; but,
as shown by the marine charts, many sand, mud and stone banks lie near
the shore, and consequently there are few accessible or natural ports
or good roadsteads.
_Geology._--The geological observations on Celebes are too scattered
to reveal its structure. The greater part of the island seems to be
formed of gneiss and other crystalline rocks. These are overlaid by
conglomerates, limestones and clay slates of very doubtful age, the
most interesting being a radiolarian clay which occurs on the south
side of the Matinang Mountains, at the north end of Lake Posso, &c.;
it may correspond with the radiolarian cherts of Borneo. Tertiary beds
are found, especially near the coast. The Eocene includes a series of
sandstones and marls with lignite, and these are overlaid by nummulite
limestones. The Miocene contains an _Orbitoides_ limestone. Intrusive
and volcanic rocks of great variety and of various ages occur.
Peridotite and gabbro form much of the eastern peninsula (Banggai).
Leucite and nepheline rocks have been found in various parts of the
island, especially in the south-west. In Minahassa, at the northern
extremity, there is a large area of tuffs and agglomerates consisting
chiefly of augite andesite, and in this area there are many recent
volcanic cones. Eruptions still take place at intervals, but the
volcanoes for the most part seem to have reached the solfataric stage.
_Climate._--The climate of the island, everywhere accessible to the
influence of the sea, is maritime-tropical, the temperature ranging
generally between 77 deg. and 80 deg. F., the extremes being about 90
deg. and 70 deg. F., only on the higher mountains falling during the
night to 54 deg. or 55 deg. F. The rainfall in the northern peninsula
(north of the equator) differs from that of the southern; the former has
rains (not caused by the monsoon), and of smaller amount, 102 in.
annually; the latter has a greater rainfall, 157 in., brought by the
north-western monsoon, and of which the west coast receives a much
larger share than the east.
_Fauna and Flora._--In spite of its situation in the centre of the
archipelago, Celebes possesses a fauna of a very distinctive kind. The
number of species is small, but in many cases they are peculiar to the
island. Of land birds, for example, about 160 species are known, and of
these not less than about 90 are peculiar, the majority of the remainder
being Asiatic in distinction from Australian. Mammals are few in
species, but remarkable, especially _Macacus niger_, an ape found
nowhere else but in Bachian; _Anoa depressicornis_, a small ox-like
quadruped which inhabits the mountainous districts; and the babirusa or
pig-deer of the Malays. Some of the animals are probably descendants of
specimens introduced by man; others are allied in species, but not
identical, with mammals of Java and Borneo; others again, including the
three just mentioned, are wholly or practically confined to Celebes.
There are no large beasts of prey, and neither the elephant, the
rhinoceros nor the tapir is represented. Wild-buffaloes, swine and goats
are pretty common; and most of the usual domestic animals are kept. The
horses are in high repute in the archipelago; formerly about 700 were
yearly exported to Java, but the supply has considerably diminished.
The same peculiarity of species holds in regard to the insects of the
Celebes (so far as they are known) as to the mammals and birds. Out of
118 species of butterflies, belonging to four important classes, no
fewer than 86 are peculiar; while among the rose-chafers or _Cetoniinae_
the same is the case in 19 out of 30. Equally remarkable with this
presence of peculiar species is the absence of many kinds that are
common in the rest of the archipelago; and these facts have been
considered to indicate connexion with a larger land-mass at a very
distant geological epoch, and the subsequent continuous isolation of
Celebes. This view, however, has been controverted. It is held that in
the Miocene and Pliocene periods there were land connexions with the
Philippines, Java and the Moluccas, and through the last with
Australasian lands to the east and south-east. Migration of species took
place along these lines in both directions. Those immigrants which
remained in what is now Celebes may have developed new species.
Moreover, while Celebes has species which are peculiar to itself and one
other of the islands just mentioned, it has none which it shares
exclusively with Borneo, and thus the importance of the Macassar Strait
as a biological division is indicated.
Vegetation is extremely rich; but there are fewer large trees than in
the other islands of the archipelago. Of plants that furnish food for
man the most important are rice, maize and millet, coffee, the coco-nut
tree, sago-palm, the obi or native potato, the bread-fruit and the
tamarind; with lemons, oranges, mangosteens, wild-plums, Spanish pepper,
beans, melons and sugar-cane. The shaddock is to be found only in the
lower plains. Indigo, cotton and tobacco are grown; the bamboo and the
ratan-palm are common in the woods; and among the larger trees are
sandal-wood, ebony, sapan and teak. The palm, _Arenga saccharifera_,
furnishes _gemuti_ fibres for ropes; its juice is manufactured into
sugar and a beverage called sagueir; and intoxicating drinks are
prepared from several other palms.
_Products._--As in natural vegetation and fauna, so in cultivated
products, Celebes, apart from its peculiarities, presents the
transitional link between the Asiatic and the Australian regions of the
Malayan province. For example, rice is produced here in smaller quantity
and of inferior quality to that in the western part of the archipelago,
but superior to that in the eastern section, where sago and sorghum form
the staple articles of food. The products of the forests supply about
half the total exports. The fisheries include trepang, turtle and pearl
oysters. Gold is worked under European direction in the district of
Gorontalo, but with only partial success; the search for coal in the
southern peninsula has yielded no satisfactory results; tin, iron and
copper, found in the eastern peninsula and elsewhere, are utilized only
for native industries.
_Natives._--The native population of the island is all of Malayan stock.
The three most important peoples are the Bugis (q.v.) the Macassars and
the Mandars. The medley of other Malayan tribes, of a more or less
savage type, living in the island, are known under the collective name
of Alfuros (q.v.). The Macassars are well-built and muscular, and have
in general a dark-brown complexion, a broad and expressive face, black
and sparkling eyes, a high forehead, a flattish nose, a large mouth and
long black soft hair. The women are sprightly, clever and amiable. The
men are brave and not treacherous, but ambitious, jealous and extremely
revengeful. Drunkenness is rare, but they are passionate, and running
amuck is frequent among them. In all sorts of bodily exercises, as
swinging, wrestling, dancing, riding and hunting, they take great
pleasure. Though they call themselves Mahommedans, their religion is
largely mingled with pagan superstitions; they worship animals, and a
certain divinity called Karaeng Love, who has power over their fortune
and health. Except where Dutch influence has made itself felt, little
attention has been paid by the native races to agriculture; and their
manufacturing industries are few and limited. The weaving of cotton
cloth is principally carried on by women; and the process, at least for
the finer description, is tedious in the extreme. The houses are built
of wood and bamboo; and as the use of diagonal struts is not practised,
the walls soon lean over from the force of the winds. The Macassar
language, which belongs to the Malayo-Javanese group, is spoken in many
parts of the southern peninsula; but it has a much smaller area than the
Buginese, which is the language of Boni. It is deficient in
generalizations; thus, for example, it has words for the idea of
carrying in the hand, carrying on the head, carrying on the shoulder,
and so on, but has no word for carrying simply. It has adopted a certain
number of vocables from Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese and Portuguese, but on
the whole is remarkably pure, and has undergone comparatively few recent
changes. It is written in a peculiar character, which has displaced, and
probably been corrupted from, an old form employed as late as the 17th
century. Neither bears any trace of derivation from the Sanskrit
alphabet. The priests affect the use of the Arabic letters. The
literature is poor, and consists largely of romantic stories from the
Malay, and religious treatises from the Arabic. Of the few original
pieces the most important are the early histories of Goa, Tello and some
other states of Celebes, and the _Rapang_, or collection of the decrees
and maxims of the old princes and sages. The more modern productions are
letters, laws and poems, many of the last of considerable beauty.
_Divisions, Towns, Population._--Celebes is divided by the Dutch, for
administrative purposes, into the government of Celebes with
dependencies (south-eastern and southern peninsulas and all west coast),
and the residency of Menado (north-eastern peninsula and coast of Gulf
of Tomini). The eastern peninsula and coast of the Gulf of Tolo belong
politically to the residency of Ternate (q.v.). The following table
shows approximately the distribution and composition of the
population:--
+-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+
| | | | | Other | | |
| |Europeans.|Chinese.|Arabs.| Oriental | Natives.| Total. |
| | | | |Foreigners.| | |
+-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+
| Government of Celebes | | | | | | |
| and Dependencies | 1414 | 3738 | 554 | 54 | 409,739 | 415,499 |
| Residency of Menado-- | | | | | | |
| Minahassa | 836 | 3574 | 286 | 16 |\430,941 | 436,406 |
| Gorontalo | 115 | 505 | 133 | . . |/ | |
+-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+
The _Government of Celebes and Dependencies_ is subdivided into the
government territory, the vassal states (Boni, q.v., and Ternate), and
the federal countries. The density of population for the whole
government is estimated as 3.7 or 4 per sq. m., varying from 2.2 in
the vassal and federated states to 14.7 to 18.4 for Macassar and the
districts directly governed by the Dutch. The density of population in
districts outside the influence of European government sinks to 1 and
less per sq. m. As in the case of Minahassa, the difference must be
explained by physical and moral conditions. Two-thirds of the natives
live by agriculture, and one-third by trade, navigation, shipbuilding
and other industries. In agreement with these principal occupations,
the centres of population are found in southern Celebes, on the coast
(not in the interior plains or on the lake, as in Menado). Palos
(3000), with good port; Pare-Pare, connected by road with Lake Tempe;
and Macassar (17,925), the seat of the governor and the centre of
trade for the eastern part of the archipelago. On the south coast must
also be named Bonthain (4000); on the east coast, Balong-Nipa; and
Buton and Saleyer, seats of administration and ports of call on the
island groups of the same names.
The _Residency of Menado_ comprises three districts: Minahassa, the
little states along the north coast west of Minahassa, and Gorontalo,
including the other states of the northern peninsula lying along the
Gulf of Tomini. The density of population being calculated at about
2.7 to 3 per sq. m. for Celebes, is 16.2 for Minahassa, but only 1.5
to 2 for the Residency of Menado. Centres of population in Menado are
Amurang (3000), the seat of a Dutch controller, and a calling place
for the steamers of the Indian Packet Company; Menado (10,000), the
chief town of the residency, the principal station of the Dutch
missionaries, with a fair amount of trade, but an unsafe roadstead;
Tondano (12,000), near the lake and river of the same name, at an
altitude of nearly 2000 ft., and one of the chief centres; Gorontalo,
one of the most important towns of Celebes, carrying on direct trade
with Singapore and Europe. All the other coast places have some
importance as chief villages of the little states and as ports of call
for the vessels of the steam packet company, but have only from 500 to
1000 inhabitants.
_History._--Celebes was first discovered by the Portuguese in the early
part of the 16th century, the exact date assigned by some authorities
being 1512. The name is not used by the natives, and is apparently of
foreign origin, but has been variously derived, e.g. from the mountain
of Klabat or Kalabat, or from _Seli Besi_, an iron kris carried by the
natives, of whom those who were first asked for the name of the island
were conceived, according to this theory, to have misunderstood their
questioners. At the time of the Portuguese discovery, the Macassars were
the most powerful people in the island, having successfully defended
themselves against the king of the Moluccas and the sultan of Ternate.
In 1609 the British attempted to gain a footing. At what time the Dutch
first arrived is not certainly known, but it was probably in the end of
the 16th or beginning of the 17th century, since in 1607 they formed a
connexion with Macassar. In 1611 the Dutch East Indian Company obtained
the monopoly of trade on the island of Buton; and in 1618 an
insurrection in Macassar gave them an opportunity of obtaining a
definite establishment there. In 1660 the kingdom was subjugated, but in
1666 the war broke out anew. It was brought to an end in the following
year, and the treaty of Bonga or Banga was signed, by which the Dutch
were recognized as protectors. In 1683 the north-eastern part of the
island was conquered by Robert Paddenburg and placed under the command
of the governor of the Moluccas. In 1703 a fort was erected at Menado.
The kingdom of Boni was successfully attacked in 1824, and in August of
that year the Bonga treaty was renewed in a greatly modified form. Since
then the principal military event is the Boni insurrection which was
quelled in 1859, but this was far from pacifying the country
permanently. A series of revolts of various chiefs in 1905-6 was not
arrested without considerable fighting, but after this the whole island
was brought under Dutch authority, even where native rule survived.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In P. J. Veth's _Woordenboek van Nederlandsch Indie_
there will be found an extensive bibliography of Celebes drawn up by
H. C. Millies. For additional bibliography and data for the island and
its population, see C. M. Kan, "Celebes," in the _Encyclopaedie van
Nederlandsch Indie_, ed. by P.A. van der Lith and A. H. Spaan (The
Hague, 1895), &c., vol. i. p. 314. See P. and F. Sarasin (who have
carried out extensive explorations in the island), "Berichte aus
Celebes," _Zeitschr. der Ges. f. Erdk._ xxix. 351; _Entwurf einer
geographisch-geologischen Beschreibung der Insel Celebes_ (Wiesbaden,
1901); _Reisen in Celebes, 1893-1896, 1902-1903_ (Wiesbaden, 1905);
_Versuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes_ (Wiesbaden, 1906); C.
van der Hart, _Reize rondon het Eiland Celebes_ (The Hague, 1853);
Capt. R. Mundy, _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes_ (London,
1848); P. J. Veth, _Een Nederlandsch reiziger op Zuid Celebes_
(Amsterdam, 1875); J. G. F. Riedel, _Het landschap Boeool, Noord
Selebes_ (1872); and "Die Landschaften Holontalo, Limoeto," &c., in
_Zeitschr. fur Ethnologie_ (1871); H. Bucking, "Beitrage zur Geologie
von Celebes," _Samml. geol. Reichsmus. Leiden_, vol. vii. pp. 29-205
(1902), pp. 221-224 (1904); and various articles in _Tijdschrift v. h.
Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ and _Tijdsch. v. h. Batavian. Gen._