CHAPTER VI.

WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.

TERRITORIAL ASPECTS--TWO MAIN DIVISIONS; WILD TRIBES OF

CENTRAL MEXICO, AND WILD TRIBES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO--THE

CORAS AND OTHERS IN JALISCO--DESCENDANTS OF THE AZTECS--THE

OTOMÍS AND MAZAHUAS ADJACENT TO THE VALLEY OF MEXICO--THE

PAMES--THE TARASCOS AND MATLALTZINCAS OF MICHOACAN--THE

HUAZTECS AND TOTONACS OF VERA CRUZ AND TAMAULIPAS--THE

CHONTALES, CHINANTECS, MAZATECS, CUICATECS, CHATINOS,

MIZTECS, ZAPOTECS, MIJES, HUAVES, CHIAPANECS, ZOQUES,

LACANDONES, CHOLES, MAMES, TZOTZILES, TZENDALES, CHOCHONES,

AND OTHERS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.

The term WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, which I employ to distinguish this from

the other groupal divisions of the Native Races of the Pacific States

needs some explanation. The territory embraced under this title extends

from latitude 23° north, to the eighteenth parallel on the Atlantic, and

the fifteenth on the Pacific; that is to the Central American line,

including Yucatan and excluding Guatemala. At the time of the conquest,

a large portion of this region as well as part of Central America was

occupied by those nations that we call civilized, which are fully

described in the second volume of this work. These several precincts of

civilization may be likened to suns, shining brightly at their

respective centres, and radiating into the surrounding darkness with

greater or less intensity according to distance and circumstances. The

bloody conquest achieved, these suns were dimmed, their light went out;

part of this civilization merged into that of the conquerors, and part

fell back into the more distant darkness. Later many of the advanced

aboriginals became more and more identified with the Spaniards; the

other natives soon came to be regarded as savages, who, once pacified,

spread over the seat of their nation's former grandeur, obliterating

many of the traces of their peoples' former high advancement;--so that

very shortly after the Spaniards became masters of the land, any

description of its aborigines could but be a description of its savage

nations, or of retrograded, or partially obliterated peoples of higher

culture. And thus I find it, and thus must treat the subject, going over

the whole territory almost as if there had been no civilization at all.

For variety and striking contrasts the climate and scenery of central

and southern Mexico is surpassed by no region of equal extent in the

world. It is here that the tierra caliente, or hot border-land of either

ocean, the tierra templada, or temperate belt adjacent, and the tierra

fria, or cool elevated table-land assume their most definite forms. The

interior table-lands have an average elevation above the sea of from

5,000 to 8,000 feet. The geological formation is on a Titanic scale;

huge rocks of basalt, granite, and lava rise in fantastic shapes,

intersected by deep barrancas or ravines presenting unparalleled scenes

of grandeur. Prominent among the surrounding mountains tower the

snow-clad crests of Orizaba and Popocatepetl,--volcanic piles whose

slumbering fires appear to be taking but a temporary rest. The plateau

is variegated with many lakes; the soil, almost everywhere fertile, is

overspread with a multitudinous variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of

evergreen, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak stand

conspicuous. Seasons come and go and leave no mark behind; or it may be

said that spring, satisfied with its abode, there takes up its perpetual

rest; the temperature is ever mellow, with resplendent sunshine by day,

while at night the stars shine with a brilliancy nowhere excelled. The

limits of the tierra templada it is impossible to define, as the term

is used in a somewhat arbitrary manner by the inhabitants of different

altitudes. On the lowlands along the coast known as the tierra caliente,

the features of nature are changed; vegetation assumes a more luxuriant

aspect; palms, parasitical plants and trees of a tropical character,

take the place of the evergreens of a colder clime; the climate is not

salubrious, and the heat is oppressive. On the Atlantic side furious

storms, called 'northers,' spring up with a suddenness and violence

unexampled in other places, often causing much destruction to both life

and property.

[Sidenote: TRIBES OF CENTRAL MEXICO.]

For the purpose of description, I separate the Wild Tribes of Mexico in

two parts,--the _Wild Tribes of Central Mexico_, and the _Wild Tribes of

Southern Mexico_. The first of these divisions extends from 23° north

latitude to the northern boundary of the state of Oajaca, or rather to

an imaginary line, taking as its base said boundary and running from the

Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, that is to say from Vera Cruz to

Acapulco.

To enumerate and locate all the nations and tribes within this

territory, to separate the uncivilized from the civilized, the mythical

from the real, is not possible. I have therefore deferred to the end of

this chapter such authorities as I have on the subject, where they will

be found ranged in proper order under the head of Tribal Boundaries. Of

the tribes that are known to have possessed no civilization, such as was

found among the Aztecs and other cultivated nations, I will only mention

the people denominated _Chichimecs_, under which general name were

designated a multitude of tribes inhabiting the mountains north of the

valley of Mexico, all of which were prominently dependent on the result

of the chase for their subsistence; the ancient _Otomís_ who mostly

occupied the mountains which inclose the valley of Mexico; and the

_Pames_ in Querétaro. South of Mexico were numerous other nations who

were more or less intermixed with those more civilized. Finally, I shall

describe those people who, since they came in contact with the whites,

have retrograded in such a degree, that their manners and customs can

only be given in connection with those of the Wild Tribes, and which

comprise a large proportion of all the present aborigines of

Mexico.[897]

[Sidenote: PHYSICAL FEATURES IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

The natives of the valley of Mexico are represented by some authorities

as tall, by others as of short stature; but from what I gather we may

conclude that on the whole they are over rather than under the middle

height, well made and robust. In Vera Cruz they are somewhat shorter,

say from four feet six inches to five feet at most, and clumsily made,

having their knees further apart than Europeans and walking with their

toes turned in; the women are shorter than the men and become fully

developed at a very early age. In Jalisco both sexes are tall; they are

also well built, and among the women are found many forms of such

perfection that they might well serve as models for sculpture.

Throughout the table-lands, the men are muscular and well proportioned.

Their skin is very thick and conceals the action of the muscles; they

are out-kneed, turn their toes well in, and their carriage is anything

but graceful.[898] Various opinions have been advanced by competent

persons in regard to the features of the natives of Mexico. Baron Von

Humboldt describes them as resembling the aborigines of Canada, Peru,

Florida, and Brazil; having elongated eyes, the corners turned towards

the temples, prominent cheek-bones, large lips, and a sweet expression

about the mouth, forming a strong contrast with their otherwise gloomy

and severe aspect. Rossi says that their eyes are oval, and that their

physiognomy resembles that of the Asiatics. According to Prescott, they

bear a strong resemblance to the Egyptians, and Viollet le Duc asserts

that the Malay type predominates. They have generally a very narrow

forehead, an oval face, long black eyes set wide apart, large mouth with

thick lips, teeth white and regular, the nose small and rather flat. The

general expression of the countenance is melancholy, and exhibits a

strange combination of moroseness and gentleness. Although some very

handsome women are to be found among them, the majority of the race,

both men and women, are ugly, and in old age, which with the women

begins early, their faces are much wrinkled and their features quite

harsh. They have acute senses, especially that of sight, which remains

unimpaired to a very advanced age. Long, straight, black, thick, and

glossy hair is common to all; their beard is thin, and most of them,

especially in the capital and its vicinity, have a small moustache; but

very few, if any, have hair on their legs, thighs, or arms. It is very

seldom that a gray-haired native is found. All the people referred to,

are remarkable for their strength and endurance, which may be judged of

by the heavy burdens they carry on their backs. The inhabitants of the

table-lands are of various hues; some are olive, some brown, others of a

red copper color. In the Sierras some have a bluish tint as if dyed with

indigo. The natives of the tierras calientes are of a darker complexion,

inclining to black. There are some called _Indios Pintos_, whose cuticle

is of a less deep color, inclining more to yellowish and marked with

dark copper-colored spots.[899]

[Sidenote: MEXICAN COSTUMES.]

[Sidenote: DRESS IN MICHOACAN.]

In the valley of Mexico the natives wear the _ichapilli_, or a sort of

shirt without sleeves, made of white and blue striped cotton, which

reaches to the knees and is gathered round the waist with a belt. This

is frequently the only garment worn by the aborigines of the Mexican

valley. In lieu of the ancient feather ornaments for the head, they now

use large felt or straw hats, the rim of which is about nine inches in

width; or they bind round the head a colored handkerchief. Most of the

men and women go barefooted, and those who have coverings for their

feet, use the _cacles_, or _huaraches_, (sandals) made of tanned leather

and tied with thongs to the ankles. The dress of the women has undergone

even less change than that of the men, since the time of the Spanish

conquest. Many of them wear over the ichapilli a cotton or woolen cloth,

bound by a belt just above the hips; this answers the purpose of a

petticoat; it is woven in stripes of dark colors or embellished with

figures. The ichapilli is white, with figures worked on the breast, and

is longer than that worn by the men. In Puebla the women wear very

narrow petticoats and elegant _quichemels_ covering the breast and back

and embroidered all over with silk and worsted. In the state of Vera

Cruz and other parts of the tierra caliente the men's apparel consists

of a short white cotton jacket or a dark-colored woolen tunic, with

broad open sleeves fastened round the waist with a sash, and short blue

or white breeches open at the sides near the knee; these are a Spanish

innovation, but they continue to wear the square short cloak, _tilma_ or

_tilmatli_, with the end tied on one of the shoulders or across the

breast. Sometimes a pair of shorter breeches made of goat or deer skin

are worn over the cotton ones, and also a jacket of the same material.

The women wear a coarse cotton shift with large open sleeves, often

worked about the neck in bright colored worsted, to suit the wearer's

fancy; a blue woolen petticoat is gathered round the waist, very full

below, and a blue or brown rebozo is used as a wrapper for the

shoulders. Sometimes a muffler is used for the head and face.[900] They

bestow great care on their luxuriant hair, which they arrange in two

long braids that fall from the back of the head, neatly painted and

interwoven with worsted of lively colors, and the ends tied at the

waist-band or joined behind; others bind the braids tightly round the

head, and occasionally add some wild flowers.[901] In the tierra fria, a

thick dark woolen blanket with a hole in the centre through which passes

the head protects the wearer during the day from the cold and rain, and

serves at night for a covering and often for the bed itself. This

garment has in some places taken the place of the tilmatli. Children are

kept in a nude state until they are eight or ten years old, and infants

are enveloped in a coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and limbs

exposed. The Huicholas of Jalisco have a peculiar dress; the men wear a

short tunic made of coarse brown or blue woolen fabric, tightened at the

waist with a girdle hanging down in front and behind, and very short

breeches of poorly dressed goat or deer skin without hair, at the lower

edges of which are strung a number of leathern thongs. Married men and

women wear straw hats with high pointed crowns and broad turned-up rims;

near the top is a narrow and handsomely woven band of many colors, with

long tassels. Their long bushy hair is secured tightly round the crown

of the head with a bright woolen ribbon. Many of the men do up the hair

in queues with worsted ribbons, with heavy tassels that hang below the

waist.[902] De Laet, describing the natives of Jalisco early in the

seventeenth century, speaks of square cloths made of cotton and maguey

tied on the right or left shoulder, and small pebbles or shells strung

together as necklaces. Mota Padilla, in his history of New Galicia, says

that the Chichimecs at Xalostitlan, in 1530, went naked. The inhabitants

of Alzatlan about that time adorned themselves with feathers. In

Zacualco, the common dress of the women about the same period,

particularly widows, was the _huipil_, made of fine cotton cloth,

generally black. The natives of the province of Pánuco, for many years

after the Spanish Conquest, continued to go naked; they pulled out the

beard, perforated the nose and ears, and, filing their teeth to a sharp

point, bored holes in them and dyed them black. The slayer of a human

being used to hang a piece of the skin and hair of the slain at the

waist, considering such things as very valuable ornaments. Their hair

they dyed in various colors, and wore it in different forms. Their women

adorned themselves profusely, and braided their hair with feathers.

Sahagun, speaking of the Matlaltzincas, says that their apparel was of

cloth made from the maguey; referring to the Tlahuicas, he mentions

among their faults that they used to go overdressed; and of the

Macoaques, he writes: that the oldest women as well as the young ones

paint themselves with a varnish called _tecocavitl_, or with some

colored stuff, and wear feathers about their arms and legs. The

Tlascaltecs in 1568 wore cotton-cloth mantles painted in various fine

colors. The inhabitants of Cholula, according to Cortés, dressed better

than the Tlascaltecs; the better class wearing over their other clothes

a garment resembling the Moorish cloak, yet somewhat different, as that

of Cholula had pockets, but in the cloth, the cut, and the fringe,

there was much resemblance to the cloak worn in Africa. Old Spanish

writers tell us that the natives of Michoacan made much use of feathers

for wearing-apparel and for adorning their bodies and heads. At their

later religious festivals, both sexes appear in white, the men with

shirt and trowsers, having a band placed slantingly across the breast

and back, tied to a belt round the waist, and on the head a small red

cloth arranged like a turban, from which are pendent scarlet feathers,

similar to those used by the ancient Aztec warriors. The man is also

adorned with a quantity of showy beads, and three small mirrors, one of

which is placed on his breast, another on his back, and the third

invariably on his forehead. At his back he carries a quiver, and in his

hand a bow, adorned with bright colored artificial flowers, or it may be

the Aztec axe, so painted and varnished as to resemble flint. At the

present time, a native woman, however poor, still wears a necklace of

coral or rows of red beads. The unmarried women of Chilpanzinco used to

daub their faces with a pounded yellow flower. In Durango, the natives

were accustomed to rub their swarthy bodies with clay of various colors,

and paint reptiles and other animals thereon.[903]

The dwellings of the Wild Tribes of Central Mexico vary with climate and

locality. In the lowlands, sheds consisting of a few poles stuck in the

ground, the spaces between filled with rushes, and the roof covered with

palm-leaves, afforded sufficient shelter. In the colder highlands they

built somewhat more substantial houses of trunks of trees, tied together

with creeping plants, the walls plastered with mud or clay, the roof of

split boards kept in place with stones. In treeless parts, houses were

constructed of adobe or sun-dried bricks and stones, and the interior

walls covered with mats; the best houses were only one story high, and

the humbler habitations too low to allow a man to stand erect. The

entire house constituted but one room, where all the family lived,

sleeping on the bare ground. A few stones placed in the middle of the

floor, served as a fireplace where food was cooked. In Vera Cruz there

is a separate small hut for cooking purposes. The wild nomadic

Chichimecs lived in caverns or fissures of rocks situated in secluded

valleys, and the Pames contented themselves with the shade afforded by

the forest-trees.[904]

[Sidenote: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE.]

Corn, beans, tomatoes, chile, and a variety of fruits and vegetables

constitute the chief subsistence of the people, and in those districts

where the banana flourishes, it ranks as an important article of food.

The natives of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas gather large quantities of the

pitahaya, by means of an osier basket attached to a long pole; round the

brim are arranged several forks, for the purpose of detaching the fruit,

which then drops into the basket. From the blossoms and buds they make a

ragout, and also grind the seeds for bread. From the sea and rivers they

obtain a plentiful supply of fish, and they have acquired from childhood

a peculiar habit of eating earth, which is said to be injurious to their

physical development. It has been stated that in former days they used

human flesh as food.

The Otomís and tribes of Jalisco cultivated but little grain, and

consumed that little before it ripened, trusting for a further supply of

food to the natural productions of the soil and to game, such as

rabbits, deer, moles, and birds, and also foxes, rats, snakes and other

reptiles. Corn-cobs they ground, mixed cacao with the powder, and baked

the mixture on the fire. From the lakes in the valley of Mexico they

gathered flies' eggs, deposited there in large quantities by a species

of flies called by the Mexicans _axayacatl_, that is to say,

'water-face,' and by MM. Meneville and Virlet d'Aoust _corixa femorata_

and _notonecta unifasciata_. The eggs being pounded, were moulded into

lumps and sold in the market-place; they were esteemed a special

delicacy, and were eaten fried. These people are also accused by some

authors of having eaten human flesh.[905]

Other tribes, inhabiting the valley of Mexico, Puebla, Michoacan, and

Querétaro, show a greater inclination to cultivate the soil, and live

almost wholly on the products of their own industry. They plant corn by

making a hole in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, into which the

seed is dropped and covered up. Honey is plentiful, and when a tree is

found where bees are at work, they stop the entrance with clay, cut off

the branch and hang it outside their huts; after a short time they

remove the clay, and the bees continue their operations in their new

locality, as if they had not been disturbed.[906]

Gemelli Careri thus describes a novel method of catching ducks: "Others

contrive to deceive ducks, as shy as they are; for when they have us'd

'em to be frequently among calabashes left floating on the lake for that

purpose, they make holes in those calabashes, so that putting their

heads in them, they can see out of them, and then going up to the neck

in the water, they go among the ducks and draw 'em down by the feet."

For making tortillas, the corn is prepared by placing it in water, to

which a little lime is added, and allowing it to soak all night, or it

is put to simmer over a slow fire; the husk is then easily separated and

the corn mashed or ground on the metate. From this paste the tortilla is

formed by patting it between the hands into a very thin cake, which is

cooked on an earthern pan placed over the fire; the tortilla is eaten

with boiled beans, and a mixture of chile and lard. The ground corn is

also mixed with water and strained through a sieve; of this liquor they

make a gruel, to which is added a little cacao or sugar. The sediment

which remains in the sieve is used to make tamales, which are a

combination of chopped meat, chile, and onions, which ingredients are

covered with the corn paste, and the whole enveloped in corn or plantain

leaves and boiled or baked. The Mexicans are very moderate eaters, but

have an insatiable passion for strong liquors.[907]

Laziness and filth follow us as we proceed southward in our

observations; among the Mexicans, the poorer classes especially are

filthy in their persons, and have a disgusting appearance, which

increases with the infirmities of age. Many of them indulge freely in

the use of a steam-bath called _temazcalli_, similar to the Russian

vapor-bath, but it does not appear to have the effect of cleansing their

persons.[908]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS AND SHIELDS.]

All these tribes use bows and arrows; the latter carried in a quiver

slung at the back, a few spare ones being stuck in the belt for

immediate use. A heavy club is secured to the arm by a thong, and

wielded with terrible effect at close quarters. In battle, the principal

warriors are armed with spears and shields. Another weapon much in use

is the sling, from which they cast stones to a great distance and with

considerable accuracy. The natives of the valley of Mexico kill birds

with small pellets blown through a hollow tube.[909]

The clubs, which are from three to four feet in length, are made of a

species of heavy wood, some having a round knob at the end similar to a

mace, others broad and flat, and armed with sharp pieces of obsidian,

fastened on either side. Acosta states that with these weapons they

could cut off the head of a horse at one stroke. Spears and arrows are

pointed with flint or obsidian, the latter having a reed shaft with a

piece of hard wood inserted into it to hold the point. Their quivers are

made of deer-skin, and sometimes of seal or shark-skin. Shields are

ingeniously constructed of small canes so woven together with thread

that they can be folded up and carried tied under the arm. When wanted

for use they are loosed, and when opened out they cover the greater part

of the body.[910]

[Sidenote: WAR AND TREATMENT OF CAPTIVES.]

Aboriginally, as with most northern nations, warfare was the normal

state of these people. The so-called Chichimecs attacked all who entered

their domain, whether for hunting, collecting fruit, or fighting. War

once declared between two tribes, each side endeavors to secure by

alliance as many of their neighbors as possible; to which end

ambassadors are despatched to the chiefs of adjacent provinces, each

bearing in his hand an arrow of the make peculiar to the tribe of the

stranger chief. Arriving at the village, the messenger seeks out the

chief and lays the arrow at his feet; if the proposal of his master be

accepted by the stranger chief, the rendezvous is named and the

messenger departs. The ambassadors having returned with their report,

preparations are at once made for the reception of the allies, a feast

is prepared, large quantities of game and intoxicating drink are made

ready, and as soon as the guests arrive the viands are placed before

them. Then follow eating and drinking, concluding with drunken orgies;

this finished, a council is held, and the assault planned, care being

taken to secure places suitable for an ambuscade and stones for the

slingers. A regular organization of forces is observed and every effort

made to outflank or surround the enemy. Archers and slingers march to an

attack in single file, always occupying the van, while warriors armed

with clubs and lances are drawn up in the rear; the assault is commenced

by the former, accompanied with furious shouts and yells. During the

period of their wars against the Spaniards, they often expended much

time and labor in the fortification of heights by means of tree-trunks,

and large rocks, which were so arranged, one on top of another, that at

a given signal they might be loosened, and let fall on their assailants.

The chiefs of the Tepecanos and contiguous tribes carried no weapons

during the action, but had rods with which they chastised those who

exhibited symptoms of cowardice, or became disorderly in the ranks.[911]

The slain were scalped or their heads cut off, and prisoners were

treated with the utmost barbarity, ending invariably in the death of the

unfortunates; often were they scalped while yet alive, and the bloody

trophy placed upon the heads of their tormentors. The heads of the slain

were placed on poles and paraded through their villages in token of

victory, the inhabitants meanwhile dancing round them. Young children

were sometimes spared, and reared to fight in the ranks of their

conquerors; and in order to brutalize their youthful minds and eradicate

all feelings of affection toward their own kindred, the youthful

captives were given to drink the brains and blood of their murdered

parents. The Chichimecs carried with them a bone, on which, when they

killed an enemy, they marked a notch, as a record of the number each had

slain. Mota Padilla states that when Nuño de Guzman arrived in the

valley of Coynan, in Jalisco, the chiefs came out to meet him, and, as a

sign of peace and obedience, dropped on one knee; upon being raised up

by the Spaniards, they placed round their necks strings of rabbits and

quails, in token of respect.[912]

As the wants of the people are few and simple, so is the inventory of

their implements and household furniture. Every family is supplied with

the indispensable metate, an oblong stone, about twelve by eighteen

inches, smooth on the surface and resting upon three legs in a slanting

position; with this is used a long stone roller, called the

_metlapilli_, for rubbing down the maize, and a large earthen pan,

called the _comalli_, on which to bake the tortillas. Their bottles,

bowls, and cups are made from gourds, often prettily painted, and kept

hanging round the walls; some unglazed earthenware vessels, ornamented

with black figures on a dull red ground, are used for cooking, a block

of wood serves for a stool and table, and lastly a few petates (Aztec,

_petlatl_, 'palm-leaf mat'), are laid upon the ground for beds. These

comprise the whole effects of a native's house. For agricultural

purposes, they have wooden spades, hoes, and sharp stakes for planting

corn. Their products are carried home or to market in large wicker-work

frames, often five feet high by two and a half feet broad, made from

split palm-leaves.[913]

In the State of Jalisco, the natives are celebrated for the manufacture

of blankets and woolen mantas; in other parts of the country they

continue to weave cotton stuffs in the same manner as before the

conquest, all on very primitive hand-looms. The common designs are in

blue or red and white stripes, but they are sometimes neatly worked with

figures, the juice from the murex or purple shell supplying the

vermilion color for the patterns. The inhabitants of Tonala exhibit much

taste and excellence in the production of pottery, making a great

variety of toys, masks, figures, and ornaments, besides the vessels for

household use. In the vicinity of Santa Cruz, the fibres of the aloe,

crushed upon the metate, are employed for the manufacture of ropes,

nets, bags, and flat round pelotas, used in rubbing down the body after

a bath. Palm-leaf mats and dressed skins also figure largely among the

articles of native industry.[914]

In Vera Cruz, they have canoes dug out of the trunk of a mahogany or

cedar tree, which are capable of holding several persons, and are worked

with single paddles.[915]

[Sidenote: TRADE AND ARTS.]

A considerable trade is carried on in pottery, mats, dressed skins, and

manufactures of the aloe-fibre; also fruit, feathers, vegetables, and

fish. All such wares are packed in light osier baskets, which, thrown

upon their backs, are carried long distances to the several markets. In

the province of Vera Cruz, vanilla, jalap, and other herbs are important

articles of native commerce, and all the interior tribes place a high

value on salt, for which they readily exchange their products.[916]

The natives display much patience and skill in ornamental work,

especially carvings in stone, and in painting; although the figures,

their gods bearing witness, are all of grotesque shapes and appearance.

With nothing more than a rude knife, they make very ingenious figures,

of wax, of the pith of trees, of wood, charcoal, clay, and bone. They

are fond of music, and readily imitate any strain they hear. From time

immemorial they have retained a passion for flowers, in all seasons of

the year tastefully decorating therewith their dwellings and shops. The

art of working in gold and silver is well known to the natives of

Jalisco, who execute well-shaped specimens of cups and vases,

beautifully engraved and ornamented.[917]

The wild tribes surrounding, and in places intermixed with, the

Civilized Nations of Central Mexico, as far as I can learn, do not

appear to have had any systematic tribal government; at least, none of

the old historians have given any account of such. Some of the tribes

attach themselves to chiefs of their own choice, to whom they pay a

certain tribute from the produce of their labor or hunting expeditions,

while others live without any government or laws whatsoever, and only

elect a chief on going to war.[918]

[Sidenote: MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.]

Marriage takes place at an early age, and girls are seldom found single

after they attain fourteen or fifteen years. Gomara, however, says that

women in the district of Tamaulipas are not married till they reach the

age of forty. The Otomís marry young, and if, when arrived at the age of

puberty, a young girl has not found a mate, her parents or guardians

select one for her, so that none shall remain single. Among the

Guachichiles, when a young man has selected a girl, he takes her on

trial for an indefinite period; if, afterwards, both parties are

satisfied with each other, the ceremony of marriage is performed; should

it happen, however, that the man be not pleased, he returns the girl to

her parents, which proceeding does not place any obstacle in the way of

her obtaining another suitor. The Chichimecs cannot marry without the

consent of parents; if a young man violates this law and takes a girl

without first obtaining the parental sanction, even with the intention

of marrying her, the penalty is death; usually, in ancient times, the

offender was shot with arrows. When one of this people marries, if the

girl proves not to be a virgin, the marriage is null, and the girl is

returned to her parents. When a young man desires to marry, his parents

make a visit to those of the intended bride, and leave with them a

bouquet of flowers bound with red wool; the bride's parents then send

round to the houses of their friends a bunch of mariguana, a narcotic

herb, which signifies that all are to meet together at the bride's

father's on the next night. The meeting is inaugurated by smoking; then

they chew mariguana, during which time all preliminaries of the marriage

are settled. The following day the resolutions of the conclave are made

known to the young man and woman, and if the decision is favorable, the

latter sends her husband a few presents, and from that time the parties

consider themselves married, and the friends give themselves up to

feasting and dancing.[919]

A plurality of wives was found among all the inhabitants of this region

at the time of the Spanish conquest, the first wife taking precedence of

those who came after her. Many had concubines who, it may be said,

ranked third in the family circle. The missionary Fathers, however, soon

put an end to the custom of more than one wife, whenever they had the

power to do so. Herrera says that the Chichimecs indulged in one wife

only, but that they had the habit of repudiating her for any slight

cause, and of taking another. The women are kept under subjection by

their husbands, and not only have all the indoor work to do, such as

cooking, spinning, and mat-making, but they are also required to carry

heavy burdens home from the market, and bring all the wood and water for

household use. Infants are carried on the mother's back, wrapped in a

coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and legs free. Among the

Chichimecs, when a woman goes out of her house, she places her child in

a wicker basket, and there leaves it, usually suspending it from the

branch of a tree. A child is suckled by the mother until another comes

on and crowds it out. Mühlenpfordt relates that he saw a boy of seven

or eight years of age demanding suck and receiving it from his mother. A

woman near her time of confinement, retires to a dark corner of the

house, attended by some aged woman, who sings to her, and pretends to

call the baby from afar. This midwife, however, does not in any way

assist at the birth, but as soon as the child is born she goes out,

meanwhile covering her face with her hands, so that she may not see.

Having walked once round the house, she opens her eyes, and the name of

the first object she sees is chosen as the name of the child. Among the

Otomís, a young woman about to become a mother is the victim of much

unnecessary suffering arising from their superstitious practices; loaded

with certain amulets and charms, she must carefully avoid meeting

certain individuals and animals whose look might produce evil effects--a

black dog especially must be avoided. The song of a mocking-bird near

the house is held to be a happy omen. At certain hours the mother was to

drink water which had been collected in the mountains, and previously

presented to the gods; the phases of the moon were carefully watched.

She was obliged to undergo an examination from the old crone who

attended her, and who performed certain ceremonies, such as burning

aromatic herbs mingled with saltpetre. Sometimes, amidst her pains, the

ancient attendant obliged her charge to jump about, and take powerful

medicines, which frequently caused abortion or premature delivery. If

the child was a boy, one of the old men took it in his arms and painted

on its breast an axe or some implement of husbandry, on its forehead a

feather, and on the shoulders a bow and quiver; he then invoked for it

the protection of the gods. If the child proved to be a female, the same

ceremony was observed, with the exception that an old woman officiated,

and the figure of a flower was traced over the region of the heart,

while on the palm of the right hand a spinning-wheel was pictured, and

on the left a piece of wool, thus indicating the several duties of after

life. According to the _Apostólicos Afanes_, the Coras call the child

after one of its uncles or aunts. In twelve months' time a feast is

prepared in honor of said young, and the mother and child, together with

the uncle or aunt, placed in the middle of the circle of relatives. Upon

these occasions much wine is drunk, and for the first time salt is

placed in the child's mouth. As soon as the child's teeth are all cut, a

similar meeting takes place, and the child is then given its first meal;

and again, at the age of twelve, the ancients come together, when the

youth is first given wine to drink. As a rule, young people show great

respect and affection for their parents; all their earnings being at

once handed over to them.[920]

In early times, immorality and prostitution existed among these nations

to an unparalleled extent. Gomara says that in the province of

Tamaulipas there were public brothels, where men enacted the part of

women, and where every night were assembled as many as a thousand, more

or less, of these worse than beastly beings, according to the size of

the village. It is certain that incest and every species of fornication

was commonly practiced, especially in the districts of Vera Cruz,

Tamaulipas, and Querétaro.[921]

[Sidenote: CHILDREN AND AMUSEMENTS.]

Their amusements are stamped with the general melancholy of their

character. Dancing, accompanied with music and singing, is their

favorite pastime, but it is seldom indulged in without the accompanying

vice of intoxication. When the Totonacs join in their national dances,

they attach a kind of rattle called _aiacachtli_ to a band round the

head, that produces a peculiar sound during the performance. Among some

tribes women are not permitted to join in the dances. They make various

kinds of drinks and intoxicating liquors. One is made from the fruit of

the nopal or prickly pear, which is first peeled and pressed; the juice

is then passed through straw sieves, and placed by a fire or in the sun,

where in about an hour it ferments. Another drink, called chicha, is

made from raw sugar-cane, which is mashed with a wooden mallet and

passed through a pressing-machine. Their principal and national drink is

pulque, made from the agave americana, and is thus prepared: When the

plant is about to bloom, the heart or stalk is cut out, leaving a hole

in the center, which is covered with the outer leaves. Every twenty-four

hours, or in the hotter climates twice a day, the cavity fills with the

sap from the plant, which is taken out and fermented by the addition of

some already-fermented pulque, and the process is continued until the

plant ceases to yield a further supply. The liquor obtained is at first

of a thick white color, and is at all times very intoxicating.[922]

[Sidenote: MAKING AN ALLIANCE.]

Father Joseph Arlegui, in his _Chrónica de la Provincia de Zacatecas_,

which province then comprised a much larger extent of territory than the

present state of Zacatecas, describes a singular ceremony nowhere else

mentioned. It is employed when one nation wishes to form a close

connection, friendship, alliance, family or blood relationship, so to

say (tratan de hacerse parientes), with another nation; and the process

is as follows: From the tribe with which the alliance is desired, a man

is seized, and a feast or drunken carousal commenced. Meanwhile the

victim destined to form the connecting link between the two bands, and

whose blood is to cement their friendship, is kept without food for

twenty-four hours. Into him is then poured of their execrable beverages

until he is filled, and his senses are deadened, when he is stretched

before a fire, built in a wide open place, where all the people may have

access to him. Having warmed well his body, and rubbed his ears, each

aspirant to the new friendship, armed with a sharp awl-shaped

instrument, made of deer's bone, proceeds to pierce the ears of the

prostrate wretch, each in turn forcing his sharpened bone through some

new place, which causes the blood to spurt afresh with every incision.

With the blood so drawn, the several members of the tribe anoint

themselves, and the ceremony is done. On the spot where the relative of

a Cora is killed in a fight, a piece of cloth is dipped in blood, and

kept as a remembrance, until his death be avenged by killing the slayer,

or one of the males of his family. When meeting each other on a journey,

they make use of many complimentary salutations, and a kind of

freemasonry appears to exist among them. Major Brantz Mayer mentions a

tribe at Cuernavaca that, in the event of a white man arriving at their

village, immediately seize and place him under guard for the night in a

large hut; he and his animals are carefully provided for until the

following day, when he is despatched from the village under an escort,

to wait upon him until far beyond the limits of the settlement. The

custom, at the present day, of hiding money in the ground is universal;

nothing would induce a native to entrust his savings with another. The

inhabitants of Querétaro spend much of their time basking in the sun,

and if the sun does not yield sufficient warmth, they scoop out a hole

in the ground, burn in it branches and leaves of the maguey, and when

properly heated, lay themselves down in the place, and cover themselves

with a mat or the loose earth.[923]

The Mexicans are not subject to many diseases. Small-pox, brought into

the country at the time of the conquest, typhoid fever, and syphilis are

those which cause the greatest destruction of life; the two former are

aggravated by the filthy condition of the villages. Yellow fever, or

black vomit, very rarely attacks the aborigines. The measles is a

prevalent disease. Death is likewise the result of severe wounds,

fractures, or bruises, most of which end in mortification, owing to

neglect, or to the barbarous remedies applied to combat them. The

Huastecs of Vera Cruz suffer from certain worms that breed in their

lips, and highly esteem salt for the curative properties they believe it

to possess against this disorder. At the village of Comalá, in the state

of Colima, a considerable number of the children are born deaf and dumb,

idiots, or deformed; besides which, when they reach a mature age, if we

may believe the early chroniclers, the goitres are more or less

developed on them, notwithstanding Humboldt's assertion that the

aborigines never suffer from this disorder. There is another disease,

cutaneous in its character, which is quite prevalent in many parts of

the country, and is supposed to be contracted under the influence of a

warm, humid, and unhealthy climate, and may be described as follows:

Without pain the skin assumes a variety of colors, the spots produced

being white, red, brownish, or blue. The Pintos, as south-western

coast-dwellers are called, the chief victims to this disorder,

experience no physical pain, except when they go into a cold climate;

then they feel twitchings in the places where the skin has changed

color. The disease is declared to be contagious: and from all accounts

no remedy for it has been as yet discovered. Formerly, an epidemic

called the _matlalzahuatl_ visited the country at long intervals and

caused terrible havoc. All the Spanish writers who speak of it call it

the _peste_, and suppose it to be the same scourge that destroyed nearly

the whole population of the Toltec empire in the eleventh century.

Others believe it to have borne a greater similarity to yellow fever.

The disease, whatever it is, made its appearance in 1545, 1576, and

1736, since which date I find no mention of it, destroying each time an

immense number of people; but upon no occasion did it attack the pure

whites or the mestizos. Its greatest havoc was in the interior, on the

central plateau, and in the coldest and most arid regions, the lowlands

of the coast being nearly, if not entirely, free from its effects.[924]

[Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

When small-pox was first introduced, the natives resorted to bathing as

a cure, and a very large number succumbed to the disease. An old Spanish

author, writing in 1580, states that the natives of the kingdom of New

Spain had an extensive knowledge of medicinal herbs; that they seldom

resorted to bleeding or compound purgatives, for they had many simple

cathartic herbs. They were in the habit of making pills with the

India-rubber gum mixed with other substances, which they swallowed, and

rubbed themselves withal, to increase their agility and suppleness of

body. Cold water baths are commonly resorted to when attacked with

fever, and they cannot be prevailed upon to abandon the practice. The

_temazcalli_ or sweat-bath, is also very much used for cases of severe

illness. The bath-house stands close to a spring of fresh water, and is

built and heated not unlike a European bake-oven. When up to the

required temperature the fire is taken out, and water thrown in; the

patient is then thrust into it naked, feet foremost and head near the

aperture, and laid on a mat that covers the hot stones. The hole that

affords him air for breathing is about eighteen inches square. When

sufficiently steamed, and the body well beaten with rushes, a cold water

bath and a brisk rubbing complete the operation.[925]

In Michoacan, the natives believe that the leaves of a plant called

_cozolmecatl_ or _olcacaran_ applied to a sore part of the body will

foretell the result of the disorder; for if the leaves adhere to the

spot, it is a sure sign that the sufferer will get well, but if they

fall off, the contrary will happen. When prostrated with disease, the

nearest relatives and friends surround the patient's couch and hold a

confab upon the nature of his ailment and the application of the remedy.

Old sorceresses and charlatans put in practice their spells; fumigations

and meltings of saltpetre abound; and by some jugglery, out of the

crystallized saltpetre is brought a monstrous ant, a horrible worm, or

some other object, which, as they allege, is the cause of the disorder.

As the disease progresses, the friends of the sufferer severally

recommend and apply, according to the judgment each may have formed of

the matter, oil of scorpions or of worms, water supposed to produce

miraculous effects on fevers, or like applications, and these empirical

remedies, most of which are entirely useless, and others extremely

barbarous, are applied together without weight or measure.[926]

[Sidenote: BURIAL AND CHARACTER.]

In common with other peoples, it is usual with these nations to place

several kinds of edibles in the grave with the deceased. Among the

Coras, when one died, the corpse was dressed and wrapped in a mantle; if

a man, with bow and arrows, and if a woman, with her distaff, etc., and

in this manner the body was buried in a cave previously selected by the

deceased. All his worldly goods were placed at the door of his former

house, so that he might come and take them without crossing the

threshold, as they believed the dead returned to see about property. If

the deceased had cattle, his friends and relatives every now and then

placed some meat upon sticks about the fields, for fear he might come

for the cattle he formerly owned. Five days after death a hired wizard

essayed to conjure away the shade of the departed property-holder. These

spirit-scarers went smoking their pipes all over the dead man's house,

and shook zapote-branches in the corners, till they pretended to have

found the fancied shadow, which they hurled headlong to its final

resting-place. Upon the second of November most of the natives of the

Mexican valley bring offerings to their dead relatives and friends,

consisting of edibles, live animals, and flowers, which are laid on or

about the graves. The anniversary or commemoration of the dead among the

ancient Aztecs occurred almost upon the same day.[927]

The thick-skinned, thoughtful and reserved aboriginals of central Mexico

are most enigmatical in their character. Their peculiar cast of

features, their natural reserve, and the thickness of their skin, make

it extremely difficult to ascertain by the expression of the face what

their real thoughts are. The general characteristics of this people may

be summed up as follows: peaceable, gentle and submissive to their

superiors, grave even to melancholy, and yet fond of striking

exhibitions and noisy revelry; improvident but charitable, sincerely

pious, but wallowing in ignorance and superstitions; quick of

perception, and possessed of great facility for acquiring knowledge,

especially of the arts, very imitative, but with little originality,

unambitious, unwilling to learn, and indifferent to the comforts of

life. Irascibility is by no means foreign to their nature, but it seems

to lie dormant until awakened by intoxication or some powerful impulse,

when the innate cruelty flames forth, and they pass suddenly from a

state of perfect calmness to one of unrestrained fierceness. Courage and

cowardice are so blended in their character that it is no easy matter to

determine which is the predominant trait. A fact worthy of notice is

that upon many occasions they have proved themselves capable of facing

danger with the greatest resolution, and yet they will tremble at the

angry frown of a white man. Laziness, and a marked inclination to

cheating and stealing are among the other bad qualities attributed to

them; but there is abundant evidence to show, that although naturally

averse to industry, they work hard from morning till night, in mining,

agriculture, and other occupations, and in their inefficient way

accomplish no little labor. Murder and highway robbery are crimes not

generally committed by the pure aboriginal, who steals rarely anything

but food to appease his hunger or that of his family. A Mexican author

says, the Indian cuts down a tree to pick its fruit, destroys an oak of

ten years growth for a week's firewood; in other words, he produces

little, consumes little, and destroys much. Another Mexican writer

affirms that the Indian is active, industrious, handy in agricultural

labor, a diligent servant, a trusty postman, humble, hospitable to his

guests, and shows a sincere gratitude to his benefactors.[928]

[Sidenote: CHARACTER IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

The Pames, Otomís, Pintos, and other nations north of the Mexican valley

were, at the time of the conquest, a barbarous people, fierce and

warlike, covetous even of trifles and fond of display. The Michoacaques

or Tarascos are warlike and brave, and for many years after the conquest

showed themselves exceedingly hostile to the whites, whom they attacked,

plundered, and frequently murdered, when traveling through their

country. In 1751 they were already quiet, and gave evidences of being

intelligent and devoted to work. The men in the vicinity of the city of

Vera Cruz are careless, lazy, and fickle; much given to gambling and

drunkenness; but the women are virtuous, frugal, cleanly, and extremely

industrious. The natives of Jalapa, judging by their countenance, are

less intelligent, and lack the sweetness of character that distinguishes

the inhabitants of the higher plateau; they are, however, peaceable and

inoffensive. The wild tribes of the north are rude, revengeful, dull,

irreligious, lazy, and given to robbery, plunder, and murder. Such are

the characteristics attributed to them under the name of Chichimecs by

old Spanish authors and others. Indeed, the only creditable traits they

were allowed to possess, were, in certain parts, courage and an

independent spirit. Of the nations of Jalisco, both ancient and modern

writers bear testimony to their bravery. They are also sagacious and

somewhat industrious, but opposed to hard labor (as what savage is not),

and not easily kept under restraint. Those who dwell on Lake Chapala are

quiet and mild, devoted to agricultural pursuits. They indeed proved

themselves high-spirited and efficient in defending their rights, when

long oppression had exhausted their forbearance. The Coras were hardy

and warlike, averse to any intercourse with the whites and to the

Christian religion, but by the efforts of the missionaries, and the

heavy blows of the Spanish soldiers, they were brought under

subjection, and became tractable.[929]

[Sidenote: THE NATIONS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.]

The SOUTHERN MEXICANS, under which name I group the people inhabiting

the present states of Oajaca, Guerrero, Chiapas, the southern portion of

Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and Yucatan, constitute the second and last division

of this chapter. Much of this territory is situated within the _tierras

calientes_, or hot lands, wherein every variety of tropical vegetation

abounds in luxuriant profusion. The heat, especially along the coast, to

the unacclimated is most oppressive. The great chain of the cordillera

in its transit across the Tehuantepec isthmus, approaches nearer to the

Pacific seaboard than to the Atlantic, and dropping from the elevated

table-land of central Mexico, seeks a lower altitude, and breaks into

cross-ridges that traverse the country in an east and west direction.

Upon the northern side of the isthmus are plains of considerable extent,

of rich alluvial soil, through which several rivers, after draining the

mountain districts, discharge into the Mexican gulf. These streams, in

their course through the table-lands, are bordered by rich lands of

greater or lesser extent. On the southern side, nature puts on a bolder

aspect and a narrower belt of lowlands is traversed by several rivers,

which discharge the drainage of the southern slope into the Pacific

Ocean, and into the lagoons that border the ocean. One of the most

important features of Yucatan is the absence of any important river. The

coast, which is of great extent, has in general a bleak and arid

appearance, and is little broken except on the north-west, where it is

indented by the laguna de Terminos, and on the eastern side by the bays

of Ascension, Espíritu Santo, and Chetumel. The central part of the

Yucatan peninsula is occupied by a low ridge of mountains, of barren

aspect. A short distance from the coast the general appearance of the

country improves, being well-wooded, and containing many fertile tracts.

Many of the nations occupying this region at the time of the conquest

may be called cultivated, or at least, progressive, and consequently

belong to the civilized nations described in the second volume of this

work; others falling back into a state of wildness after the central

civilization was extinguished, makes it extremely difficult to draw any

line separating civilization from savagism. Nevertheless we will examine

them as best we may; and if it be found that what we learn of them

refers more to the present time than has been the case with nations

hitherto treated, the cause will be obvious.

The _Zapotecs_, who were in former times a very powerful nation, still

occupy a great portion of Oajaca, surrounded by the ruins of their

ancient palaces and cities. The whole western part of the state is taken

up by the _Miztecs_. Tributary to the above before the conquest, were

the _Mijes_ and other smaller tribes now residing in the mountain

districts in the centre of the isthmus. The _Huaves_, who are said to

have come by sea from the south, and to have landed near the present

city of Tehuantepec, spread out over the lowlands and around the lagoons

on the south-western coast of Oajaca. In the province of Goazacoalco,

and in Tabasco, are the _Ahualulcos_, and _Chontales_, who occupy a

large portion of the latter state. South of them in Chiapas are the

_Choles_, _Tzendales_, _Zotziles_, _Alames_, and _Quelenes_, and in the

extreme south-eastern end of the same state, and extending into Central

America, some tribes of the _Lacandones_ are located. The extensive

peninsula of Yucatan, the ancient name of which was Mayapan, formed the

independent and powerful kingdom of the Mayas, who held undisputed

possession of the country until, after a heroic resistance, they were

finally compelled to yield to the superior discipline and weapons of the

Spanish invaders.[930]

[Sidenote: PHYSIQUE IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN.]

The Zapotecs proper are well-formed and strong; the features of the men

are of a peculiar cast and not pleasing; the women, however, are

delicately formed, and graceful with handsome features. Another tribe of

the same nation, the Zapotecs of Tehuantepec, are rather under the

medium height, with a pleasing oval face and present a fine personal

appearance. Not a few of them have light-colored hair, and a somewhat

fair complexion. Their senses, especially that of sight, are acute, and

the constitution sound and robust, notwithstanding their habits of

intoxication. The females have regular and handsome features, and though

of small stature and bizarre in their carriage, are truly graceful and

seductive. Dark lustrous eyes, long eye-lashes, well defined eye-brows,

luxuriant and glossy jet-black hair, play havoc with the men. Those of

Acayucan village are particularly noted for their beauty. But not all

are thus; instance the Chatinos who are remarkably ugly. The natives of

Oajaca are generally large and well-formed; those of Sierra are of a

light-yellow complexion, and their women are tolerably white with mild

features. Some branches of the Miztecs and Mazatecs carry upon their

shoulders very large loads. Father Burgoa writing of the Miztecs, of

Yangüistlan, in the year 1541, speaks of their beautiful complexion and

fine forms. The Mijes are of good height, strongly built, hardy, and

active; they wear a beard, and altogether their aspect is repulsive. The

Zoques are very much like the Mijes, their features are as prominent and

unprepossessing; but they are probably more athletic. The Chontales are

tall and very robust. In the village of Tequisistlan, Oajaca, shortly

after the Spanish conquest, they were all reported as of a gigantic

stature. The Huaves present a different appearance from any of the other

natives of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. They are generally well-made, and

of strong constitutions. The natives of Tabasco who dwell in the country

bordering on the river of that name, are of medium height, and with

well-developed limbs. Both men and women have round flat faces, low

foreheads, small eyes, flattish noses, thick lips, small but quite full

mouths, white teeth, and tawny complexions. The Ahualulcos are rather

under the middle height, but of great physical strength. They have a low

narrow forehead, salient cheek-bones, full lips, white teeth, small

beard, and coarse hair. Their features are aquiline, and the expression

of their countenance is melancholy, one of gentleness blended with

sternness. They strongly resemble the descendants of the Aztecs of

Mexico. The women are more delicately made, and some beautiful ones are

seen among them. They move quickly and with much natural grace.[931]

The descendants of the Mayas are of medium size, with good limbs, large

faces and mouth, the upper lip slightly arched, and a marked tendency to

stoutness; the nose is somewhat flat, eyes sleepy-looking and hair black

and glossy, which rarely turns gray; complexion of a copper color, and

in some instances yellowish. Naturally strong, the Maya or Yucatec can

carry heavy loads long distances, and perform a great deal of hard labor

without showing signs of fatigue. An old Spanish writer mentions that

they were generally bow-legged, and many of them squint-eyed. The same

author says they had good faces, were not very dark, did not wear a

beard, and were long-lived. The women are plump, and generally speaking

not ugly.[932]

[Sidenote: DRESS IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN.]

Very scanty was the dress of the dwellers on Tehuantepec isthmus. In

Oajaca and Chiapas, the men wore a piece of deer or other skin fastened

round the waist, and hanging down in front, and the women wore aprons of

maguey-fibre. Montanus in describing the Mijes says they were quite

naked, but that some wore round the waist a white deer-skin dressed with

human hearts. The Lacandones, when going to war, wore on their shoulders

the skin of a tiger, lion, or deer. The Quelenes wrapped round their

head a colored cloth, in the manner of a turban, or garland of flowers.

At present, the usual dress of the Zapotecs is a pair of wide Mexican

drawers, and short jacket of cotton, with a broad-brimmed hat, made of

felt or straw--yet the Huaves and many of the poorer class, still wear

nothing but a breech-cloth. The costume of the women is simple, and not

without elegance. That of the Miztecs, Zapotecs, and others dwelling in

the city of Tehuantepec is a skirt made of cotton,--sometimes of

wool--that reaches nearly to the ankles, prettily and often elaborately

worked in various designs and colors. The upper part of the body is

covered with a kind of chemisette, with short sleeves called the

_huipil_, of fine texture, and adorned with lace and gold or silk

threads. On the head is a white cotton covering, made like a narrow sack

or sleeve, which is drawn on and hangs down over the back. In Tabasco,

the dress of the men differs little from that of the people of

Tehuantepec; the Tabascan women wear a cotton petticoat or a few yards

of calico wrapped round the waist, and reaching below the knees. Over

the petticoat they wear a frock with sleeves to the wrist, leaving the

bosom and neck exposed. Children and boys go naked; indeed, whenever

clothing to any extent is found in this region, we may be sure that the

foreign trader is at the bottom of it.[933]

Both sexes usually wear the hair long, parting it in the middle, and

either permit it to hang in loose tresses over the shoulders, or,

binding it with gay colored ribbons, loop it up on the back of the head,

where it is fastened with a large comb. On festive occasions they

interweave flowers with the hair, and also mingle with it a species of

shining beetle, called _cucullo_, which emits a phosphorescent light,

and produces a very pretty effect. Among the Zoques who reside at San

Miguel and Santa María Chimalapa, the males shave the crown of the head,

a custom of possible monkish origin peculiar to themselves. Feather

tufts and skins of green birds were formerly much used for ornaments;

they had also necklaces made of pieces of gold joined together, and

amber beads. Nose and ears were pierced, and pieces of stone or amber or

gold rings or a bit of carved wood inserted. Montanus describes a kind

of snake called _ibobaca_, which he says the inhabitants of Chiapas wore

round the neck.[934] They also painted and stained the face. When

Fernandez de Córdova explored the northern coast of Yucatan, he found

the people clad in cotton garments, and at the present day this forms

the principal material from which their clothing is made. Men now wear a

cotton shirt or blouse, usually without sleeves, and wide drawers; round

the waist is tied a white or colored sash; for protection from the sun,

a straw hat is worn, or perhaps a piece of colored calico, and their

sandals are made from deer-skin. Instead of drawers, they used to wear a

broad cotton band passed round the loins, the ends of which were

arranged to hang one in front and the other behind; a cloak or mantle of

cotton called _zugen_ was thrown over the shoulders. Colonel Galindo

mentions that they used the bark of the India-rubber tree for making

garments, and Cogolludo says that when the Spaniards arrived at Aké, in

the year 1527, the army of natives were in a state of nudity, with only

their privy parts covered, and the whole body besmeared with clay of

different colors. The women display considerable taste in the style of

their garments; over a petticoat, which reaches to their ankles, and

prettily bordered at the bottom, they have a dress with sleeves down to

the elbow; the skirt is open at the sides, and does not fall as low as

the petticoat, so that the border of the latter may be seen, the bosom

of the dress is open, and on each side of the breast and round the neck

it is embroidered with coarse silk, as in Tehuantepec; the huipil

(Aztec, _vipilli_) is also worn. In country places women wear the

petticoat alone, using the overskirt or huipil only on special

occasions. When out of doors, they cover the head and part of the face

with a piece of cotton cloth.[935] All permit the hair to attain to its

full length; the men plait theirs and wind it round the head, leaving a

short end to hang down behind, while that of the women hangs in dark

masses over their shoulders, or is neatly bound up behind and decorated

with flowers or feathers. Herrera states that it was customary to scorch

the faces of young children to prevent the growth of their beards, and

the men allowed the hair to grow down over the eyebrows, making their

heads and foreheads flat on purpose. They pierced nose and ears,

ornamenting them with rings set with pearls and bits of amber, and wore

collars and bracelets of gold. Some among them filed their teeth. They

painted the face and all exposed parts of the body in many colors, using

white or yellow with black and red, covering themselves from the waist

upward with a variety of designs and figures. When going to battle paint

was much used, in order to render their appearance more formidable; men

tattooed on the chest, and the women mixed liquid amber with their

pigments, which, when rubbed over the body, emitted a perfume.[936]

[Sidenote: ZAPOTEC BUILDINGS.]

The better class of Zapotecs of the present day build their houses in a

substantial manner of adobes; the common people construct a more simple

dwelling with branches arranged in a double row, and the space between

filled in with earth; they also make them of wattled cane-work plastered

with clay. Such dwellings are cool and proof against the frequent

earthquakes that occur in their territory. Roofs are thatched with

palmetto-leaves without opening, nor are there any windows in the walls.

The interior is divided into several compartments, according to size and

necessity.[937] The Mijes thatch their houses with bundles of coarse

straw. The Chinantecs, Chochos, and Chontales originally built no

houses, but sought out the most shady forests, where they dwelt, or they

located themselves in ravines and rocky parts, living in caverns or

holes under the rocks; the Tzendales of Chiapas had many towns and

painted their houses; the Ahualulcos lived together in communities, and

had commodious, well-built houses of interwoven cane, plastered on the

inside with mud, the roof thatched with palmetto.[938]

[Sidenote: PREPARATION OF FOOD.]

From the earliest times of which we have any record, the natives of

Oajaca and the isthmus of Tehuantepec cultivated corn and vegetables,

and likewise followed the chase; those who dwelt on the borders of the

sea or lakes applied themselves to fishing. The Zapotecs now raise

wheat, and build mills. It is asserted by an old Spanish chronicler that

this nation exceeded all others in eating and drinking. As early as

1690, they gathered crops of maguey, maize, Spanish peas, chile,

potatoes, and pumpkins, and bred swine and poultry. Of late they

cultivate rice, sugar-cane, and other tropical productions, as also do

the inhabitants of Tehuantepec. Primitive agriculture has undergone but

little alteration; deer are caught by means of traps and nets. The

Miztecs, Mijes, and Cuicatecs have from the earliest times been

cultivators of the soil. The Mijes make a coarse or impure sugar from

sugar-cane; their corn-fields are often many miles distant from their

dwellings. The Huaves, the greater portion of whom are on the borders of

the lagoons on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, live mostly on the proceeds

of their fisheries, although they raise a small supply of grain and

fruit. Their fishing is almost exclusively done with sweep-nets in

shallow waters, and during one month of the year they catch large

schools of shrimps in traps. The Zoques produce the small quantity of

corn that they need, some _achote_, many very fine oranges, and tobacco.

They are fond of iguanas and their eggs, and of parrots, killing the

latter with stones. The Chontales of Tabasco and Tehuantepec use maize

and cocoa as food. They eat flesh only upon great religious festivals,

marriages, or other celebrations, but are fond of fish. In olden times

they were cannibals, and Antonio de Herrera, the chief chronicler of the

Indies, accused also the natives of Chiapas of being eaters of human

flesh. Since the conquest the natives have lived mostly on corn and

other vegetable productions, cultivated by themselves. A large portion

of the Mayas and of the other aborigines of Yucatan are to-day engaged

in the cultivation of the soil, they also breed such domestic animals as

they need for themselves. They are very simple and frugal in their

eating.[939] All the natives of this section of the Mexican republic

grind their maize in the same manner; after first soaking it in lye or

in lime and water, it is bruised on the metate, or rubbing-stone, being

wet occasionally, until it becomes a soft paste. With this they make

their tortillas and other compounds, both to eat and drink. To make

tortillas the maize paste is shaped into thin cakes with the palms of

the hands and cooked upon a flat clay pan. The _totoposte_ is a smaller

cake used for journeys in lieu of the tortillas. The difference between

them is in the manner of preparation; the totopostes are cooked one side

only and laid near the fire which makes them crisp, and require to be

moistened in order to render them eatable. Tamales are a favorite dish

and are made of pork, game, or poultry. The meat is cut up in small

pieces and washed; a small quantity of the maize paste seasoned with

cinnamon, saffron, cloves, pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red

coloring matter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a

pan and as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a thick gruel, it

is removed, mixed with the meat, some more lard and salt added, and the

mass kneaded for a few moments. It is then divided into small portions,

which are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. The tamales thus prepared

are covered with a banana-leaf or corn-husk and placed in a pot or pan

over which large leaves are laid. They are allowed to boil from one hour

and a half to two hours. The _posole_ is a nourishing drink made of sour

maize paste mixed with water; sometimes they add a little honey to it.

They also prepare a drink by parching corn and grinding it to powder on

the metate, and mixing it with water and a little _achote_. This last

drink they prefer to the posole, for long journeys.[940]

The natives of Tehuantepec and especially those who reside in the

Goazacoalco district are neat and clean in regard to their personal

habits. They observe the custom of bathing daily. In their ablutions

they make use of a plant called _chintule_ the root of which they mix

with water, thereby imparting to their bodies a strong aromatic odor.

The same plant is used when they wash their clothes, the scent from

which remains on them for some time. A pleasing feature in the

appearance of these people is the spotless whiteness of their cotton

dresses and the care they bestow on their luxuriant hair.

The other tribes who inhabit this isthmus as well as those of Chiapas

are not so clean in their persons, and as a consequence are much

infested with vermin which the women have a disgusting habit of eating

when picked from the heads of their children. The Mayas make frequent

use of cold water, but this practice appears to be more for pleasure

than for cleansing purposes, as neither in their persons nor in their

dwellings do they present an appearance of cleanliness.[941]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS AND WAR.]

The weapons of the Southern Mexicans were in most respects similar to

those used by the Central Mexicans, namely, bows and arrows, macanas,

and lances, the latter of great length and very strong. In Tabasco they

carried turtle-shell shields highly polished so as to reflect the sun;

they also had flint stones for lances and arrow-points, but sometimes

weapon-points were made from strong thorns and fish-bones. The hard

wooden sword of the Maya was a heavy and formidable weapon, and required

the use of both hands to wield it; the edge was grooved for the purpose

of inserting the sharp flint with which it was armed. Slings were

commonly used by all these nations. In addition to shields the Mayas had

for defensive armor garments of thickly quilted cotton called

_escaupiles_, which covered the body down to the lower part of the

thigh, and were considered impervious to arrows. The flint knife of

former days has now been replaced by the machete which serves the

purpose of both cutlass and chopping-knife, and without it no native

ever goes into the woods.[942]

When the Spaniards first arrived at Tabasco, they encountered a people

well-skilled in the art of war, with a fair knowledge of military

tactics, who defended their country with much bravery; their towns and

villages were well fortified with intrenchments or palisades, and strong

towers and forts were built on such places as presented the most

favorable position for resisting attacks. To their forts they retired

when invaded by a superior force, and from the walls they hurled large

rocks with damaging effect against their foes. Cortés found erected on

the bank of the Tabasco River, in front of one of their towns, a strong

wooden stockade, with loopholes through which to discharge arrows; and

subsequently, during his march through their country, they frequently

set fire to their villages, with the object of harassing his troops.

When advancing to battle they maintained a regular formation, and they

are described as having met Francisco Montejo in good order, drawn up in

three columns, the centre under the command of their chief, accompanied

by their chief priest. The combatants rushed forward to the attack with

loud shouts, cheered on by the blowing of horns and beating of small

drums called _tunkules_. Prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed to

their gods.[943]

The furniture of their houses is of the plainest description, and

limited to their absolute wants. Their tables or benches are made of a

few rough boards, and a mat called _petate_, spread on the floor, serves

for a bed, while a coarse woolen blanket is used for covering; some few

have small cane bedsteads. The natives of Tabasco and Yucatan more

commonly have a network _hamaca_ or hammock, suspended from two posts or

trees. Their cooking-utensils consist of the metate, pots made of

earthenware, and gourds. The universal machete carried by man and boy

serves many purposes, such as chopping firewood, killing animals,

eating, and building houses. Burgoa describes nets of a peculiar make

used by the Zapotecs for catching game; in the knots of the net were

fixed the claws of lions, tigers, bears, and other wild beasts of prey,

and at intervals were fastened a certain number of small stones; the

object of such construction being probably to wound or disable the

animal when caught.[944]

[Sidenote: OAJACAN MANUFACTURES.]

The Zapotecs, Miztecs, Mayas, and others, since the conquest, have long

been justly celebrated for the manufacture of cotton stuffs, a fact that

is all the more surprising when we consider the very imperfect

implements they possessed with which to perform the work. Burgoa speaks

of the excellence and rich quality of their manufactures in cotton,

silk, and gold thread, in 1670, and Thomas Gage, writing about the same

time, says "it is rare to see what works those Indian women will make in

silk, such as might serve for patterns and samplers to many

Schoolmistresses in England." All the spinning and weaving is done by

the women; the cotton clothes they make are often interwoven with

beautiful patterns or figures of birds and animals, sometimes with gold

and silk thread. A species of the agave americana is extensively

cultivated through the country, from the fibres of which the natives

spin a very strong thread that is used chiefly for making hammocks; the

fibre is bleached and then dyed in different rich tints. The materials

they have for dyeing are so good that the colors never fade. The

Zapotecs have also an intimate knowledge of the process of tanning

skins, which they use for several domestic purposes.[945]

Notwithstanding their proximity to the sea-coast, and although their

country is in many parts intersected by rivers and lagoons, they have a

surprisingly slight knowledge of navigation, few having any vessels with

which to venture into deep water. The inhabitants of Tabasco, the

Yucatan coast, and Cozumel island possess some canoes made from the

single trunk of a mahogany-tree, which they navigate with small lateen

sails and paddles. The Huaves and others are in complete ignorance of

the management of any description of boats.[946]

The Zoques make from the ixtle and pita thread and superior hammocks, in

which they have quite a trade. In the neighborhood of Santa María they

grow excellent oranges, and sell them throughout all the neighboring

towns. The Zapotecs have, many of them, a considerable commerce in

fruits, vegetables, and seeds. In the city of Tehuantepec the business

of buying and selling is conducted exclusively by women in the

market-place. The Ahualulcos are chiefly employed in cutting planks and

beams, with which they supply many places on this isthmus; they also

trade to some extent in seeds and cotton cloths. Different kinds of

earthenware vessels for domestic purposes are made by the natives of

Chiapas, and by them exchanged for salt, hatchets, and glass ornaments.

The Mayas have an extensive business in logwood, which, besides maize

and poultry, they transport to several places along the coast. Mr

Stephens describes a small community of the Maya nation, numbering about

a hundred men with their families, living at a place called Schawill,

who hold and work their lands in common. The products of the soil are

shared equally by all, and the food for the whole settlement is prepared

at one hut. Each family contributes its quota of provisions, which, when

cooked, are carried off smoking hot to their several dwellings. Many of

the natives of Tabasco earn a livelihood by keeping bee-hives; the bees

are captured wild in the woods, and domesticated. The Huaves breed

cattle and tan hides; cheese and tasajo, or jerked meat, are prepared

and exported by them and other tribes on the isthmus of Tehuantepec. At

the present day cochineal is cultivated to a considerable extent, and

forms an important article of commerce among the inhabitants. A rather

remarkable propensity to the possession of large numbers of mules is

peculiar to the Mijes; such property in no way benefits them, as they

make no use of them as beasts of burden; indeed, their owners seem to

prefer carrying the loads on their own backs.[947]

[Sidenote: ZAPOTEC GOVERNMENT.]

Formerly the Zapotecs were governed by a king, under whom were caciques

or governors who ruled over certain districts. Their rank and power

descended by inheritance, but they were obliged to pay tribute to the

king, from whom they held their authority in fief. At the time of the

conquest the most powerful among them was the Lord of Cuicatlan; for the

service of his household, ten servants were furnished daily, and he was

treated with the greatest respect and homage. In later years a cacique

was elected annually by the people, and under him officers were

appointed for the different villages. Once a week these sub-officers

assembled to consult with and receive instructions from the cacique on

matters relating to the laws and regulations of their districts. In the

towns of the Miztecs a municipal form of government was established.

Certain officials, elected annually, appointed the work which was to be

done by the people, and every morning at sunrise the town-criers from

the tops of the highest houses called the inhabitants to their allotted

tasks. It was also the duty of the town-criers to inflict the punishment

imposed on all who from laziness or other neglect failed to perform

their share of work. A somewhat similar system appears to have prevailed

in Chiapas, where the people lived under a species of republican

government.[948] The Mayas were at one time governed by a king who

reigned supreme over the whole of Yucatan. Internal dissensions and

wars, however, caused their country to be divided up into several

provinces, which were ruled over by lords or petty kings, who held

complete sway, each in his own territory, owing allegiance to none, and

recognizing no authority outside of their own jurisdiction. These lords

appointed captains of towns, who had to perform their duties subject to

their lord's approval. Disputes arising, the captains named umpires to

determine differences, whose decisions were final. These people had also

a code of criminal laws, and when capital punishment was ordered, public

executioners carried the sentence into effect. The crime of adultery in

the man was punishable by death, but the injured party could claim the

right to have the adulterer delivered to him, and he could kill or

pardon him at pleasure; disgrace was the punishment of the woman. The

rape of a virgin was punished by stoning the man to death.[949]

[Sidenote: SLAVERY AND MARRIAGE.]

Slavery existed among the tribes of Goazacoalco and Tabasco. Doña Marina

was one of twenty female slaves who were presented to Cortés by the

cacique of the latter place; and when her mother, who lived in the

province of Goazacoalco, gave her away to some traveling merchants, she,

to conceal the act, pretended that the corpse of one of her slaves who

died at that time was that of her own daughter.[950]

[Sidenote: WEDDINGS AND FATHERS-IN-LAW.]

Among the Zapotecs and other nations who inhabit the isthmus of

Tehuantepec, marriages are contracted at a very early age; it happens

not unfrequently that a youth of fourteen marries a girl of eleven or

twelve. Polygamy is not permissible, and gentleness, affection, and

frugality characterize the marital relations. Certain superstitious

ceremonies formerly attended the birth of children, which, to a modified

extent, exist at the present day. When a woman was about to be confined,

the relatives assembled in the hut, and commenced to draw on the floor

figures of different animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was

completed. This operation continued till the moment of birth, and the

figure that then remained sketched upon the ground was called the

child's _tona_ or second self. When the child grew old enough, he

procured the animal that represented him and took care of it, as it was

believed that health and existence were bound up with that of the

animals, in fact, that the death of both would occur simultaneously.

Soon after the child was born, the parents, accompanied by friends and

relatives, carried it to the nearest water, where it was immersed, while

at the same time they invoked the inhabitants of the water to extend

their protection to the child; in like manner they afterwards prayed for

the favor of the animals of the land. It is a noticeable trait, much to

the credit of the parents, that their children render to them as well as

to all aged people the greatest respect and obedience. That the women

are strictly moral cannot be asserted. Voluptuous, with minds

untrained, and their number being greatly in excess of the men, it is

not surprising that travelers have noted an absence of chastity among

these women; yet few cases of conjugal infidelity occur, and chastity is

highly esteemed. Illegitimate children are not common, partly the

result, perhaps, of early marriages.[951] Among the Quelenes, when a

contract of marriage was made, the friends and relatives collected at

the assembly-house common to every village. The bride and bridegroom

were then introduced by the parents, and in the presence of the cacique

and priest confessed all the sins of which they were guilty. The

bridegroom was obliged to state whether he had had connection with the

bride or with other women, and she, on her part, made a full confession

of all her shortcomings; this ended, the parents produced the presents,

which consisted of wearing-apparel and jewelry, in which they proceeded

to array them; they were then lifted up and placed upon the shoulders of

two old men and women, who carried them to their future home, where they

laid them on a bed, locked them in, and there left them securely

married.[952] Among the Mayas early marriage was a duty imposed by the

Spanish Fathers, and if a boy or girl at the age of twelve or fourteen

had not chosen a mate, the priest selected one of equal rank or fortune

and obliged them to marry. The usual presents were dresses; and a

banquet was prepared, of which all present partook. During the feast the

parents of the parties addressed them in speeches applicable to the

occasion, and afterwards the house was perfumed by the priest, who then

blessed the company and the ceremony ended. Previous to the wedding-day

the parents fasted during three days. The young man built a house in

front of that of his father-in-law, in which he lived with his wife

during the first years of his servitude, for he was obliged to work for

his father-in-law four or five years. If he failed to perform faithful

service, his father-in-law dismissed him, and gave his daughter to

another. Widowers were exempt from this servitude, and could choose whom

they pleased for a wife without the interference of relatives. It was

forbidden a man to marry a woman of the same name as his father. They

married but one wife, though the lords were permitted to make concubines

of their slaves. Mr Stephens, in his description of the inhabitants of

the village of Schawill, says: "Every member must marry within the

rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it had ever occurred.

They said it was impossible; it could not happen. They were in the habit

of going to the villages to attend the festivals; and when we suggested

a supposable case of a young man or woman falling in love with some

village Indian, they said it might happen; there was no law against it;

but none could marry out of the rancho. This was a thing so little

apprehended, that the punishment for it was not defined in their penal

code; but being questioned, after some consultations, they said that the

offender, whether man or woman would be expelled. We remarked that in

their small community constant intermarriages must make them all

relatives, which they said was the case since the reduction of their

numbers by the cholera. They were in fact all kinsfolk, but it was

allowable for kinsfolk to marry, except in the relationship of brothers

and sisters."

In divisions of property women could not inherit; in default of direct

male heirs the estate went to the brothers or nearest male relatives.

When the heir was a minor, one of his male relatives was appointed

guardian, until the days of his minority should have passed, when the

property was delivered up to him. The Southern Mexicans were particular

to keep a strict chronology of their lineage. Young children underwent a

kind of baptismal ceremony. The Mayas believed that ablution washed away

all evil; and previous to the ceremony the parents fasted three days,

and they were particular to select for it what they considered a lucky

day. The age at which the rite was performed was between three and

twelve years, and no one could marry until he had been baptized. Habits

of industry as well as respect for parents and aged people was strongly

impressed upon the minds of the children.[953]

The Southern Mexicans are fond of singing and dancing, though there is

not much variety either in their melancholy music or monotonous dances.

Their favorite instrument is the _marimba_, composed of pieces of hard

wood of different lengths stretched across a hollowed-out canoe-shaped

case. The pieces of wood or keys are played upon with two short sticks,

one held in each hand. The sound produced is soft and pleasing, and not

unlike that of a piano. Another instrument is the _tunkul_ or drum, made

of a hollow log with sheep-skin stretched over the end; it is struck

with the fingers of the right hand, the performer holding it under his

left arm. Their movements during their dances are slow and graceful. The

men are addicted to intoxication at their feasts, the liquor in common

use among them being mescal and aguardiente, a colorless spirit made

from the sugar-cane. Many of the natives have a small still in their

houses.[954]

[Sidenote: CUSTOMS IN OAJACA.]

The Zapotecs are exceedingly polite to one another in their common

salutations, calling each other brother, and to the descendants of their

ancient caciques or lords the utmost reverence is paid. It is related by

a Mexican writer that in a village not distant from the city of Oajaca,

whenever an aged man, the son of one of their ancient lords was seen by

the natives out walking, with a majesty that well became his fine form,

position, and age, they uncovered their heads, kissed his hands, which

he held out to them, with much tenderness, calling him _daade_ (father),

and remained uncovered until he was lost to sight. They are a theocratic

people, much addicted to their ancient religious belief and customs.

Those who live in the vicinity of Mitla entertain a peculiar

superstition; they will run to the farthest villages and pick up even

the smallest stones that formed a part of the mosaic work of that famous

ruin, believing that such stones will in their hands turn into gold.

Some of them hold the belief that anyone who discovers a buried or

hidden treasure has no right to appropriate to his own use any portion

of it, and that if he does, death will strike him down within the year,

in punishment of the sacrilege committed against the spirit of the

person who hid or buried the treasure. One of the first priests that

lived among the Zapotecs says that after they had entered the pale of

the church, they still clung to their old religious practices, and made

offerings of aromatic gums, and living animals; and that when the

occasion demanded a greater solemnity, the officiating priest drew blood

from the under part of his tongue, and from the back part of his ears,

with which he sprinkled some thick coarse straw, held as sacred and used

at the sacrifices. To warm themselves, the Chochos, or Chuchones, of

Oajaca used, in cold weather, towards the evening, to burn logs and dry

leaves close to the entrance of their caves, and blow the smoke into

their dwellings, which being quite full, all the family, old and young,

males and females, rushed in naked and closed the entrance. The natives

of Goazacoalco and other places practiced some of the Jewish rites,

including a kind of circumcision, which custom they claimed to have

derived from their forefathers; hence have arisen innumerable analogies

to prove the Jewish origin of these peoples. The Huaves still preserve

ancient customs at their feasts. It is a remarkable fact that although

nearly all these people are fishermen, very few of them can swim. The

Mijes have a habit of speaking in very loud tones; this is attributed by

some to their haughty spirit, and by others to their manner of life in

the most rugged portion of the mountains. When bound upon a journey, if

they have no other load to carry, they fill their _tonates_, or nets,

with stones. This is generally done by them on the return home from the

market-place of Tehuantepec. These loads rest upon their backs, and hang

by a band from their foreheads. In ancient times, when they were in

search of a new country to settle in, they subjected the places they had

devastated to the fire proof. This was done by putting a firebrand over

night into a hole, and if it was found extinguished in the morning, they

considered that the Sun desired his children (that is themselves) to

continue their journey. They are much given, even at the present time,

to idolatrous practices, and will make sacrifices in their churches, if

permitted, of birds as offerings to the false gods they worshiped before

their partial conversion to Christianity. The natives attribute eclipses

of the moon to an attempt by the sun to destroy their satellite, and to

prevent the catastrophe make a frightful uproar, employing therefor

everything they can get hold of.[955]

[Sidenote: DISEASES AND MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

The diseases most prevalent among the Southern Mexicans are fevers,

measles, and severe colds. All these people possess an excellent

knowledge of medicinal herbs, and make use of them in cases of pains and

sickness. They still practice some of their mysterious ceremonies, and

are inclined to attribute all complaints to the evil influence of

bewitchments. Father Baeza, in the _Registro Yucateco_, says they

consulted a crystal or transparent stone called _zalzun_, by which they

pretended to divine the origin and cause of any sickness. When suffering

with fever or other disorders, the disease is often much aggravated and

death caused by injudicious bathing in the rivers. In ancient times

tobacco was much used as a specific against pains arising from colds,

rheumatism, and asthma; the natives found that it soothed the nerves and

acted as a narcotic. They also practiced bleeding with a sharp flint or

fish-bone. The Zapotecs attempted cures by means of a blow-pipe, at the

same time invoking the assistance of the gods.[956]