Cavendish's scientific work is distinguished for the wideness of its

range and for its extraordinary exactness and accuracy. The papers he

himself published form an incomplete record of his researches, for many

of the results he obtained only became generally known years after his

death; yet in spite of the absence of anything approaching

self-advertisement he acquired a very high reputation within his own

country and abroad, recognized by the Institute of France in 1803 when

it chose him as one of its eight foreign associates. Arsenic formed the

subject of his first recorded investigation, on which he was engaged at

least as early as 1764, and in 1766 he began those communications to the

Royal Society on the chemistry of gases, which are among his chief

titles to fame. The first (_Phil. Trans._, 1766) consists of "Three

papers containing experiments on Factitious Airs," dealing mostly with

"inflammable air" (hydrogen), which he was the first to recognize as a

distinct substance, and "fixed air" (carbon dioxide). He determined the

specific gravity of these gases with reference to common air,

investigated the extent to which they are absorbed by various liquids,

and noted that common air containing one part in nine by volume of fixed

air is no longer able to support combustion, and that the air produced

by fermentation and putrefaction has properties identical with those of

fixed air obtained from marble. In the following year he published a

paper on the analysis of one of the London pump-waters (from Rathbone

Place, Oxford Street), which is closely connected with the memoirs just

mentioned, since it shows that the calcareous matter in that water is

held in solution by the "fixed air" present and can be precipitated by

lime. Electrical studies seem next to have engaged his attention, and in

1771 and 1772 he read to the Royal Society his "Attempt to explain some

of the principal phenomena of electricity by an elastic fluid," which

was followed in 1775 by an "Attempt to imitate the effects of the

Torpedo (a fish allied to the ray)" (_Phil. Trans._, 1776). But these

two memoirs contain only a part of the electrical researches he carried

out between 1771 and 1781, and many more were found after his death in a

number of sealed packets of papers. The contents of these for a long

time remained unknown, but ultimately by permission of the duke of

Devonshire, to whom they belonged, they were edited by James Clerk

Maxwell and published in 1879 by the Cambridge University Press as the

_Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish_. About 1777 or 1778

he resumed his pneumatic inquiries, though he published nothing on the

subject till 1783. In that year he described a new eudiometer to the

Royal Society and detailed observations he had made to determine whether

or not the atmosphere is constant in composition; after testing the air

on nearly 60 different days in 1781 he could find in the proportion of

oxygen no difference of which he could be sure, nor could he detect any

sensible variation at different places. Two papers on "Experiments with

Airs," printed in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1784 and 1785, contain his

great discoveries of the compound nature of water and the composition of

nitric acid. Starting from an experiment, narrated by Priestley, in

which John Warltire fired a mixture of common air and hydrogen by

electricity, with the result that there was a diminution of volume and a

deposition of moisture, Cavendish burnt about two parts of hydrogen

with five of common air, and noticed that almost all the hydrogen and

about one-fifth of the common air lost their elasticity and were

condensed into a dew which lined the inside of the vessel employed. This

dew he judged to be pure water. In another experiment he fired, by the

electric spark, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (dephlogisticated air),

and found that the resulting water contained nitric acid, which he

argued must be due to the nitrogen present as an impurity in the oxygen

("phlogisticated air with which it [the dephlogisticated air] is

debased"). In the 1785 paper he proved the correctness of this

supposition by showing that when electric sparks are passed through

common air there is a shrinkage of volume owing to the nitrogen uniting

with the oxygen to form nitric acid. Further, remarking that little was

known of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere, and thinking it

might fairly be doubted "whether there are not in reality many different

substances confounded together by us under the name of phlogisticated

air," he made an experiment to determine whether the whole of a given

portion of nitrogen (phlogisticated air) of the atmosphere could be

reduced to nitric acid. He found that a small fraction, not more than

1/120th part, resisted the change, and in this residue he doubtless had

a sample of the inert gas argon which was only recognized as a distinct

entity more than a hundred years later. His last chemical paper,

published in 1788, on the "Conversion of a mixture of dephlogisticated

and phlogisticated air into nitrous acid by the electric spark,"

describes measures he took to authenticate the truth of the experiment

described in the 1785 paper, which had "since been tried by persons of

distinguished ability in such pursuits without success." It may be noted

here that, while Cavendish adhered to the phlogistic doctrine, he did

not hold it with anything like the tenacity that characterized

Priestley; thus, in his 1784 paper on "Experiments on Air," he remarks

that not only the experiments he is describing, but also "most other

phenomena of nature seem explicable as well, or nearly as well," upon

the Lavoisierian view as upon the commonly believed principle of

phlogiston, and he goes on to give an explanation in terms of the

antiphlogistic hypothesis.

Early in his career Cavendish took up the study of heat, and had he

promptly published his results he might have anticipated Joseph Black as

the discoverer of latent heat and of specific heat. But he made no

reference to his work till 1783, when he presented to the Royal Society

some "Observations on Mr Hutchins's experiments for determining the

degree of cold at which quicksilver freezes." This paper, with others

published in 1786 and 1788, is concerned with the phenomena attending

the freezing of various substances, and is noteworthy because in it he

expresses doubt of the supposition that "the heat of bodies is owing to

their containing more or less of a substance called the matter of heat,"

and inclines to Newton's opinion that it "consists in the internal

motion of the particles of bodies." His "Account of the Meteorological

Apparatus used at the Royal Society's House" (_Phil. Trans._, 1776)

contains remarks on the precautions necessary in making and using

thermometers, a subject which is continued in the following year in a

report signed by him and six others.

Cavendish's last great achievement was his famous series of experiments

to determine the density of the earth (_Phil. Trans._, 1798). The

apparatus he employed was devised by the Rev. John Michell, though he

had the most important parts reconstructed to his own designs; it

depended on measuring the attraction exercised on a horizontal bar,

suspended by a vertical wire and bearing a small lead ball at each end,

by two large masses of lead. (See GRAVITATION.) The figure he gives for

the specific gravity of the earth is 5.48, water being 1, but in fact

the mean of the 29 results he records works out at 5.448. Other

publications of his later years dealt with the height of an aurora seen

in 1784 (_Phil. Trans._, 1790), the civil year of the Hindus (_Id._,

1792), and an improved method of graduating astronomical instruments

(_Id._, 1809). Cavendish also had a taste for geology, and made several

tours in England for the purpose of gratifying it.

A life by George Wilson (1818-1859), printed for the Cavendish Society

in 1851, contains an account of his writings, both published and

unpublished, together with a critical inquiry into the claims of all

the alleged discoverers of the composition of water. Some of his

instruments are preserved in the Royal Institution, London, and his

name is commemorated in the Cavendish Physical Laboratory at

Cambridge, which was built by his kinsman the 7th duke of Devonshire.

CAVENDISH [CANDISH], THOMAS (1555?-1592), the third circumnavigator of

the globe, was born at Trimley St Martin, Suffolk. On quitting Corpus

Christi College, Cambridge (without a degree), he almost ruined himself

by his extravagance as a courtier. To repair his fortune he turned to

maritime and colonial enterprise, and in 1585 accompanied Sir Richard

Grenville to America. Soon returning to England, he undertook an

elaborate imitation of Drake's great voyage. On the 21st of July 1586,

he sailed from Plymouth with 123 men in three vessels, only one of which

(the "Desire," of 140 tons) came home. By way of Sierra Leone, the Cape

Verde Islands and C. Frio in Brazil, he coasted down to Patagonia (where

he discovered "Port Desire," his only important contribution to

knowledge), and passing through Magellan's Straits, fell upon the

Spanish settlements and shipping on the west coast of South and Central

America and of Mexico. Among his prizes were nineteen vessels of worth,

and especially the treasure-galleon, the "Great St Anne," which he

captured off Cape St Lucas, the southern extremity of California

(November 14, 1587). After this success he struck across the Pacific for

home; touched at the Ladrones, Philippines, Moluccas and Java; rounded

the Cape of Good Hope; and arrived again at Plymouth (September 9-10,

1588), having circumnavigated the globe in two years and fifty days. It

is said that his sailors were clothed in silk, his sails were damask,

and his top-mast covered with cloth of gold. Yet by 1591 he was again in

difficulties, and planned a fresh American and Pacific venture. John

Davis (q.v.) accompanied him, but the voyage (undertaken with five

vessels) was an utter failure, much of the fault lying with Cavendish

himself, who falsely accused Davis, with his last breath, of deserting

him (May 20, 1592). He died and was buried at sea, on the way home, in

the summer of 1592.

See Hakluyt's _Principal Navigations_, (a) edition of 1589, p. 809

(N.H.'s narrative of the voyage of 1586-1588); (b) edition of

1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 803-825 (Francis Pretty's narrative of the

same); (c) edition of 1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 251-253 (on the venture

of 1585); (d) edition of 1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 845-852 (John Lane's

narrative of the last voyage, of 1591-1592); also _Stationers'

Registers_ (Arber), vol. ii. pp. 505-509; the Molyneux Globe of 1592,

in the library of the Middle Temple, London, and the Ballads in _Biog.

Brit._, vol. i. p. 1196.

CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1557), founder of the English noble

house of Cavendish, was the younger brother of George Cavendish (q.v.).

His father, Thomas, was a descendant of Sir John Cavendish, the judge,

who in 1381 was murdered by Jack Straw's insurgent peasants at Bury St

Edmunds. Of William's education nothing seems known, but in 1530 he was

appointed one of the commissioners for visiting monasteries; he worked

directly under Thomas Cromwell, whom he calls "master" and to whom many

of his extant letters are addressed. In 1541 he was auditor of the court

of augmentations, in 1546 treasurer of the king's chamber, and was

knighted and sworn of the privy council. Under Edward VI. and Mary he

continued in favour at court; during the latter's reign he partially

conformed, but on the occasion of the war with France he with other

Derbyshire gentlemen refused the loan of L100 demanded by the queen. He

died in 1557. Cavendish acquired large properties from the spoils of the

monasteries, but in accordance with the wish of his third wife Elizabeth

he sold them to purchase land in Derbyshire. This wife was the

celebrated "building Bess of Hardwick," daughter of John Hardwicke, of

Hardwicke, Derbyshire; she completed the original building of Chatsworth

House,--begun in 1553 by her husband,--of which nothing now remains. Her

fourth husband was George Talbot, 6th earl of Shrewsbury. By her

Cavendish had six children; an elder son who died without issue;

William, who in 1618 was created earl of Devonshire; Charles, whose son

William became 1st duke of Newcastle; Frances, who married Sir Henry

Pierpont, and was the ancestress of the dukes of Kingston; Elizabeth,

who married Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox, and was the mother of

Arabella Stuart; and Mary, who married Gilbert Talbot, 7th earl of

Shrewsbury.

CAVETTO (Ital. diminutive of _cavo_, hollow), in architecture, the term

given to a hollow concave moulding sometimes employed in the place of

the cymatium of a cornice, as in that of the Doric order of the theatre

of Marcellus. It forms the crowning feature of the Egyptian temples, and

took the place of the cymatium in many of the Etruscan temples.

CAVIARE, or CAVIAR, the roe of various species of _Acipenser_ or

sturgeon (q.v.), prepared, in several qualities, as an article of food.

The word is common to most European languages and supposed to be of Turk

or Tatar origin, but the Turk word _khavyah_ is probably derived from

the Ital. _caviale_; the word does not appear in Russian. The best

caviare, which can only be made in winter and is difficult to preserve,

is the loosely granulated, almost liquid, kind, known in Russia as

_ikra_. It is prepared by beating the ovaries and straining through a

sieve to clear the eggs of the membranes, fibres and fatty matter; it is

then salted with from 4-6% of salt. The difficulty of preparation and of

transport has made it a table delicacy in western Europe, where it has

been known since the 16th century, as is evidenced by Hamlet's "His play

... pleased not the million, 'twas caviare to the general." It is eaten

either as an _hors d'oeuvre_, particularly in Russia and northern Europe

with kummel or other liqueurs, or as a savoury, or as a flavouring to

other dishes. The coarser quality, in Russia known as _pajusnaya_ (from

_pajus_, the adherent skin of the ovaries), is more strongly salted in

brine and is pressed into a more solid form than the _ikra_; it is then

packed in small barrels or hermetically-sealed tins. This forms a staple

article of food in Russia and eastern Europe. Though the best forms of

caviare are still made in Russia, and the greater quantity of the

coarser kinds are exported from Astrakhan, the centre of the trade,

larger amounts are made each year for export in America and also in

Germany, Norway and Sweden. The roe of tunny and mullet, pickled in

brine and vinegar, is used, under the name of "Botargo," along the

Mediterranean littoral and in the Levant.

CAVITE, a fortified seaport, the capital of the province of Cavite,

Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the seat of the principal Asiatic naval

station of the United States, on a forked tongue of land in Manila Bay,

8 m. S. of the city of Manila. Pop. (1903) 4494; with the barrios of San

Roque and Caridad (on the main peninsula), which are under the municipal

government of Cavite (15,630). Cavite is the terminus of a railway which

follows the shore of the bay from Manila. The northern part of the town,

Sangley Point (one of the two forks of the main peninsula), is the

principal coaling station of the U.S. fleet in Asiatic waters. The naval

station proper and the old town of Cavite are on the south fork of the

peninsula. Cavite's buildings are mostly of stone, with upper storeys of

wood; its streets are narrow and crooked. It has five churches (one of

these is an independent Filipino church), and is the seat of a

provincial high school. Cavite has long been the principal naval base of

the Philippine Islands, and one of the four Spanish penitentiaries in

the Islands was here. During the 19th century Cavite was the centre of

political disturbances in the Philippines; in 1896 on the parade ground

thirteen political prisoners were executed, and to their memory a

monument was erected in 1906 at the head of the isthmus connecting with

the main peninsula. The town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in

1880. It was taken from the Spanish by an American squadron under

Commodore George Dewey in May 1898.

CAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO, COUNT (1810-1861), Italian statesman, was born at

Turin on the 1st of August 1810. The Bensos, who belonged to the old

Piedmontese feudal aristocracy, were a very ancient house, said to be

descended from a Saxon warrior who settled at Santena in the 12th

century and married a Piedmontese heiress; Camillo's father, the marquis

Michele, married a noble Genevese lady, and both he and his wife held

offices in the household of Prince Borghese, the governor of Piedmont

under Napoleon, and husband of the latter's sister, Pauline Bonaparte.

Being a younger son (his brother Gustavo was the eldest) Cavour was

destined for the army, and when ten years old he entered the military

academy at Turin. On leaving the college at the age of sixteen he was

first of his class, and received a commission in the engineers. He spent

the next five years in the army, residing at Ventimiglia, Genoa, and

various Alpine fortresses to superintend defence works; but he spent his

leisure hours in study, especially of the English language. He soon

developed strongly marked Liberal tendencies and an uncompromising

dislike for absolutism and clericalism, which, as he had not acquired

the art of reticence, made him a suspect in the eyes of the police and

of the reactionaries; at the same time he does not seem to have joined

any secret society, for he was too loyal to conspire against the king

whose uniform he wore, and he did not believe that the time was yet ripe

for a revolution. But after the accession to the throne of Charles

Albert, whom he always distrusted, he felt that his position in the army

was intolerable, and resigned his commission (1831). From that moment we

find him in the ranks of the opponents of the government, although his

was always a loyal and straightforward opposition which held aloof from

conspiracies. During the next few years he devoted himself to the study

of political and social problems, to foreign travel, and to acquiring a

thorough knowledge of practical agriculture. Cavour's political ideas

were greatly influenced by the July revolution of 1830 in France, which

proved that an historic monarchy was not incompatible with Liberal

principles, and he became more than ever convinced of the benefits of a

constitutional monarchy as opposed both to despotism and to

republicanism. But he was not affected by the doctrinaire Liberalism of

the time, and his views were strengthened by his studies of the British

constitution, of which he was a great admirer; he was even nicknamed

"Milord Camillo." He frequently visited Paris and London, where he

plunged into the political and social questions of the day, and

contributed among other essays two admirable and prophetic articles, one

on the Irish question, in which he strongly defended the Union, and

another on the Corn Laws. He applied his knowledge of agriculture to the

management of his father's estate at Leri, which he greatly improved, he

founded the Piedmontese Agricultural Society, and took the lead in

promoting the introduction of steam navigation, railways and factories

into the country.

Thus his mind gradually evolved, and he began to dream dreams of a

united Italy free of foreign influence, but owing to the reactionary

policy of the Piedmontese government he was unable to take any active

part in politics. In 1847, however, the psychological moment seemed to

have arrived, for the new pope, Pius IX., showed marked Liberal

tendencies and seemed ready to lead all the forces of Italian patriotism

against the Austrian domination. The hopes of the Italian Liberals rose

high and the so-called neo-Guelph party, represented by such men as

Vincenzo Gioberti and Cesare Balbo, believed that an Italian

confederation might be formed under the presidency of the pope. Cavour,

although he realized that a really Liberal pope was an impossibility,

saw the importance of the movement and the necessity of profiting by it.

Together with Balbo, P. di Santa Rosa, and M. Castelli, he founded a

newspaper at Turin called _Il Risorgimento_, which advocated the ideas

of constitutional reform in Piedmont, with a view to preparing that

country for an important role in the upheaval which seemed imminent. In

January 1848 the revolution first broke out in Sicily. Cavour, in a

speech before a delegation of journalists, declared that the king must

take a decided line and grant his people a constitution. Strong pressure

was brought to bear on Charles Albert, and after much hesitation he was

induced to grant a charter of liberties (February 8, 1848). Cesare Balbo

was called upon to form the first constitutional ministry; but Cavour

was not offered a seat in it, being suspected by Liberals and

Conservatives alike. He continued his journalistic activity, and his

articles in the _Risorgimento_ came to exercise great influence both on

the king and on public opinion. When the news of the revolt of the

Milanese against the Austrians, known as the Five Days, reached Turin on

the 19th of March, Cavour felt that the time for Piedmont to act with

energy had come, and advocated war against Austria. "After deliberately

weighing each word," he wrote, "we are bound in conscience to declare

that only one path is open to the nation, the government, and the king:

war, immediate war!" Piedmont was the only part of Italy enjoying a

government at once national and independent, and if it did not hasten to

the assistance of the Milanese in their desperate struggle, if possible

before the Austrians were expelled, the monarchy could not survive. The

situation was most critical, and even the British government was not

friendly to Piedmont; but Cavour was prepared to face any danger rather

than see his country inactive. In an article in the _Risorgimento_ he

declared that, while he never believed that material help was to be

expected from England, he was convinced that she would not actively help

Austria to crush the revolution, but that if she did "she would have

against her a coalition not of princes, but of peoples." Cavour's

article made such an impression that it put an end to the king's

vacillations, and a few days after its appearance war was declared

(March 25).

For a few months patriotic and revolutionary enthusiasm carried all

before it. In Hungary, in Germany, in Paris, in Vienna itself the

revolution was triumphant; constitutions were granted, dynasties

tottered and fell, and provisional governments were set up. In all parts

of Italy, too, revolts broke out against the established order. But the

Piedmontese army, although the troops behaved with gallantry, was no

match for Austria's veteran legions, and except in a few minor

engagements, in one of which Cavour's nephew Gustavo was killed, it was

generally unsuccessful, and an armistice was concluded in the summer. In

the meanwhile the elections were being held in Piedmont. Cavour himself

was not returned until the supplementary elections in June, and he took

his seat in parliament on the right as a Conservative. His parliamentary

career was not at first very successful; he was not a ready speaker; his

habit of talking French made Italian difficult for him, and, although

French was at that time allowed in the chamber, he preferred to speak

Italian. But he gradually developed a strong argumentative power, his

speeches became models of concise reasoning, and he rose at times to the

highest level of an eloquence which was never rhetorical. After the

dissolution in January 1849, Cavour was not re-elected. The new

parliament had to discuss, in the first instance, the all-important

question of whether the campaign should be continued now that the

armistice was about to expire. The king decided on a last desperate

throw, and recommenced hostilities. On the 23rd of March the Piedmontese

were totally defeated at Novara, a disaster which was followed

immediately by the abdication of Charles Albert in favour of his son

Victor Emmanuel II.

Although the new king was obliged to conclude peace with Austria and the

Italian revolution was crushed, Cavour nevertheless did not despair; he

believed that so long as the constitution was maintained in Piedmont,

the Italian cause was safe. There were fresh elections in July, and this

time Cavour was returned. He was still in the difficult position of a

moderate Liberal at a time when there seemed to be room for none but

reactionaries and conspirators, but by his consummate ability he

convinced men that his attitude was the right one, and he made it

triumph. His speech on the 7th of March 1850, in which he said that,

"Piedmont, gathering to itself all the living forces of Italy, would be

soon in a position to lead our mother-country to the high destinies to

which she is called," made a deep impression, for it struck the first

note of encouragement after the dark days of the preceding year. He

supported the ministry of which Massimo d' Azeglio was president in its

work of reform and restoration, and in October of the same year, on the

death of Santa Rosa, he himself was appointed minister of agriculture,

industry and commerce. In 1851 he also assumed the portfolio of finance,

and devoted himself to the task of reorganizing the Piedmontese

finances. By far the ablest man in the cabinet, he soon came to dominate

it, and, in his anxiety to dominate the chamber as well, he negotiated

the union of the Right Centre with the Left Centre (a manoeuvre known as

the _connubio_), and promoted the election of Urbano Rattazzi to the

presidency of the chamber. This, which he accomplished without d'

Azeglio's knowledge, led to a split between that statesman and Cavour,

and to the latter's resignation. Cavour has been blamed for not

informing his colleagues of the compact, but for public reasons it was

not desirable that the _connubio_ should be discussed before it was

consummated. D' Azeglio indeed bore no malice, and remained Cavour's

friend. Cavour made use of his freedom to visit England and France

again, in order to sound public opinion on the Italian question. In

London he found the leaders of both parties friendly, and Lord

Palmerston told him that if the constitutional experiment in Piedmont

succeeded the Italian despots were doomed. At this time Sir James Hudson

was appointed British minister at Turin, where he became the intimate

friend of Cavour and gave him valuable assistance. In Paris, Cavour had

a long interview with Prince Louis Napoleon, then president of the

republic, and he already foresaw the great part which that ruler was

destined to play in Italian affairs. He also met several Italian exiles

in France.

On Cavour's return he found the country in the throes of a new cabinet

crisis, in consequence of which, on d' Azeglio's recommendation, he was

invited to form a ministry. By the 4th of November he was prime

minister, a position which he held with two short interruptions until

his death. He devoted the first years of his premiership to developing

the economic resources of the country; but in preparing it for greater

destinies, he had to meet the heavy expenditure by increased taxation,

and some of his measures made him the object of hostile demonstrations,

although he soon outlived his unpopularity. Cavour's first international

difficulty was with Austria; after the abortive rising at Milan in

February 1853, the Austrian government, in addition to other measures of

repression, confiscated the estates of those Lombards who had become

naturalized Piedmontese, although they had nothing to do with the

outbreak. Cavour took a strong line on this question, and on Austria's

refusal to withdraw the obnoxious decree, he recalled the Piedmontese

minister from Vienna, thus by his very audacity winning the sympathy of

the Western powers.

Then followed the Crimean War, in which Cavour first showed his

extraoidinary political insight and diplomatic genius. The first

suggestion of Piedmontese co-operation is usually believed to have come

from England, who desired the Italian contingent, not only as material

assistance, but also in order to reduce the overwhelming French

preponderance. From the Piedmontese point of view there were several

reasons why Cavour should desire his country to participate in the

campaign. Firstly, it was advisable to use every opportunity of making

the Italian question an international one; secondly, by joining the

alliance Piedmont would place the Western powers under an obligation;

thirdly, Cavour, like Balbo, believed that the Italian question was

bound up with the Eastern problem, and as Austria was demanding the

permission of the powers to occupy Alessandria, as a guarantee that

Piedmont would not profit by the war in the East to create trouble in

Italy, Piedmontese participation would in itself prove the best

guarantee; and finally, as he always looked to Italy and not merely to

Piedmont, he felt that, having proved to Europe that Italians could

combine order with liberty, it remained to show that they were capable

of fighting as well. But there were serious difficulties in the way. Had

Austria joined the allies, as at one time seemed probable, Sardinia's

position fighting by her side would have been an impossible one. On the

other hand, Piedmont could not demand definite promises of future aid

from the Western powers as some politicians desired, because these would

never have been given, lest Austria should be offended and driven into

the arms of Russia. Then, both the extreme Conservatives and the extreme

Radicals were opposed to expenditure on foreign adventures for which

they could see no use. In all these difficulties, however, Cavour was

loyally supported by the king, who saw the advantages of Piedmontese

participation, even if unattended by definite promises. General

Dabormida, the minister of foreign affairs, disapproved of this policy

and resigned. The vacant portfolio was offered to d' Azeglio, who

refused it; whereupon Cavour assumed it himself. On the same day

(January 10, 1855) the treaty with France and England was signed, and

shortly afterwards 15,000 Piedmontese troops under General La Marmora

were despatched to the Crimea.

Events at first seemed to justify the fears of Cavour's opponents.

Cholera attacked the Piedmontese soldiers, who for a long time had no

occasion to distinguish themselves in action; public opinion became

despondent and began to blame Cavour, and even he himself lost heart.

Then came the news of the battle of the Tchernaya, fought and won by the

Italians, which turned sadness and doubt into jubilation. Joy was felt

throughout Italy, especially at Milan, where the victory was the first

sign of daylight amid the gloom caused by the return of the Austrians.

Everyone realized that the Piedmontese contingent was fighting Italy's

battles. But to Cavour the announcement that Russia had accepted

Austrian mediation (January 16, 1856) was a great disappointment. He had

always hoped that if the war continued Austria would be forced to side

with Russia in return for the aid given by the emperor Nicholas in

suppressing the Hungarian revolt in 1849, and the Western powers would

then have an opportunity of helping the Italian cause. He sent a

memorandum, at Napoleon's request, to Count Walewski, the French

minister of foreign affairs, setting forth a kind of minimum programme

of Piedmont's claims. On the summoning of the congress of Paris at the

conclusion of the war, Cavour first proposed that d' Azeglio should

represent Piedmont, and on the latter's refusal decided to go himself.

After much discussion, and in spite of the opposition of Austria, who as

mediator occupied a predominant position, behaving "as though she had

taken Sevastopol," Cavour obtained that Piedmont should be treated as

one of the great powers. Although he did not expect that the congress

would liberate Italy, yet by his marvellous diplomatic skill, far

superior to that of his colleagues, he first succeeded in isolating

Austria, secondly in indirectly compromising Napoleon in the Italian

question, and thirdly in getting the wretched conditions of Italy

discussed by the representatives of the great powers, who declared that

some remedy to that state of things was necessary, not in the interests

of Italy alone, but of all Europe. A scheme of reform proposed by Count

Walewski gave Cavour the opportunity to plead the Italian cause, and

from that moment it was manifest to all that the liberation of Italy was

personified in him, the statesman who came to hold all the strings of

European politics in his hands.

Cavour's chief measure of internal reform during this period was a bill

for suppressing all monastic orders unconnected with education,

preaching or charity; this aroused strong opposition from the extremists

of both parties and also from the king, and led to the minister's

resignation. But he was soon recalled, for the country could not do

without him, and the bill was passed (May 29, 1855).

Cavour now saw that war with Austria was merely a question of time, and

he began to establish connexions with the revolutionists of all parts of

Italy, largely by means of La Farina; but it was necessary that this

policy should not be advertised to Europe, and he strongly

discountenanced Mazzini's abortive revolutionary attempts. He continued

to strengthen Piedmont's military resources, and the army soon grew too

large for the country and was obviously destined for more than merely

defensive purposes. But he well knew that although Piedmont must be made

as efficient as possible from the military point of view, it could not

defeat Austria single-handed. He would have preferred an alliance with

Great Britain, who would never demand territorial compensation; but

although British sympathies were wholly Italian, the government was

desperately anxious to avoid war. From Napoleon more was to be hoped,

for the emperor still preserved some of his revolutionary instincts,

while the insecurity of his situation at home made him eager to gain

popularity by winning military glory abroad; but he still hesitated, and

Cavour devoted the whole of his ability to overcoming his doubts. In the

midst of these negotiations came Orsini's attempt on Napoleon's life

(January 14, 1858), which threatened to alienate his Italian sympathies

and cause serious embarrassments to Piedmont. But after some

remonstrances to Piedmont for not acting with sufficient energy against

the revolutionists, the incident was settled: and Napoleon was, in fact,

afraid that if he did not help the Italian cause more such attempts

would be made. A month after the Orsini outrage he laid before Cavour a

proposal for a Franco-Piedmontese alliance and the marriage of Prince

Jerome Bonaparte with Princess Clothilde, the daughter of Victor

Emmanuel.

An "accidental" meeting between Napoleon and Cavour was arranged and

took place at Plombieres in July, and although no one knew what passed,

the news of it fell like a bombshell on the diplomatic world. No

definite treaty was signed, but the basis of an agreement was laid,

whereby France and Piedmont were to declare war against Austria with the

object of expelling her from Italy, and a north Italian state was to be

formed; in exchange for this help France was to receive Savoy and

possibly Nice. But the emperor still hesitated, and refused to decide on

war unless Austria attacked Piedmont; the British government, too, in

its anxiety to preserve peace, was not very friendly to the Italian

cause. Cavour saw that the only way to overcome all these obstacles was

to force Austria's hand. Then there was the danger lest an Italy freed

by French arms should be overwhelmed under French predominance; for this

reason Cavour was determined to secure the co-operation of volunteers

from other parts of Italy, and that the war should be accompanied by a

series of risings against Austria and the local despots. It was also

necessary that the risings should break out in the various provinces

_before_ the Piedmontese and French troops arrived, so that the latter

should not appear as invaders and conquerors, but merely as liberators.

The moment war was seen to be imminent, parties of Italians of all

classes, especially Lombards, poured into Piedmont to enlist in the

army. Cavour also had a secret interview with Garibaldi, with whom he

arranged to organize volunteer corps so that the army should be not

merely that of Piedmont, but of all Italy. Every day the situation grew

more critical, and on the 10th of January 1859 the king in his speech

from the throne pronounced the memorable words "that he could not remain

deaf to the cry of pain (_il grido di dolore_) that reached him from all

parts of Italy"--words which, although actually suggested by Napoleon,

rang like a trumpet-call throughout the land. In the meanwhile the

marriage negotiations were concluded, and during the emperor's visit to

Turin a military convention was signed between the two states, and Savoy

and Nice were promised to France as a reward for the expulsion of the

Austrians from Italy. But the British government was still unfavourable,

and Napoleon, ever hesitating, again sought an excuse for backing out of

his engagements; he jumped at the Russian proposal to settle the Italian

question by means of his own favourite expedient, a congress. To this

Austria agreed on condition that Piedmont should disarm and should be

excluded from the congress; England supported the scheme, but desired

that all the Italian states should be represented. Cavour was in despair

at the turn events were taking, and appealed to Napoleon, actually

threatening to emigrate to America and publish all his correspondence

with the emperor if the latter did not keep his engagements. He decided

at last most reluctantly to accept the English proposal, lest Piedmont

should be abandoned by all, but clung to the hope that Austria would

reject it. On the 19th of April the Austrian emperor, on the advice of

the military party, did reject it; and on the 23rd, to Cavour's

inexpressible joy, Austria sent an ultimatum demanding the disarmament

of Piedmont. Cavour replied that his government had agreed to the

congress proposed by the powers and that it had nothing more to say. On

quitting the chamber that day he said to a friend: "I am leaving the

last sitting of the last Piedmontese parliament"--the next would

represent united Italy. France now allied herself definitely with

Piedmont, and England, delighted at Cavour's acquiescence to her own

proposal and enraged by Austria's ultimatum, became wholly friendly to

the Italian cause. A few days later Austria declared war.

As La Marmora now took the chief command of the army, Cavour added the

ministry of war to the others he already held. His activity at this time

was astounding, for he was virtually dictator and controlled

single-handed nearly all the chief offices of the state. The French

troops entered Piedmont, where they were received with enthusiasm, and

the allies marched into Lombardy; the victory of Magenta, which opened

the gates of Milan to them, was shortly followed by that of Solferino.

The people rose in arms at Parma, Modena, Florence and Bologna, which

had been occupied by Austria for the pope since 1849; the local princes

were expelled and provisional governments set up. Cavour sent special

commissioners to take charge of the various provinces in Victor

Emmanuel's name. But these events, together with Prussia's menacing

attitude, began to alarm Napoleon, who, although he wished to destroy

Austrian influence in Italy, was afraid of a large and powerful Italian

state. Consequently, after Solferino, he concluded an armistice with

Austria at Villafranca on the 8th of July, without previously informing

Cavour. When Cavour heard of it he was thunderstruck; he immediately

interviewed the king at Monzambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful

language implored him not to make peace until Venice was free. But

Victor Emmanuel saw that nothing was to be gained by a refusal, and much

against his own inclination, signed the peace preliminaries at

Villafranca, adding the phrase, "pour ce qui me concerne," which meant

that he was not responsible for what the people of other parts of Italy

might do (July 12). Lombardy was to be ceded to Piedmont, Venetia to

remain Austrian, the deposed princes to be reinstated, and the pope made

president of an Italian confederation.

The cabinet resigned the next day, but remained in office provisionally,

and Cavour privately advised the revolutionists of central Italy to

resist the return of the princes, by force if necessary: "for we must

now become conspirators ourselves," he said. His policy was thus

continued after he left office, and Palmerston, who had meanwhile

succeeded Malmesbury as foreign minister, informed France and Austria

that Great Britain would never tolerate their armed intervention in

favour of the central Italian despots. The new Piedmontese ministry, of

which La Marmora was the president, but Rattazzi the leading spirit,

hesitated between annexing central Italy and agreeing to the terms of

peace, but on the 10th of November peace was signed at Zurich. Napoleon

proposed a new congress, which never met, and on the fall of the

Rattazzi-La Marmora cabinet the king, in spite of the quarrel at

Monzambano, asked Cavour to take office again. By January he was once

more premier, as well as minister for foreign affairs and of the

interior. His first act was to invite the people of Italy to declare

their own wishes with regard to annexation to Piedmont; but Napoleon

still refused to consent to the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, for he

contemplated placing one of his own relatives on the throne of the

grand-duchy. Cavour now saw that Napoleon might be ready to deal, and,

although the bargain of the preceding year had not been exactly

fulfilled, as the Austrians were still in Venice, he again brought

forward the question of Nice and Savoy. To Cavour no less than to the

king the loss of these two provinces was a cruel wrench, but it was a

choice between them and central Italy. The plebiscites in the latter

region had unanimously declared in favour of union with Piedmont, and

Napoleon became more pressing, going so far as to threaten that unless

the cession were made, the French troops would leave Lombardy at the

mercy of Austria and occupy Bologna and Florence. On the 24th of March

the treaty was signed and the emperor's opposition to the annexation of

central Italy withdrawn. On the 2nd of April the parliament representing

Piedmont, the duchies of Parma and Modena, Tuscany and Romagna, met, and

Cavour had the difficult and ungrateful task of explaining the cession

of Nice and Savoy. In spite of some opposition, the agreement was

ratified by a large majority.

The situation in the kingdom of Naples was now becoming critical, but

there seemed as yet little chance of union with upper Italy, for the

Bourbon government was a more or less regular one, and, although risings

had broken out, there was no general revolution. Cavour therefore had

to follow a somewhat double-faced policy, on the one hand negotiating

with the Bourbon king (Francis II.), suggesting a division of Italy

between him and Victor Emmanuel, and on the other secretly backing up

the revolutionary agitation. Having now learnt that Garibaldi was

planning an expedition to Sicily with his volunteers, he decided, after

some hesitation, not to oppose its departure; on the 5th of May it

sailed from Quarto near Genoa, and Cavour was only deterred from

declaring war on Naples by the fear of foreign complications. Garibaldi

with his immortal Thousand landed at Marsala, and the whole rotten

fabric of the Bourbon government collapsed. At Palermo they were

welcomed by the Piedmontese admiral Persano, and soon the whole island

was occupied and Garibaldi proclaimed dictator. The general now proposed

to cross over to the mainland, and this placed Cavour in a serious

dilemma; Russia and Austria protested against the expedition, France and

Prussia were unfriendly, Great Britain alone remained warmly

pro-Italian. He still hoped for a revolution in Naples, so that King

Victor's authority might be established before Garibaldi's arrival, but

this proved impossible. When Garibaldi crossed the straits of Messina

the Neapolitan government fell, and he entered Naples in triumph. But

there was still danger that he might be subsequently defeated, for the

Neapolitan army was still a force in being, and Cavour feared, moreover,

that, although Garibaldi himself had always loyally acted in the king of

Italy's name, the red republicans around him might lead him to commit

some imprudence and plunge the country into anarchy. The cession of

Nice, Garibaldi's birthplace, had made an impassable gulf between the

two men, and neither quite trusted the other. Cavour also feared that

Garibaldi might invade the papal states, which would have led to further

international complications. In any case, Rome must not be touched for

the present, since Napoleon was pledged to protect the pope; but as the

latter had made large armaments, and his forces, consisting largely of

brigands and foreigners under the French general Lamoriciere, were in a

menacing attitude on the frontier, Cavour decided on the momentous step

of annexing the papal states with the exception of the Roman province.

The Italian army crossed the frontier from Romagna on the 11th of

September, whereupon every power, except Great Britain and Sweden,

withdrew its minister from Turin. But the troops advanced and were

everywhere received with open arms by the people; Ancona was taken,

Lamoriciere was defeated and captured at the battle of Castelfidardo,

and on the 20th King Victor marched into the Neapolitan kingdom. On the

1st of October Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan troops on the Volturno,

and Gaeta alone, where King Francis of Naples had retired, still held

out.

New difficulties with Garibaldi arose, for he would not resign his

dictatorship of the southern provinces, and wished to march on Rome.

Cavour had to use all his tact to restrain him and at the same time not

to appear ungrateful. He refused to act despotically, but he summoned

parliament to vote on the annexation, which it did on the 11th. Two days

later Garibaldi magnanimously gave in to the nation's will and handed

his conquests over to King Victor as a free gift. Gaeta was invested,

and after a siege prolonged through the action of Napoleon, who for some

reason unknown kept his fleet before the town, preventing any attack by

sea until England induced him to withdraw it, the garrison surrendered

on the 13th of February, and King Francis retired to Rome. Parliament

was dissolved once more; the new chamber showed an overwhelming majority

in favour of Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy.

The last question with which Cavour had to deal was that of Rome. For

some years past the pope had only been able to maintain his authority by

the help of foreign troops, and Cavour saw that as long as this state of

things lasted there could be no united Italy. In October he declared in

parliament that Rome must be the capital of Italy, for no other city was

recognized as such by the whole country, and in January 1861 a

resolution to that effect was passed. But owing to Napoleon's attitude

he had to proceed warily, and made no attempt for the present to carry

out the nation's Wishes. At the same time he was anxious that the church

should preserve the fullest liberty, and he believed in the principle of

"a free church in a free state." His great dream, save for Rome and

Venice, was now realized, and Italy was free and united. But the wear

and tear of these last years had been almost unbearable, and at last

began to tell; the negotiations with Garibaldi were particularly trying,

for while the great statesman wished to treat the hero and his

volunteers generously, far more so than seemed wise to the Conservatives

and the strictly military party, he did not wish the Italian cause to be

endangered by their imprudences, and could not permit all the

Garibaldian officers to be received into the regular army with the same

grades they held in the volunteer forces. This question, together with

that of Nice, led to a painful scene in the chamber between the two men,

although they were formally reconciled a few days later. For some time

past Cavour had been unwell and irritable, and the scene with Garibaldi

undoubtedly hastened his end. A fever set in, and after a short illness

he passed away on the 6th of June 1861. He was buried at his ancestral

castle of Santena.

The death of Cavour was a terrible loss to Italy; there remained many

problems to be solved in which his genius and personality were urgently

needed. But the great work had been carried to such a point that lesser

men might now complete the structure. He is undoubtedly the greatest

figure of the _Risorgimento_, and although other men and other forces

co-operated in the movement, it was Cavour who organized it and

skilfully conducted the negotiations which overcame all, apparently

insuperable, obstacles. "That which in Alfieri and Gioberti was

lacking," wrote T. Artom, his private secretary, "a deep and lively

sense of reality, Cavour possessed to a supreme degree. He was not a

_litterateur_; he was never a political dreamer. His views broadened

progressively; at each stage he discovered a new horizon, and he

followed his path without ever seeking anything save what was real and

possible." He was gifted with pronounced political genius and with an

astounding power of foresight. In his ideas he was always a moderate

Liberal, and although he disapproved of republicanism, he was an ardent

constitutionalist, ever refusing to resort to arbitrary methods, for he

felt that, the Italian character being what it is, Italian unity could

not last if unsupported by popular feeling. In meeting opposition he

could not, like Bismarck, rely on a great military power, for the

Piedmontese army was a small one; Austria must first be isolated and

then an alliance had to be obtained with some other power. Some of his

acts, especially his policy towards the Neapolitan kingdom, have been

criticized as politically immoral; but apart from the fact that few

revolutions--and Cavour, after all, was a revolutionist--can be

conducted without attacking vested rights, it is hard to see that any

policy which led to the destruction of a government, rightly described

as the "negation of God on earth," could be deemed immoral. He has been

accused of changing his views, but what statesman has not? Moreover, in

the extremely complicated and difficult diplomatic situations which he

had to face, what was impossible or dangerous one day became possible

and desirable the next. This was particularly the case with the

Neapolitan question. Cavour's one absorbing passion was the liberation

and regeneration of Italy, and to this he devoted his whole life and

talent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Buzziconi, _Bibliografia Cavouriana_ (Turin, 1898);

Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, _Cavour_ (London, 1898), an

excellent and handy little monograph which brings out the chief points

of Cavour's life in the right light; G. Massari, _Il Conte di Cavour_

(Turin, 1873); W. de la Rive, _Le Comte de Cavour_ (Paris, 1862),

interesting and valuable as the work of a contemporary and intimate

friend of Cavour; L. Chiala, _Lettere edite ed inedite del Conte di

Cavour_ (7 vols., Turin, 1883-1887); D. Zanichelli, _Gli Scritti del

Conte di Cavour_ (Bologna, 1892), and _Cavour_ (Florence, 1905); H.

von Treitschke, "Cavour," in his _Historische und politische Aufsatze_

(Leipzig, 1871); E. Dicey, _A Memoir of Cavour_ (London, 1861); Conte

C. di Cavour, _Discorsi parlamentari_ (8 vols., Turin, 1863-1872),

_Opere politico-economiche_ (Cuneo, 1855); F.X. Krauss, _Cavour_

(Mainz, 1902); E. Artom, _L'Opere politica del Senatore T. Artom nel

Risorgimento Italano _ (Bologna, 1906), a biography of Cavour's

devoted private secretary, containing new material. ( L. V.*)

CAVOUR (anc. _Caburrum_ or _Forum Vibii_), a town of Piedmont, Italy, in

the province of Turin, 32 m. S.W. by rail and steam tram (via Pinerolo

from the town of Turin). Pop. (1901) town, 2091; commune, 6843. It lies

on the north side of a huge isolated mass of granite (the Rocca di

Cavour) which rises from the plain. On the summit was the Roman village,

which belonged to the province of the Alpes Cottiae. There are some

ruins of medieval fortifications. The town gave its name to the Benso

family of Chieri, who were raised to the marquisate in 1771, and of

which the statesman Cavour was a member.

For the ancient name see Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v.

(Berlin, 1877), p. 825.

CAVY, a name commonly applied to several South American rodent animals

included in the family _Caviidae_ (see RODENTIA), but perhaps properly

applicable only to those belonging to the typical genus _Cavia_, of

which the most familiar representative is the domesticated guinea-pig.

Cavies in general, the more typical representatives of the _Caviidae_,

are rodents with hoof-like nails, four front and three hind toes,

imperfect collar-bones, and the cheek-teeth divided by folds of enamel

into transverse plates. The tail is short or rudimentary, the incisors

are short, and the outer surface of the lower jaw is marked by a

distinct ridge.

True cavies, or couies (_Cavia_), are best known by the guinea-pig, a

domesticated and parti-coloured race derived from one of the wild

species, all of which are uniformly coloured. They are comparatively

small and stoutly built animals, with short, rounded ears and no tail.

In habits they are partly diurnal; and live either in burrows among the

crevices of rocks, beneath the leaves of aquatic plants in marshy

districts, or underneath the floors of outbuildings. Their cries are

faint squeaks and grunts. They feed upon nearly all vegetable

substances, but drink little. Generally they associate in small

societies, and seldom wander far from home. Although the guinea-pig is a

fertile breeder, the wild species only produce one or two young at a

birth, and this but once in a year. The young come into the world in a

highly developed condition, being able to feed themselves the day

following their birth. Cavies are widely distributed in South America,

and are represented by several species. Among them may be mentioned the

aperea or restless cavy (_C. porcellus_ or _C. aperea_) of Brazil; the

Bolivian _C. boliviensis_, found at great elevations in the Andes; the

Brazilian rock-cavy (_C. rupestris_), characterized by its short blunt

claws; and the Peruvian _C. cutleri_. The latter was tamed by the Incas,

and is the ancestor of the guinea-pig. As to the origin of that name,

some writers consider it a corruption of Guiana-pig, but it is more

probable that the word "Guinea" merely signifies foreign. The guinea-pig

is a singularly inoffensive and defenceless creature, of a restless

disposition, and wanting in that intelligence which usually

characterizes domestic pets, although said to show some discrimination.

It is of no particular service to man, neither its flesh nor its fur

being generally put to use, while the statement that its presence is

sufficient to drive off rats and mice appears to be without foundation.

It is exceedingly prolific, beginning to breed at the age of two months;

the number of young varying, according to the age of the parent, from

four to twelve. It has been calculated that a single pair of guinea-pigs

may prove the parent stock of a thousand individuals in a single year.

A very different animal is the Patagonian cavy, or mara (_Dolichotis

patachonica_), the typical representative of a genus characterized by

long limbs, comparatively large ears, and a short tail. The animal is

about the size of a hare, to which it approximates in form and habits.

It is most abundant in the open districts of Patagonia, but also ranges

on to the Argentina Pampas, where it is now scarce. Although

occasionally seen in large flocks, the mara is more commonly found in

small parties or in pairs, the parties commonly moving in single file.

It has a peculiar kind of hopping gait; and is mainly diurnal, in

accordance with which habit its eyes are protected by lashes. It lives

in a burrow, generally excavated by itself; but when pursued, seeks

safety in flight, rather than by a retreat to its hole. From two to five

young are produced twice a year. A much smaller species, _D.

salinicola_, without the characteristic black band above the tail,

inhabits the salt-plains of Argentina. Maras have been introduced into

several British parks. Fossil species of _Dolichotis_ occur in the

caverns of Brazil, and also in the superficial deposits of Argentina.

(R. L.*)

CAWDOR, a village and parish of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of parish

(1901) 925. The village is situated 5 m. S.S.W. of Nairn and 3 m. from

Gollanfield Junction on the Highland railway. The castle was the scene,

according to the tradition which Shakespeare has perpetuated, of the

murder of King Duncan by Macbeth, thane of Cawdor (or Calder), in 1040.

Since the oldest part of the structure dates from 1454, however, and

seemingly had no predecessor, the tradition has no foundation in fact.

The building stands on the rocky bank of Cawdor Burn, a right-hand

tributary of the Nairn. The massive keep with small turrets is the

original portion of the castle, and to it were added, in the 17th

century, the modern buildings forming two sides of a square.

Kilravock (pronounced _Kilrawk_) Castle, 1-1/2 m. W. of Cawdor, occupies

a commanding site on the left bank of the Nairn. Its keep dates from

1460, and the later buildings belong to the 17th century. It has been

continuously tenanted by the Roses, one of the most remarkable families

in Scotland. They came over with William the Conqueror and settled at

Kilravock in 1293, since which date son has succeeded father without the

interposition of a collateral heir, an instance of direct descent unique

in Scottish history. Moreover, nearly every Rose has borne the Christian

name of Hugh, and only one attained to a higher social rank than that of

laird. Queen Mary was received at the castle in 1562, and Prince Charles

Edward was entertained four days before the battle of Culloden. The

gardens are remarkable for their beauty.

CAWNPORE, or KANPUR, a city and district of British India in the

Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The city is situated on the

south bank of the Ganges, 40 m. south-west of Lucknow, and formed from

early times a frontier outpost of the people of Oudh and Bengal against

their northern neighbours. Clive selected it, on account of its

commanding position, as the cantonment for the brigade of troops lent

him by the nawab of Oudh. In 1801, when the Ceded Provinces were

acquired by the East India Company, it became the chief British frontier

station. But by the time of the Mutiny the frontier had left it behind,

and it was denuded of troops. Now it is chiefly known as the junction of

four railways, the East Indian, Oudh & Rohilkand, Rajputana and Indian

Midland, and as a great emporium for harness, shoes and other

leather-work. In 1901 the population was 197,170, showing an increase of

4% in the decade. In 1903 the city was devastated by an epidemic of

plague.

The name of Cawnpore is indelibly connected with the blackest episode in

the history of the Indian Mutiny--the massacre here in July 1857 of

hundreds of women and children by the Nana Sahib. The full details of

the siege and massacre will be found under INDIAN MUTINY, and here it

will suffice to refer to the local memorials of that evil time. The

entrenchment, where General Sir H.M. Wheeler with his small band of

soldiers and the European and Eurasian residents were exposed for 21

days to the fire of the mutineers, is merely a bare field, containing

the well where many women and children were shot while getting water.

This well is now surrounded by an enclosure with an inscription upon its

cross. About three-quarters of a mile away, on the banks of the river

Ganges, is the Massacre Ghat. A grassy road between banks 10 to 12 ft.

high leads down to the river, and it was among the trees on these banks

that the murderers concealed themselves who shot down the little

garrison as soon as they were embarked in the boats which were to take

them to safety. On the river bank is a temple to Siva, of hexagonal

shape, old and going to ruin. Steps lead from this temple to an enclosed

flight of stairs, which in the cold season descend to the water, but in

the rains are covered almost to the top. This is the ghat where some 600

helpless people were slain, in spite of a promise of safe-conduct from

the Nana. The remaining 200 victims, who had escaped the bullets of the

siege and survived the butchery of the river bank, were massacred

afterwards and cast down the famous well of Cawnpore, which is now

marked by a memorial and surrounded by gardens. The memorial is crowned

by the figure of an angel in white marble, and on the wall of the well

itself is the following inscription:--

Sacred to the perpetual Memory of a great company of

Christian people, chiefly Women and Children, who near this

spot were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel

Nana Dhundu Pant, of Bithur, and cast, the dying with the

dead, into the well below, on the xvth day of July, MDCCCLVII.

The DISTRICT or CAWNPORE is situated between the Ganges and Jumna

rivers, and is a portion of the well-watered and fertile tract known as

the Doab, the total area being 2384 sq. m. The general inclination of

the country is from north to south. Besides the two great rivers, the

principal streams are the Arand or Rhind, the Kavan or Singar, the Isan

and the Pandu. The district is watered by four branches of the Ganges

canal, and traversed by two lines of railway. It used to be a great

centre of the indigo industry, which has now declined. The population in

1901 was 1,258,868, showing an increase of 4% during the decade.

CAXTON, WILLIAM (c. 1422-1491), the first English printer, was born

somewhere in the Weald of Kent, perhaps at Tenterden. The name, which

was apparently pronounced Cauxton, is identical with Causton, the name

of a manor in the parish of Hadlow, and was a fairly common surname in

the 15th century. The date of Caxton's birth was arbitrarily fixed in

1748 by Oldys as 1412. Blades, however, inferred that in 1438, when he

was apprenticed to Robert Large, he would not have been more than

sixteen years of age. This would place his birth in 1422-1423. Robert

Large was a rich silk mercer who became sheriff in 1430 and lord mayor

of London in 1439, and the fact of Caxton's apprenticeship to him argues

that Caxton's own parents were in a good position. Large died in 1441,

leaving a small bequest to Caxton, and his executors would be bound to

place the young man where he could finish his term. He was probably sent

direct to Bruges, then the central foreign market of the Anglo-Flemish

trade, for he presently entered business there on his own account. In

1450 his name appears in the Bruges records as standing joint surety for

the sum of L100; and in 1463 he was acting governor of the company of

Merchant Adventurers in the Low Countries. This association, sometimes

known as the "English Nation," was dominated by the Mercers' Company, to

the livery of which Caxton had been formally admitted in London in 1453.

The first governor, appointed in terms of a charter granted by Edward

IV. in 1462, was W. Obray, but Caxton's position is definitely asserted

in 1464. In that year he was appointed, together with Sir Richard

Whitehill, to negotiate with Philip, duke of Burgundy, the renewal of a

treaty concerning the wool trade, which was about to expire. These

attempts failed, but he was again employed, with two other members of

the Mercers' Company, in a similar but successful mission in October

1468 to the new duke, Charles the Bold, who earlier in the year had

married Princess Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. The last mention

of Caxton in the capacity of governor of the "English Nation" is on the

13th of August 1469, and it was probably about that time that he entered

the household of the duchess Margaret, possibly in the position of

commercial adviser. In his diplomatic mission in 1468 he had been

associated with Lord Scales, afterwards Earl Rivers and one of his chief

patrons, and at the Burgundian court he must have come in touch with

Edward IV. during his brief exile in 1470.

He had begun his translation of the popular medieval romance of Troy,

_The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, from the French of Raoul le

Fevre, early in 1469; and, after laying it aside for some time, he

resumed it at the wish of the duchess Margaret, to whom the MS. was

presented in September 1471. During his thirty-three years' residence in

Bruges Caxton would have access to the rich libraries of the duke of

Burgundy and other nobles, and about this time he learned the art of

printing. His disciple, Wynkyn de Worde, says that he was taught at

Cologne, probably during a visit there in 1471, recorded in the preface

to the _Recuyell_; Blades suggests that he learnt from Colard Mansion,

but there is no evidence that Mansion set up his press at Bruges before

1474. He ceased to be a member of the gild of St John (a gild of

illuminators) in 1473, and the first dated book he is known to have

printed is dated 1476. Mansion and Caxton were partners or associates at

Bruges, where Caxton printed his _Recuyell_ in 1474 or 1475. His second

book, _The Game and Playe of Chesse_, from the _Liber de ludo

scacchorum_ of Jacobus de Cessolis through the French of Jehan de

Vignay, was finished in 1474, and printed soon after; the last book

printed by Mansion and Caxton at Bruges was the _Quatre derrenieres

choses_, an anonymous treatise usually known as _De quattuor

novissimis_. Other books in the same type were printed by Mansion at

Bruges after Caxton's departure.

By September 1476 Caxton had established himself in the almonry at

Westminster at the sign of the Red Pale. Robert Copland the printer, who

was afterwards one of Caxton's assistants, states that Caxton began by

printing small pamphlets. The first dated book printed in England was

Lord Rivers's translation (revised by Caxton) of _The Dictes or sayengis

of the philosophres_ (1477). From this time until his death in 1401

Caxton was busy writing and printing. His services to English

literature, apart from his work as a printer (see TYPOGRAPHY), are very

considerable. His most important original work is an eighth book added

to the _Polychronicon_ (vol. viii. in the Rolls Series edition) of Ralph

Higden. Caxton revised and printed John of Trevisa's work, and brought

down the narrative himself from 1358 to 1460, using as his authorities

_Fasciculus temporum_, a popular work in the 15th century, and an

unknown _Aureus de universo_. In the year before his death he complained

in the preface to his _Eneydos_ of the changing state of the English

language, a condition of things which he did as much as any man to

remedy. He printed Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_ (1478? and 1483),

_Troilus and Creseide_ (1483?), the _House of Fame_ (1483?), and the

translation of Boethius (1478?); Gower's _Confessio Amantis_ (1483), and

many poems of Lydgate. His press was, however, not worked for purely

literary ends, but was a commercial speculation. For the many

service-books which he printed there was no doubt a sure sale, and he

met the taste of the upper classes by the tales of chivalry which issued

regularly from his press. He printed Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_, and

himself translated from the French the _Boke of Histories of Jason_

(1477?), _The Historye of Reynart the Foxe_ (from the Dutch, 1481 and

1489?), _Godfrey of Boloyne_ or _The Siege and Conqueste of Jherusalem_

(1481), _The Lyf of Charles the Grete_ (1485), _The Knyght Parys and the

Fayr Vyenne_ (1485), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_ (1489?), _The Foure

Sonnes of Aymon_ (1489?); also the _Morale Proverbs_ (1478), and the

_Fayttes of Armes and of Chyualrye_ (1489) of Christine de Pisan. The

most ambitious production of his press was perhaps his version of the

_Golden Legend_, the translation of which he finished in November 1483.

It is based on the lives of the saints as given in the 13th century

_Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de Voragine, but Caxton chiefly used existing

French and English versions for his compilation. The book is illustrated

by seventy woodcuts, and Caxton says he was only encouraged to persevere

in his laborious and expensive task by the liberality of William, earl

of Arundel. The idleness which he so often deprecates in his prefaces

was no vice of his, for in addition to his voluminous translations his

output as a printer was over 18,000 pages, and he published ninety-six

separate works or editions of works, with apparently little skilled

assistance, though later printers, Wynkyn de Worde, Robert Copland and

possibly Richard Pynson, were trained under him.

The different founts of type used by Caxton are illustrated by Blades

and Duff, and there is an excellent selection of Caxtons in the British

Museum, in the University library at Cambridge, besides those in private

hands. A record price for a Caxton was reached in 1902 when Mr Bernard

Quaritch paid L2225 for _The Royal Book_ (1487?), a translation of the

popular _Somme des vices et des vertus_. His books have no title-pages,

and from 1487 onwards are usually adorned with a curious device,

consisting of the letters W.C. separated by a trade mark, with an

elaborate border above and below. The flourishes on the trade mark have

been fancifully interpreted as S.C. for Sancta Colonia, implying that

Caxton learnt his art at Cologne, and the whole mark has been read as

74, for 1474, the date of his first printed book. This device was first

used in an edition of the Sarum missal, printed for Caxton by George

Maynial in Paris, and was subsequently adopted with small alterations by

his successor at the Westminster press, Wynkyn de Worde. The first of

his books containing woodcut illustrations was his _Myrrour of the

World_ (1481), translated from Vincent de Beauvais, which has diagrams

and pictures for the assistance of young students. He had used a woodcut

initial letter in his broadside _Indulgence_ printed in 1480.

[Illustration:]

No record of Caxton's marriage or of the birth of his children has been

found, but Gerard Croppe was separated from his wife Elizabeth, daughter

of William Caxton, before 1496, when Croppe made certain claims in

connexion with his father-in-law's will.

AUTHORITIES.--Earlier biographies of Caxton were superseded by the

work of William Blades, whose _Life and Typography of William Caxton_

(2 vols., 1861-1863) remains the standard authority. It contains a

bibliography of each of the works issued from Caxton's press. For

later discoveries see George Bullen's _Catalogue_ of the Caxton

celebration loan collection exhibited at South Kensington in 1877;

articles by E.J.L. Scott in the _Athenaeum_ (Feb. 10, 1900; May 21 and

June 8, 1892); articles in _Notes and Queries_ (April 21, 1900; Feb.

24, 1906), and the publications of the Caxton Club, Chicago, notably

_William Caxton_, by E. Gordon Duff (1905). See also _Census of

Caxtons_, by Seymour de Ricci, No. xv. of the illustrated monographs

of the Bibliographical Society, 1909. Many of Caxton's translations

are available in modern reprints; the _Golden Legend_, the _Recuyell_

and _Godeffroy of Boloyne_, were printed by William Morris at the

Kelmscott Press in 1892-1893; the _Boke of Curtesye_ (1868), the _Lyf

of Charles the Crete_ (1880), Alain Chartier's _Curial_ (1888), _Foure

Sonnes of Aymon_ (1884), _Eneydos_ (1890), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_

(1890), and others, by the Early English Text Society. For modern

editions of _Reynart_ see REYNARD THE FOX. No authentic portrait of

Caxton is known, but a MS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of the

last six books of the _Metamorphoses of Ovid_, translated by Caxton,

is probably in his handwriting.

CAYENNE, a seaport and the capital of French Guiana, on the N.W.

extremity of the island of Cayenne, and near the mouth of the river of

that name, in 4 deg. 56' 28" N., and 52 deg. 20' 36" W. Pop. about

12,600. The town forms an almost perfect square, and has clean and

well-macadamized streets. The houses, mostly of two storeys, are of

wood, strengthened on the first and ground floors by brickwork. In the

old town, which contains the government-house and Jesuits' College, the

streets are not so regularly and well built as in the new. The Place

d'Armes, a fine quadrangular space, lies between them. To the right of

the governor's house is Mount Ceperon, on which stand Fort St Michel,

the marine barracks, the signal station and the lighthouse. Here, too,

are the capacious reservoirs for the water-supply of the town, the

source of which is a lake to the south of the island. The harbour is

shallow at its entrance, and craft drawing more than 14 ft. are obliged

to anchor 6 m. from the town. There is no dock for the repair of

vessels; but there are two quays at the town. The principal exports of

Cayenne are gold, cocoa, phosphates, hides, woods and spices. The

imports are French wines, spirits and liqueurs; silk and cotton stuffs,

tobacco, hardware, glass, earthenware, clothing, preserved meat, fish,

and vegetables, maize, flour, hay, bran, oils and cattle. There is a

regular mail service between Cayenne and Martinique once a month.

Cayenne is the seat of the government of French Guiana, and was formerly

a penal settlement for political offenders. Food as well as clothing is

exorbitantly dear, the only cheap articles of consumption being bread

and French wines. The temperature of Cayenne is between 76 deg. and 88

deg. Fahr. throughout the year; but the heat is tempered by easterly

winds. Between December and March a north wind blows, unfavourable to

weak constitutions. Yellow and other fevers often attack the

inhabitants of the town, but the climate, though moist, is as a whole

healthy. (See GUIANA.)

CAYENNE PEPPER (GUINEA PEPPER, SPANISH PEPPER, CHILLY), a preparation

from the dried fruit of various species of _Capsicum_, a genus of the

natural order Solanaceae. The true peppers are members of a totally

distinct order, Piperaceae. The fruits of plants of the genus _Capsicum_

have all a strong, pungent flavour. The capsicums bear a greenish-white

flower, with a star-shaped corolla and five anthers standing up in the

centre of the flower like a tube, through which projects the slender

style. The pod-like fruit consists of an envelope at first fleshy and

afterwards leathery, within which are the spongy pulp and several seeds.

The plants are herbaceous or shrubby; the leaves are entire, and

alternate, or in pairs near one another; the flowers are solitary and do

not arise in the leaf-axils. There are about thirty species, natives of

Central and South America. They are now grown in various parts of the

world, both for the sake of the fruit and for ornament. In England the

annual sorts are sown from March to the middle of April under a frame.

They can be planted out when 2 or 3 in. high, and in June may be

transferred to a light rich soil in the open garden. They flower in July

or August, and produce pods from August till the end of September. The

perennial and shrubby kinds may be wintered in a conservatory. Several

species or varieties are used to make cayenne pepper. The annual or

common capsicum (_C. annuum_), the Guinea pepper plant, was brought to

Europe by the Spaniards, and was grown in England in 1548. It is

indigenous to South America, but is now cultivated in India, Hungary,

Italy, Spain and Turkey, with the other species of capsicum. It is a

hardy herbaceous plant, which attains a height of 2 or 3 ft. There are

numerous cultivated forms, differing in the shape and colour of the pod,

which varies from more or less roundish to narrow-conical, with a smooth

or wrinkled coat, and white, yellow, red or black in colour. The

principal source of cayenne pepper is _C. frutescens_, the spur or goat

pepper, a dwarf shrub, a native of South America, but commonly

cultivated in the East Indies. It produces a small, narrow, bright red

pod, having very pungent properties. _C. tetragonum_, or bonnet pepper,

is a species much esteemed in Jamaica; it bears very fleshy fruits.

Other well-known kinds of capsicum are the cherry pepper (_C.

cerasiforme_), with small berries; bell pepper (_C. grossum_), which has

thick and pulpy fruit, well adapted for pickling; and berry or bird

pepper (_C. baccatum_). The last mentioned has been grown in England

since 1731; its fruit is globular, and about the size of a cherry. The

West Indian stomachic _man-dram_ is prepared by mashing a few pods of

bird pepper and mixing them with sliced cucumber and shallots, to which

have been added a little lime-juice and Madeira wine. Chillies, the

dried ripe or unripe fruit of capsicums, especially _C. annuum_ and _C.

frutescens_, are used to make chilly-vinegar, as well as for pickles.

Cayenne pepper is manufactured from the ripe fruits, which are dried,

ground, mixed with wheat flour, and made into cakes with yeast; the

cakes are baked till hard like biscuit, and then ground and sifted. The

pepper is sometimes prepared by simply drying the pods and pounding them

fine in a mortar. Cayenne pepper is occasionally adulterated with red

lead, vermilion, ochre, salt, ground-rice and turmeric. The taste of the

pepper is impaired by exposure to damp and the heat of the sun. Chillies

have been in use from time immemorial; they are eaten in great quantity

by the people of Guiana and other warm countries, and in Europe are

largely consumed both as a spice and as medicine.

The dried ripe fruit of _Capsicum frutescens_ from Zanzibar, known as

pod pepper and Guinea pepper, is official in the British Pharmacopoeia

under the name _Capsici Fructus_. The fruit has a characteristic,

pungent odour and an intensely bitter taste. The chief constituents are

a crystallizable resin, capsaicin, a volatile alkaloid, capsicine and a

volatile oil. The dose is 1/2-1 grain. The British Pharmacopoeia

contains two preparations of capsicum, a tincture (dose 5-15 minims) and

an ointment. Externally the drug has the usual action of a volatile oil,

being a very powerful counter-irritant. It does not, however, cause

pustulation. Its internal action is also that of its class, but its

marked contact properties make it specially useful in gastriatony and

flatulence, and sometimes in hysteria.

CAYEY, an inland district and mountain town of the department of

Guayama, Porto Rico, celebrated for its cool, invigorating climate and

the beauty of its scenery. Pop. (1899) of the town, 3763; of the

district, 14,442. The town is surrounded by mountain summits, the

highest of which, El Torito, rises to an elevation of 2362 ft. above

sea-level. It was made a military post by the Spaniards and used as an

acclimatizing station. The old Spanish barracks have been enlarged and

improved by the American military authorities and, under the name of

"Henry Barracks," are used for the same purpose. The town is a popular

summer resort for residents of the coast cities. The surrounding country

is wooded and very fertile, being especially noted for its coffee and

tobacco. The town has large cigar factories. Cayey is connected with

Guayama by an excellent military road.

CAYLEY, ARTHUR (1821-1895), English mathematician, was born at Richmond,

in Surrey, on the 16th of August 1821, the second son of Henry Cayley, a

Russian merchant, and Maria Antonia Doughty. His father, Henry Cayley,

retired from business in 1829 and settled in Blackheath, where Arthur

was sent to a private school kept by the Rev. G.B.F. Potticary; at the

age of fourteen he was transferred to King's College school, London. He

soon showed that he was a boy of great capacity, and in particular that

he was possessed of remarkable mathematical ability. On the advice of

the school authorities he was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, as

a pensioner. He was there coached by William Hopkins of Peterhouse, was

admitted a scholar of the college in May 1840, and graduated as senior

wrangler in 1842, and obtained the first Smith's Prize at the next

examination. In 1842, also, he was elected a fellow of Trinity, and

became a major fellow in 1845, the year in which he proceeded to the

M.A. degree. He was assistant tutor of Trinity for three years. In 1846,

having decided to adopt the law as a profession, he left Cambridge,

entered at Lincoln's Inn, and became a pupil of the conveyancer Mr

Christie. He was called to the bar in 1849, and remained at the bar

fourteen years, till 1863, when he was elected to the new Sadlerian

chair of pure mathematics in the university of Cambridge. He settled at

Cambridge in the same year, and married Susan, daughter of Robert Moline

of Greenwich. He continued to reside in Cambridge and to hold the

professorship till his death, which occurred on the 26th of January

1895. From the time he went first to Cambridge till his death he was

constantly engaged in mathematical investigation. The number of his

papers and memoirs, some of them of considerable length, exceeds 800;

they were published, at the time they were composed, in various

scientific journals in Europe and America, and are now embodied, through

the enterprise of the syndics of the Cambridge University Press, in

thirteen large quarto volumes. These form an enduring monument to his

fame. He wrote upon nearly every subject of pure mathematics, and also

upon theoretical dynamics and spherical and physical astronomy. He was

quite as much a geometrician as he was an analyst. Among his most

remarkable works may be mentioned his ten memoirs on quantics, commenced

in 1854 and completed in 1878; his creation of the theory of matrices;

his researches on the theory of groups; his memoir on abstract geometry,

a subject which he created; his introduction into geometry of the

"absolute"; his researches on the higher singularities of curves and

surfaces; the classification of cubic curves; additions to the theories

of rational transformation and correspondence; the theory of the

twenty-seven lines that lie on a cubic surface; the theory of elliptic

functions; the attraction of ellipsoids; the British Association

Reports, 1857 and 1862, on recent progress in general and special

theoretical dynamics, and on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean

motion. He is justly regarded as one of the greatest of mathematicians.

Competent judges have compared him to Leonhard Euler for his range,

analytical power and introduction of new and fertile theories. He was

the recipient of nearly every academic distinction that can be conferred

upon an eminent man of science. Amongst others may be noted honorary

degrees by the universities of Oxford, Dublin, Edinburgh, Gottingen,

Heidelberg, Leiden and Bologna. He was fellow or foreign corresponding

member of the French Institute, the academies of Berlin, Gottingen, St

Petersburg, Milan, Rome, Leiden, Upsala and Hungary; and he was

nominated an officer of the Legion of Honour by President Carnot. At

various times he was president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,

of the London Mathematical Society and of the Royal Astronomical

Society. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1852, and

received from that body a Royal medal in 1859 and the Copley medal in

1882. He also received the De Morgan medal from the London Mathematical

Society, and the Huygens medal from Leiden. His nature was noble and

generous, and the universal appreciation of this fact gave him great

influence in his university. His portrait, by Lowes Dickinson, was

placed in the hall of Trinity College in 1874, and his bust, by Henry

Wiles, in the library of the same college in 1888. (P. A. M.)

CAYLUS, ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBIERES DE GRIMOARD DE PESTELS DE

LEVIS, COMTE DE, Marquis d'Esternay, baron de Bransac (1692-1765),

French archaeologist and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 31st

of October 1692. He was the eldest son of Lieutenant-General Count de

Caylus. His mother, Marthe Marguerite le Valois de Vilette de Murcay,

comtesse de Caylus (1673-1729), was a cousin of Mme de Maintenon, who

brought her up like her own daughter. She wrote valuable memoirs of the

court of Louis XIV. entitled _Souvenirs_; these were edited by Voltaire

(1770), and by many later editors, notably Renouard (1806), Ch.

Asselineau (1860), M. de Lescure (1874), M.E. Raunie (1881), J. Soury

(1883). While a young man Caylus distinguished himself in the campaigns

of the French army, from 1709 to 1714. After the peace of Rastadt he

spent some time in travelling in Italy, Greece, the East, England and

Germany, and devoted much attention to the study and collection of

antiquities. He became an active member of the Academy of Painting and

Sculpture and of the Academy of Inscriptions. Among his antiquarian

works are _Recueil d'antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, grecques,

romaines, et gauloises_ (6 vols., Paris, 1752-1755), _Numismata Aurea

Imperatorum Romanorum_, and a _Memoire_ (1755) on the method of

encaustic painting with wax mentioned by Pliny, which he claimed to have

rediscovered. Diderot, who was no friend to Caylus, maintained that the

proper method had been found by J.J. Bachelier. Caylus was an admirable

engraver, and copied many of the paintings of the great masters. He

caused engravings to be made, at his own expense, of Bartoli's copies

from ancient pictures and published _Nouveaux sujets de peinture et de

sculpture_ (1755) and _Tableaux tires de l'Iliade, de l'Odysse, et de

l'Eneide_ (1757). He encouraged artists whose reputations were still in

the making, but his patronage was somewhat capricious. Diderot expressed

this fact in an epigram in his _Salon_ of 1765: "La mort nous a delivres

du plus cruel des amateurs." Caylus had quite another side to his

character. He had a thorough acquaintance with the gayest and most

disreputable sides of Parisian life, and left a number of more or less

witty stories dealing with it. These were collected (Amsterdam, 1787) as

his _Oeuvres badines completes_. The best of them is the _Histoire de M.

Guillaume, cocher_ (c. 1730).

The _Souvenirs du comte de Caylus_, published in 1805, is of very

doubtful authenticity. See also A. and J. de Goncourt, _Portraits

intimes du XVIII^e siecle_; Ch. Nisard's edition of the

_Correspondance du comte de Caylus avec le pere Paciaudi_ (1877); and

a notice by O. Uzanne prefixed to a volume of his _Faceties_ (1879).