Yosemite Valley was formerly a stronghold to which tribes in that

vicinity resorted after committing their depredations upon white

settlers. They used to make their boast that their hiding place could

never be discovered by white men. But during the year 1850, the

marauders growing bold in their fancied security, the whites arose and

drove them into the mountains. Following them thither under the guidance

of Tenaya, an old chief and confederate, the white men were suddenly

confronted by the wondrous beauties of the valley. The Indians,

disheartened at the discovery of their retreat, yielded a reluctant

obedience, but becoming again disaffected they renewed their

depredations. Shortly afterward the Yosemite Indians made a visit to the

Monos. They were hospitably entertained, but upon leaving, could not

resist the temptation to drive off a few stray cattle belonging to their

friends. The Monos, enraged at this breach of good faith, pursued and

gave them battle. The warriors of the valley were nearly exterminated,

scarce half a dozen remaining to mourn their loss. All their women and

children were carried away into captivity. These Yosemite Indians

consisted of a mixture from various tribes, outlaws as it were from the

surrounding tribes. They have left as their legacy a name for every

cliff and waterfall within the valley. How marvelous would be their

history could we go back and trace it from the beginning, these millions

of human bands, who throughout the ages have been coming and going,

unknowing and unknown!

In the SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies south of the

thirty-fifth parallel, there are less tribal differences than among any

people whom we have yet encountered, whose domain is of equal extent.

Those who live in the south-eastern corner of the State are thrown by

the Sierra Nevada range of mountains into the Shoshone family, to which,

indeed, by affinity they belong. The chief tribes of this division are

the _Cahuillas_ and the _Diegueños_, the former living around the San

Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, and the latter in the southern

extremity of California. Around each mission were scores of small bands,

whose rancherías were recorded in the mission books, the natives as a

whole being known only by the name of the mission. When first discovered

by Cabrillo in 1542, the islands off the coast were inhabited by a

superior people, but these they were induced by the padres to abandon,

following which event the people rapidly faded away. The natives called

the island of Santa Cruz _Liniooh_, Santa Rosa _Hurmal_, San Miguel

_Twocan_, and San Nicolas _Ghalashat_.

As we approach the southern boundary of California a slight improvement

is manifest in the aborigines. The men are here well made, of a stature

quite up to the average, comparatively fair-complexioned and

pleasant-featured. The children of the islanders are described by the

early voyagers as being white, with light hair and ruddy cheeks, and the

women as having fine forms, beautiful eyes, and a modest demeanor.[566]

The beard is plucked out with a bivalve shell, which answers the

purpose of pincers.

[Sidenote: DRESS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

A short cloak of deer-skin or rabbit-skins sewed together, suffices the

men for clothing; and sometimes even this is dispensed with, for they

think it no shame to be naked.[567] The women and female children wear a

petticoat of skin, with a heavy fringe reaching down to the knees; in

some districts they also wear short capes covering the breasts.[568] On

the coast and, formerly, on the islands, seals furnished the

material.[569] The more industrious and wealthy embroider their garments

profusely with small shells. Around Santa Barbara rings of bone or shell

were worn in the nose; at Los Angeles nasal ornaments were not the

fashion. The women had cylinder-shaped pieces of ivory, sometimes as

much as eight inches, in length, attached to the ears by a shell ring.

Bracelets and necklaces were made of pieces of ivory ground round and

perforated, small pebbles, and shells.

Paint of various colors was used by warriors and dancers. Mr Hugo Reid,

who has contributed valuable information concerning the natives of Los

Angeles County, states that girls in love paint the cheeks sparingly

with red ochre, and all the women, before they grow old, protect their

complexion from the effects of the sun by a plentiful application of

the same cosmetic.[570] Vizcaino saw natives on the southern coast

painted blue and silvered over with some kind of mineral substance. On

his asking where they obtained the silver-like material they showed him

a kind of mineral ore, which they said they used for purposes of

ornamentation.[571]

They take much pride in their hair, which they wear long. It is braided,

and either wound round the head turban-like,[572] or twisted into a

top-knot; some tie it in a queue behind. According to Father Boscana the

girls are tattooed in infancy on the face, breast, and arms. The most

usual method was to prick the flesh with a thorn of the cactus-plant;

charcoal produced from the maguey was then rubbed into the wounds, and

an ineffaceable blue was the result.[573]

[Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD.]

Dwellings, in the greater part of this region, differ but little from

those of the Central Californians. In shape they are conical or

semi-globular, and usually consist of a frame, formed by driving long

poles into the ground, covered with rushes and earth.[574] On the coast

of the Santa Barbara Channel there seems to have been some improvement

in their style of architecture. It was probably here that Cabrillo saw

houses built after the manner of those in New Spain.[575] It is possible

that the influences of the southern civilization may have extended as

far as this point. Father Boscana's description of the temples or

_vanquechs_ erected by the natives in the vicinity of San Juan

Capistrano, in honor of their god, Chinigchinich, is thus translated:

"They formed an enclosure of about four or five yards in circumference,

not exactly round, but inclining to an oval. This they divided by

drawing a line through the centre, and built another, consisting of the

branches of trees, and mats to the height of about six feet, outside of

which, in the other division, they formed another of small stakes of

wood driven into the ground. This was called the gate, or entrance, to

the vanquech. Inside of this, and close to the larger stakes, was placed

a figure of their god Chinigchinich, elevated upon a kind of hurdle.

This is the edifice of the vanquech."[576]

Almost every living thing that they can lay their hands on serves as

food. Coyotes, skunks, wild cats, rats, mice, crows, hawks, owls,

lizards, frogs, snakes, excepting him of the rattle, grasshoppers and

other insects, all are devoured by the inland tribes. Stranded whales,

animals of the seal genus, fish, and shell-fish, form the main support

of those inhabiting the coast. Venison they are of course glad to eat

when they can get it, but as they are poor hunters, it is a rare luxury.

When they did hunt the deer they resorted to the same artifice as their

northern neighbors, placing a deer's head and horns on their own head,

and thus disguised approaching within bow-shot. Bear-meat the majority

refuse to eat from superstitious motives.[577] Grasshoppers are eaten

roasted. Acorns are shelled, dried, and pounded in stone mortars into

flour, which is washed and rewashed in hot and cold water until the

bitterness is removed, when it is made into gruel with cold water, or

baked into bread. Various kinds of grass-seeds, herbs, berries, and

roots, are also eaten, both roasted and raw. Wild fowl are caught in

nets made of tules, spread over channels cut through the rushes in

places frequented by the fowl, at a sufficient height above the water to

allow the birds to swim easily beneath them. The game is gently driven

or decoyed under the nets, when at a given signal, a great noise is

made, and the terrified fowl, rising suddenly, become hopelessly

entangled in the meshes, and fall an easy prey. Or selecting a spot

containing clear water about two feet deep, they fasten a net midway

between the surface and the bottom, and strewing the place with berries,

which sink to the bottom under the net, they retire. The fowl approach

and dive for the berries. The meshes of the net readily admit the head,

but hold the prisoner tight upon attempting to withdraw it. And what is

more, their position prevents them from making a noise, and they serve

also as a decoy for others. Fish are taken in seines made from the tough

bark of the tioñe-tree. They are also killed with spears having a

movable bone head, attached to a long line, so that when a fish is

struck the barb becomes loosened; line is then paid out until the fish

is exhausted with running, when it is drawn in. Many of the inland

tribes come down to the coast in the fishing season, and remain there

until the shoals leave, when they return to the interior. Food is either

boiled by dropping hot stones into water-baskets, or, more frequently,

in vessels made of soap-stone.[578]

In their cooking, as in other respects, they are excessively unclean.

They bathe frequently, it is true, but when not in the water they are

wallowing in filth. Their dwellings are full of offal and other

impurities, and vermin abound on their persons.

[Sidenote: WEAPONS AND WAR.]

Bows and arrows, and clubs, are as usual the weapons most in use. Sabres

of hard wood, with edges that cut like steel, are mentioned by Father

Junípero Serra.[579] War is a mere pretext for plunder; the slightest

wrong, real or imaginary, being sufficient cause for a strong tribe to

attack a weaker one. The smaller bands form temporary alliances; the

women and children accompanying the men on a raid, carrying provisions

for the march, and during an engagement they pick up the fallen arrows

of the enemy and so keep their own warriors supplied. Boscana says that

no male prisoners are taken, and no quarter given; and Hugo Reid affirms

of the natives of Los Angeles County that all prisoners of war, after

being tormented in the most cruel manner, are invariably put to death.

The dead are decapitated and scalped. Female prisoners are either sold

or retained as slaves. Scalps, highly prized as trophies, and publicly

exhibited at feasts, may be ransomed, but no consideration would induce

them to part with their living captives.[580]

Among the few articles they manufacture are fish-hooks, needles, and

awls, made of bone or shell; mortars and pestles of granite, and

soap-stone cooking vessels, and water-tight baskets.[581] The clay

vessels which are frequently found among them now, were not made by

them before the arrival of the Spaniards. The stone implements, however,

are of aboriginal manufacture, and are well made. The former are said to

have been procured mostly by the tribes of the mainland from the Santa

Rosa islanders.[582] The instruments which they used in their

manufactures were flint knives and awls; the latter Fages describes as

being made from the small bone of a deer's fore-foot. The knife is

double-edged, made of a flint, and has a wooden haft, inlaid with mother

of pearl.[583]

On this coast we again meet with wooden canoes, although the balsa, or

tule raft, is also in use. These boats are made of planks neatly

fastened together and paid with bitumen;[584] prow and stern, both

equally sharp, are elevated above the centre, which made them appear to

Vizcaino "como barquillos" when seen beside his own junk-like craft. The

paddles were long and double-bladed, and their boats, though generally

manned by three or four men, were sometimes large enough to carry

twenty. Canoes dug out of a single log, scraped smooth on the outside,

with both ends shaped alike, were sometimes, though more rarely,

used.[585] The circulating medium consisted of small round pieces of

the white mussel-shell. These were perforated and arranged on strings,

the value of which depended upon their length.[586] I have said before

that this money is supposed to have been manufactured for the most part

on Santa Rosa Island. Hence it was distributed among the coast tribes,

who bought with it deer-skins, seeds, etc., from the people of the

interior.

[Sidenote: GOVERNMENT AND PUNISHMENTS.]

Each tribe acknowledged one head, whose province it was to settle

disputes,[587] levy war, make peace, appoint feasts, and give good

advice. Beyond this he had little power.[588] He was assisted in his

duties by a council of elders. The office of chief was hereditary, and

in the absence of a male heir devolved upon the female nearest of kin.

She could marry whom she pleased, but her husband obtained no authority

through the alliance, all the power remaining in his wife's hands until

their eldest boy attained his majority, when the latter at once assumed

the command.

A murderer's life was taken by the relatives of his victim, unless he

should gain refuge in the temple, in which case his punishment was left

to their god. Vengeance was, however, only deferred; the children of

the murdered man invariably avenged his death, sooner or later, upon the

murderer or his descendants. When a chief grew too old to govern he

abdicated in favor of his son, on which occasion a great feast was

given. When all the people had been called together by criers, "the

crown was placed upon the head of the chief elect, and he was enrobed

with the imperial vestments," as Father Boscana has it; that is to say,

he was dressed in a head-ornament of feathers, and a feather petticoat

reaching from the waist half-way down to the knees, and the rest of his

body painted black. He then went into the temple and performed a pas

seul before the god Chinigchinich. Here, in a short time, he was joined

by the other chiefs, who, forming a circle, danced round him,

accompanied by the rattling of turtle-shells filled with small stones.

When this ceremony was over he was publicly acknowledged chief.

As I said before, the chief had little actual authority over

individuals; neither was the real power vested in the heads of families;

but a system of influencing the people was adopted by the chief and the

elders, which is somewhat singular. Whenever an important step was to be

taken, such as the killing of a malefactor, or the invasion of an

enemy's territory, the sympathies of the people were enlisted by means

of criers, who were sent round to proclaim aloud the crime and the

criminal, or to dilate upon the wrongs suffered at the hands of the

hostile tribe; and their eloquence seldom failed to attain the desired

object.[589]

[Sidenote: MARRIAGE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

The chief could have a plurality of wives, but the common people were

only allowed one.[590] The form of contracting a marriage varied. In

Los Angeles County, according to Mr Reid, the matter was arranged by a

preliminary interchange of presents between the male relatives of the

bridegroom and the female relatives of the bride. The former proceeded

in a body to the dwelling of the girl, and distributed small sums in

shell money among her female kinsfolk, who were collected there for the

occasion. These afterward returned the compliment by visiting the man

and giving baskets of meal to his people. A time was then fixed for the

final ceremony. On the appointed day the girl, decked in all her finery,

and accompanied by her family and relations, was carried in the arms of

one of her kinsfolk toward the house of her lover; edible seeds and

berries were scattered before her on the way, which were scrambled for

by the spectators. The party was met half-way by a deputation from the

bridegroom, one of whom now took the young woman in his arms and carried

her to the house of her husband, who waited expectantly. She was then

placed by his side, and the guests, after scattering more seeds, left

the couple alone. A great feast followed, of which the most prominent

feature was a character-dance. The young men took part in this dance in

the rôles of hunters and warriors, and were assisted by the old women,

who feigned to carry off game, or dispatch wounded enemies, as the case

might be. The spectators sat in a circle and chanted an accompaniment.

According to another form of marriage the man either asked the girl's

parents for permission to marry their daughter, or commissioned one of

his friends to do so. If the parents approved, their future son-in-law

took up his abode with them, on condition that he should provide a

certain quantity of food every day. This was done to afford him an

opportunity to judge of the domestic qualities of his future wife. If

satisfied, he appointed a day for the marriage, and the ceremony was

conducted much in the same manner as that last described, except that

he received the girl in a temporary shelter erected in front of his hut,

and that she was disrobed before being placed by his side.

Children were often betrothed in infancy, kept continually in each

other's society until they grew up, and the contract was scarcely ever

broken. Many obtained their wives by abduction, and this was the cause

of many of the inter-tribal quarrels in which they were so constantly

engaged.

If a man ill-treated his wife, her relations took her away, after paying

back the value of her wedding presents, and then married her to another.

Little difficulty was experienced in obtaining a divorce on any ground;

indeed, in many of the tribes the parties separated whenever they grew

tired of each other. Adultery was severely punished. If a husband caught

his wife in the act, he was justified in killing her, or, he could give

her up to her seducer and appropriate the spouse of the latter to

himself.

[Sidenote: CHILD-BIRTH.]

At the time of child-birth many singular observances obtained; for

instance, the old women washed the child as soon as it was born, and

drank of the water; the unhappy infant was forced to take a draught of

urine medicinally, and although the husband did not affect the

sufferings of labor, his conduct was supposed in some manner to affect

the unborn child, and he was consequently laid under certain

restrictions, such as not being allowed to leave the house, or to eat

fish and meat. The women as usual suffer little from child-bearing. One

writer thus describes the accouchement of a woman in the vicinity of San

Diego: "A few hours before the time arrives she gets up and quietly

walks off alone, as if nothing extraordinary was about to occur. In this

manner she deceives all, even her husband, and hides herself away in

some secluded nook, near a stream or hole of water. At the foot of a

small tree, which she can easily grasp with both hands, she prepares her

'lying-in-couch,' on which she lies down as soon as the labor pains

come on. When the pain is on, she grasps the tree with both hands,

thrown up backward over her head, and pulls and strains with all her

might, thus assisting each pain, until her accouchement is over. As soon

as the child is born, the mother herself ties the navel-cord with a bit

of buck-skin string, severing it with a pair of sharp scissors, prepared

for the occasion, after which the end is burned with a coal of fire; the

child is then thrown into the water; if it rises to the surface and

cries, it is taken out and cared for; if it sinks, there it remains, and

is not even awarded an Indian burial. The affair being all over, she

returns to her usual duties, just as if nothing had happened, so matter

of fact are they in such matters." Purification at child-birth lasted

for three days, during which time the mother was allowed no food, and no

drink but warm water. The ceremony, in which mother and child

participated, was as follows: In the centre of the hut a pit was filled

with heated stones, upon which herbs were placed, and the whole covered

with earth, except a small aperture through which water was introduced.

The mother and child, wrapped in blankets, stood over the pit and were

soon in a violent perspiration. When they became exhausted from the

effect of the steam and the heated air, they lay upon the ground and

were covered with earth, after which they again took to the heated

stones and steam. The mother was allowed to eat no meat for two moons,

after which pills made of meat and wild tobacco were given her. In some

tribes she could hold no intercourse with her husband until the child

was weaned.

Children, until they arrived at the age of puberty, remained under the

control of their parents, afterward they were subject only to the chief.

Like the Spartan youth, they were taught that abstinence, and

indifference to hardship and privations, constitute the only true

manhood. To render them hardy much unnecessary pain was inflicted. They

were forbidden to approach the fire to warm themselves, or to eat

certain seeds and berries which were considered luxuries.

A youth, to become a warrior, must first undergo a severe ordeal; his

naked body was beaten with stinging nettles until he was literally

unable to move; then he was placed upon the nest of a species of

virulent ant, while his friends irritated the insects by stirring them

up with sticks. The infuriated ants swarmed over every part of the

sufferer's body, into his eyes, his ears, his mouth, his nose, causing

indescribable pain.

Boscana states that the young were instructed to love truth, to do good,

and to venerate old age.[592] At an early age they were placed under the

protection of a tutelar divinity, which was supposed to take the form of

some animal. To discover the particular beast which was to guide his

future destinies, the child was intoxicated,[593] and for three or four

days kept without food of any kind. During this period he was

continually harassed and questioned, until, weak from want of food,

crazed with drink and importunity, and knowing that the persecution

would not cease until he yielded, he confessed to seeing his divinity,

and described what kind of brute it was. The outline of the figure was

then molded in a paste made of crushed herbs, on the breast and arms of

the novitiate. This was ignited and allowed to burn until entirely

consumed, and thus the figure of the divinity remained indelibly

delineated in the flesh. Hunters, before starting on an expedition,

would beat their faces with nettles to render them clear-sighted. A

girl, on arriving at the age of puberty, was laid upon a bed of branches

placed over a hole, which had been previously heated, where she was

kept with very little food for two or three days. Old women chanted

songs, and young women danced round her at intervals during her

purification. In the vicinity of San Diego the girl is buried all but

her head, and the ground above her is beaten until she is in a profuse

perspiration. This is continued for twenty-four hours, the patient being

at intervals during this time taken out and washed, and then reimbedded.

A feast and dance follow.[594]

When the missionaries first arrived in this region, they found men

dressed as women and performing women's duties, who were kept for

unnatural purposes. From their youth up they were treated, instructed,

and used as females, and were even frequently publicly married to the

chiefs or great men.[595]

[Sidenote: AMUSEMENTS.]

Gambling and dancing formed, as usual, their principal means of

recreation. Their games of chance differed little from those played

farther north. That of guessing in which hand a piece of wood was held,

before described, was played by eight, four on a side, instead of four.

Another game was played by two. Fifty small pieces of wood, placed

upright in a row in the ground, at distances of two inches apart, formed

the score. The players were provided with a number of pieces of split

reed, blackened on one side; these were thrown, points down, on the

ground, and the thrower counted one for every piece that remained white

side uppermost; if he gained eight he was entitled to another throw. If

the pieces all fell with the blackened side up they counted also. Small

pieces of wood placed against the upright pegs, marked the game. They

reckoned from opposite ends of the row, and if one of the players threw

just so many as to make his score exactly meet that of his opponent, the

former had to commence again. Throwing lances of reed through a rolling

hoop was another source of amusement. Professional singers were employed

to furnish music to a party of gamblers. An umpire was engaged, whose

duty it was to hold the stakes, count the game, prevent cheating, and

act as referee; he was also expected to supply wood for the fire.

When they were not eating, sleeping, or gambling, they were generally

dancing; indeed, says Father Boscana, "such was the delight with which

they took part in their festivities, that they often continued dancing

day and night, and sometimes entire weeks." They danced at a birth, at a

marriage, at a burial; they danced to propitiate the divinity, and they

thanked the divinity for being propitiated by dancing. They decorated

themselves with shells and beads, and painted their bodies with divers

colors. Sometimes head-dresses and petticoats of feathers were worn, at

other times they danced naked. The women painted the upper part of their

bodies brown. They frequently danced at the same time as the men, but

seldom with them. Time was kept by singers, and the rattling of

turtle-shells filled with pebbles. They were good actors, and some of

their character-dances were well executed; the step, however, like their

chanting, was monotonous and unvarying. Many of their dances were

extremely licentious, and were accompanied with obscenities too

disgusting to bear recital. Most of them were connected in some way with

their superstitions and religious rites.[596]

These people never wandered far from their own territory, and knew

little or nothing of the nations lying beyond their immediate neighbors.

Mr Reid relates that one who traveled some distance beyond the limits of

his own domain, returned with the report that he had seen men whose ears

descended to their hips; then he had met with a race of Lilliputians;

and finally had reached a people so subtly constituted that they "would

take a rabbit, or other animal, and merely with the breath, inhale the

essence; throwing the rest away, which on examination proved to be

excrement."

[Sidenote: CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS.]

They had a great number of traditions, legends, and fables. Some of

these give evidence of a powerful imagination; a few are pointed with a

moral; but the majority are puerile, meaningless, to us at least, and

filled with obscenities. It is said that, in some parts, the Southern

Californians are great snake-charmers, and that they allow the reptiles

to wind themselves about their bodies and bite them, with impunity.

Feuds between families are nursed for generations; the war is seldom

more than one of words, however, unless a murder is to be avenged, and

consists of mutual vituperations, and singing obscene songs about each

other. Friends salute by inquiries after each other's health. On parting

one says 'I am going,' the other answers 'go.'

They are very superstitious, and believe in all sorts of omens and

auguries. An eclipse frightens them beyond measure, and shooting stars

cause them to fall down in the dust and cover their heads in abject

terror. Many of them believe that, should a hunter eat meat or fish

which he himself had procured, his luck would leave him. For this

reason they generally hunt or fish in pairs, and when the day's sport is

over, each takes what the other has killed. Living as they do from hand

to mouth, content to eat, sleep, and dance away their existence, we

cannot expect to find much glimmering of the simpler arts or sciences

among them.

Their year begins at the winter solstice, and they count by lunar

months, so that to complete their year they are obliged to add several

supplementary days. All these months have symbolic names. Thus December

and January are called the month of cold; February and March, the rain;

March and April, the first grass; April and May, the rise of waters; May

and June, the month of roots; June and July, of salmon fishing; July and

August, of heat; August and September, of wild fruits; September and

October, of bulbous roots; October and November, of acorns and nuts;

November and December, of bear and other hunting.

[Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

Sorcerers are numerous, and as unbounded confidence is placed in their

power to work both good and evil, their influence is great. As

astrologers and soothsayers, they can tell by the appearance of the moon

the most propitious day and hour in which to celebrate a feast, or

attack an enemy. Sorcerers also serve as almanacs for the people, as it

is their duty to note by the aspect of the moon the time of the decease

of a chief or prominent man, and to give notice of the anniversary when

it comes round, in order that it may be duly celebrated. They extort

black-mail from individuals by threatening them with evil. The charm

which they use is a ball made of mescal mixed with wild honey; this is

carried under the left arm, in a small leather bag,--and the spell is

effected by simply laying the right hand upon this bag. Neither does

their power end here; they hold intercourse with supernatural beings,

metamorphose themselves at will, see into the future, and even control

the elements. They are potent to cure as well as to kill. For all

complaints, as usual, they 'put forth the charm of woven paces and of

waving hands,' and in some cases add other remedies. For internal

complaints they prescribe cold baths; wounds and sores are treated with

lotions and poultices of crushed herbs, such as sage and rosemary, and

of a kind of black oily resin, extracted from certain seeds. Other

maladies they affirm to be caused by small pieces of wood, stone, or

other hard substance, which by some means have entered the flesh, and

which they pretend to extract by sucking the affected part. In a case of

paralysis the stricken parts were whipped with nettles. Blisters are

raised by means of dry paste made from nettle-stalks, placed on the bare

flesh of the patient, set on fire, and allowed to burn out. Cold water

or an emetic is used for fever and like diseases, or, sometimes, the

sufferer is placed naked upon dry sand or ashes, with a fire close to

his feet, and a bowl of water or gruel at his head, and there left for

nature to take its course, while his friends and relatives sit round and

howl him into life or into eternity. Snake-bites are cured by an

internal dose of ashes, or the dust found at the bottom of ants' nests,

and an external application of herbs.[598] The medicine-men fare better

here than their northern brethren, as, in the event of the non-recovery

of their patient, the death of the latter is attributed to the just

anger of their god, and consequently the physician is not held

responsible. To avert the displeasure of the divinity, and to counteract

the evil influence of the sorcerers, regular dances of propitiation or

deprecation are held, in which the whole tribe join.[599]

[Sidenote: DEATH AND BURIAL.]

The temescal, or sweat-house, is the same here as elsewhere, which

renders a description unnecessary.[600] The dead were either burned or

buried. Father Boscana says that no particular ceremonies were observed

during the burning of the corpse. The body was allowed to lie untouched

some days after death, in order to be certain that no spark of life

remained. It was then borne out and laid upon the funeral pyre, which

was ignited by a person specially appointed for that purpose. Everything

belonging to the deceased was burned with him. When all was over the

mourners betook themselves to the outskirts of the village, and there

gave vent to their lamentation for the space of three days and nights.

During this period songs were sung, in which the cause of the late death

was related, and even the progress of the disease which brought him to

his grave minutely described in all its stages. As an emblem of grief

the hair was cut short in proportion to nearness of relation to or

affection for the deceased, but laceration was not resorted to.[602] Mr

Taylor relates that the Santa Inez Indians buried their dead in regular

cemeteries. The body was placed in a sitting posture in a box made of

slabs of claystone, and interred with all the effects of the dead

person.[603] According to Reid, the natives of Los Angeles County waited

until the body began to show signs of decay and then bound it together

in the shape of a ball, and buried it in a place set apart for that

purpose, with offerings of seeds contributed by the family. At the first

news of his death all the relatives of the deceased gathered together,

and mourned his departure with groans, each having a groan peculiar to

himself. The dirge was presently changed to a song, in which all united,

while an accompaniment was whistled through a deer's leg-bone. The

dancing consisted merely in a monotonous shuffling of the feet.[604]

Pedro Fages thus describes a burial ceremony at the place named by him

Sitio de los Pedernales.[605] Immediately after an Indian has breathed

his last, the corpse is borne out and placed before the idol which

stands in the village, there it is watched by persons who pass the night

round a large fire built for the purpose; the following morning all the

inhabitants of the place gather about the idol and the ceremony

commences. At the head of the procession marches one smoking gravely

from a large stone pipe; followed by three others, he three times walks

round the idol and the corpse; each time the head of the deceased is

passed the coverings are lifted, and he who holds the pipe blows three

puffs of smoke upon the body. When the feet are reached, a kind of

prayer is chanted in chorus, and the parents and relatives of the

defunct advance in succession and offer to the priest a string of

threaded seeds, about a fathom long; all present then unite in loud

cries and groans, while the four, taking the corpse upon their

shoulders, proceed with it to the place of interment. Care is taken to

place near the body articles which have been manufactured by the

deceased during his life-time. A spear or javelin, painted in various

vivid colors, is planted erect over the tomb, and articles indicating

the occupation of the dead are placed at his foot; if the deceased be a

woman, baskets or mats of her manufacture are hung on the javelin.[606]

Death they believed to be a real though invisible being, who gratified

his own anger and malice by slowly taking away the breath of his victim

until finally life was extinguished. The future abode of good spirits

resembled the Scandinavian Valhalla; there, in the dwelling-place of

their god, they would live for ever and ever, eating, and drinking, and

dancing, and having wives in abundance. As their ideas of reward in the

next world were matter-of-fact and material, so were their fears of

punishment in this life; all accidents, such as broken limbs or

bereavement by death, were attributed to the direct vengeance of their

god, for crimes which they had committed.[607]

Though good-natured and inordinately fond of amusement, they are

treacherous and unreliable. Under a grave and composed exterior they

conceal their thoughts and character so well as to defy interpretation.

And this is why we find men, who have lived among them for years, unable

to foretell their probable action under any given circumstances.

[Sidenote: THE SHOSHONE FAMILY.]

THE SHOSHONE FAMILY, which forms the fourth and last division of the

Californian group, may be said to consist of two great nations, the

Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs. The former inhabit

south-eastern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and the northern portions

of Utah and Nevada, are subdivided into several small tribes, and

include the more considerable nation of the Bannacks. The Utahs occupy

nearly the whole of Utah and Nevada, and extend into Arizona and

California, on each side of the Colorado. Among the many tribes into

which the Utahs are divided may be mentioned the _Utahs_ proper, whose

territory covers a great part of Utah and eastern Nevada; the _Washoes_

along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, between Honey Lake and the

west fork of Walker River; the _Pah Utes_, or, as they are sometimes

called, Piutes, in western and central Nevada, stretching into Arizona

and south-eastern California; the _Pah Vants_ in the vicinity of Sevier

Lake, the _Pi Edes_ south of them, and the _Gosh Utes_, a mixed tribe of

Snakes and Utahs, dwelling in the vicinity of Gosh Ute Lake and

Mountains.

The Shoshones[608] are below the medium stature; the Utahs, though more

powerfully built than the Snakes, are coarser-featured and less agile.

All are of a dark bronze-color when free from paint and dirt, and, as

usual, beardless. The women are clumsily made, although some of them

have good hands and feet.[609]

On the barren plains of Nevada, where there is no large game, the rabbit

furnishes nearly the only clothing. The skins are sewn together in the

form of a cloak, which is thrown over the shoulders, or tied about the

body with thongs of the same. In warm weather, or when they cannot

obtain rabbit-skins, men, women and children are, for the most part, in

a state of nudity. The hair is generally allowed to grow long, and to

flow loosely over the shoulders; sometimes it is cut straight over the

forehead, and among the Utahs of New Mexico it is plaited into two long

queues by the men, and worn short by the women. Ornaments are rare; I

find mention in two instances[610] of a nose-ornament, worn by the Pah

Utes, consisting of a slender piece of bone, several inches in length,

thrust through the septum of the nose. Tattooing is not practiced but

paint of all colors is used unsparingly.[611]

The Snakes are better dressed than the Utahs, their clothing being made

from the skins of larger game, and ornamented with beads, shells,

fringes, feathers, and, since their acquaintance with the whites, with

pieces of brilliant-colored cloth. A common costume is a shirt, leggins,

and moccasins, all of buck-skin, over which is thrown, in cold weather,

a heavy robe, generally of buffalo-skin, but sometimes of wolf, deer,

elk, or beaver. The dress of the women differs but little from that of

the men, except that it is less ornamented and the shirt is

longer.[612]

[Sidenote: DRESS OF THE SNAKES.]

The dress of the Snakes seen by captains Lewis and Clarke was richer

than is usually worn by them now; it was composed of a robe, short

cloak, shirt, long leggins, and moccasins.

The robe was of buffalo or smaller skins, dressed with the hair on; the

collar of the cloak, a strip of skin from the back of the otter, the

head being at one end and the tail at the other. From this collar were

suspended from one hundred to two hundred and fifty ermine-skins,[613]

or rather strips from the back of the ermine, including the head and

tail; each of these strips was sewn round a cord of twisted silk-grass,

which tapered in thickness toward the tail. The seams were concealed

with a fringe of ermine-skin; little tassels of white fur were also

attached to each tail, to show off its blackness to advantage. The

collar was further ornamented with shells of the pearl-oyster; the

shirt, made of the dressed hides of various kinds of deer, was loose and

reached half-way down the thigh; the sleeves were open on the under side

as low as the elbow,--the edges being cut into a fringe from the elbow

to the wrist,--and they fitted close to the arm. The collar was square,

and cut into fringe, or adorned with the tails of the animals which

furnished the hide; the shirt was garnished with fringes and stained

porcupine-quills; the leggins were made each from nearly an entire

antelope-skin, and reached from the ankle to the upper part of the

thigh. The hind legs of the skin were worn uppermost, and tucked into

the girdle; the neck, highly ornamented with fringes and quills, trailed

on the ground behind the heel of the wearer; the side seams were

fringed, and for this purpose the scalps of fallen enemies were

frequently used.

The moccasins were also of dressed hide, without the hair, except in

winter, when buffalo-hide, with the hair inside, answered the purpose.

They were made with a single seam on the outside edge, and were

embellished with quills; sometimes they were covered with the skin of a

polecat, the tail of which dragged behind on the ground. Ear-ornaments

of beads, necklaces of shells, twisted-grass, elk-tushes, round bones,

like joints of a fish's back-bone, and the claws of the brown bear, were

all worn. Eagles' feathers stuck in the hair, or a strip of otter-skin

tied round the head, seem to have been the only head-dresses in

use.[614] This, or something similar, was the dress only of the wealthy

and prosperous tribes. Like the Utahs, the Snakes paint extensively,

especially when intent upon war.[615]

[Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE SHOSHONES.]

The Snakes also build better dwellings than the Utahs. Long poles are

leaned against each other in a circle, and are then covered with skins,

thus forming a conical tent. A hole in the top, which can be closed in

bad weather, serves as chimney, and an opening at the bottom three or

four feet high, admits the occupants on pushing aside a piece of hide

stretched on a stick, which hangs over the aperture as a door. These

skin tents, as is necessary to a nomadic people, are struck and pitched

with very little labor. When being moved from one place to another, the

skins are folded and packed on the ponies, and the poles are hitched to

each side of the animal by one end, while the other drags. The

habitations of the people of Nevada and the greater part of Utah are

very primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which they crawl, or

even of a mere shelter of bushes, semi-circular in shape, roofless, and

three or four feet high, which serves only to break the force of the

wind. Some of them build absolutely no dwellings, but live in caves and

among the rocks, while others burrow like reptiles in the ground.

Farnham gives us a very doleful picture of their condition; he says:

"When the lizard, and snail, and wild roots are buried in the snows of

winter, they are said to retire to the vicinity of timber, dig holes in

the form of ovens in the steep sides of the sand-hills, and, having

heated them to a certain degree, deposit themselves in them, and sleep

and fast till the weather permits them to go abroad again for food.

Persons who have visited their haunts after a severe winter, have found

the ground around these family ovens strewn with the unburied bodies of

the dead, and others crawling among them, who had various degrees of

strength, from a bare sufficiency to gasp in death, to those that

crawled upon their hands and feet, eating grass like cattle."[616]

Naturally pusillanimous, weak in development, sunk below the common baser

passions of the savage, more improvident than birds, more beastly than

beasts, it may be possible to conceive of a lower phase of humanity, but

I confess my inability to do so.

Pine-nuts, roots, berries, reptiles, insects, rats, mice, and

occasionally rabbits are the only food of the poorer Shoshone tribes.

Those living in the vicinity of streams or lakes depend more or less for

their subsistence upon fish. The Snakes of Idaho and Oregon, and the

tribes occupying the more fertile parts of Utah, having abundance of

fish and game, live well the year round, but the miserable root-eating

people, partly owing to their inherent improvidence, partly to the

scantiness of their food-supply, never store sufficient provision for

the winter, and consequently before the arrival of spring they are

invariably reduced to extreme destitution. To avoid starvation they will

eat dead bodies, and even kill their children for food.[617] A rat or a

rabbit is prepared for eating by singeing the hair, pressing the offal

from the entrails and cooking body and intestines together. Lizards,

snakes, grasshoppers, and ants are thrown alive into a dish containing

hot embers, and are tossed about until roasted; they are then eaten dry

or used to thicken soup. Grasshoppers, seeds, and roots, are also

gathered and cooked in the same manner as by the nations already

described. The Gosh Utes take rabbits in nets made of flax-twine, about

three feet wide and of considerable length. A fence of sage-brush is

erected across the rabbit-paths, and on this the net is hung. The

rabbits in running quickly along the trail become entangled in the

meshes and are taken before they can escape. Lizards are dragged from

their holes by means of a hooked stick. To catch ants a piece of fresh

hide or bark is placed upon the ant-hill; this is soon covered by vast

swarms of the insects, which are then brushed off into a bag and kept

there until dead, when they are dried for future use. Among the hunting

tribes antelope are gradually closed in upon by a circle of horsemen and

beaten to death with clubs. They are also stalked after the fashion of

the Californians proper, the hunter placing the head and horns of an

antelope or deer upon his own head and thus disguised approaching within

shooting distance.

[Sidenote: NATIVE FISH-WEIR.]

Fish are killed with spears having movable heads, which become detached

when the game is struck, and are also taken in nets made of rushes or

twigs. In the latter case a place is chosen where the river is crossed

by a bar, the net is then floated down the stream and on reaching the

bar both ends are drawn together. The fish thus enclosed are taken from

the circle by hand, and the Shoshone as he takes each one, puts its head

in his mouth and kills it with his teeth. Captain Clarke describes an

ingeniously constructed weir on Snake River, where it was divided into

four channels by three small islands. Three of these channels were

narrow "and stopped by means of trees which were stretched across, and

supported by willow stakes, sufficiently near to prevent the passage of

the fish. About the centre of each was placed a basket formed of

willows, eighteen or twenty feet in length, of a cylindrical form, and

terminating in a conic shape at its lower extremity; this was situated

with its mouth upwards, opposite to an aperture in the weir. The main

channel of the water was then conducted to this weir, and as the fish

entered it they were so entangled with each other, that they could not

move, and were taken out by emptying the small end of the willow basket.

The weir in the main channel was formed in a manner somewhat different;

there were, in fact two distinct weirs formed of poles and willow sticks

quite across the river, approaching each other obliquely with an

aperture in each side of the angle. This is made by tying a number of

poles together at the top, in parcels of three, which were then set up

in a triangular form at the base, two of the poles being in the range

desired for the weir, and the third down the stream. To these poles two

ranges of other poles are next lashed horizontally, with willow bark and

withes, and willow sticks joined in with these crosswise, so as to form

a kind of wicker-work from the bottom of the river to the height of

three or four feet above the surface of the water. This is so thick as

to prevent the fish from passing, and even in some parts with the help

of a little gravel and some stone enables them to give any direction

which they wish to the water. These two weirs being placed near to each

other, one for the purpose of catching the fish as they ascend, the

other as they go down the river, are provided with two baskets made in

the form already described, and which are placed at the apertures of the

weir."

For present consumption the fish are boiled in water-tight baskets by

means of red-hot stones, or are broiled on the embers; sometimes the

bones are removed before the fish is cooked; great quantities are also

dried for winter. Some few of the Utahs cultivate a little maize,

vegetables, and tobacco, and raise stock, but efforts at agriculture are

not general. The Snakes sometimes accompany the more northern tribes

into the country of the Blackfeet, for the purpose of killing

buffalo.[618]

In their persons, dwellings and habits, the Utahs are filthy beyond

description. Their bodies swarm with vermin which they catch and eat

with relish. Some of the Snakes are of a more cleanly disposition, but,

generally speaking, the whole Shoshone family is a remarkably dirty

one.[619]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE SHOSHONES.]

The bow and arrow are universally used by the Shoshones, excepting only

some of the most degraded root-eaters, who are said to have no weapon,

offensive or defensive, save the club. The bow is made of cedar, pine,

or other wood, backed with sinew after the manner already described, or,

more rarely, of a piece of elk-horn. The string is of sinew. The length

of the bow varies. According to Farnham, that used by the Pi Utes is six

feet long, while that of the Shoshones seen by Lewis and Clark was only

two and a half feet in length. The arrows are from two to four feet, and

are pointed with obsidian, flint, or, among the lower tribes, by merely

hardening the tip with fire. Thirty or forty are usually carried in a

skin quiver, and two in the hand ready for immediate use. Lances, which

are used in some localities, are pointed in the same manner as the

arrows when no iron can be procured. The Snakes have a kind of mace or

club, which they call a _poggamoggon_. It consists of a heavy stone,

sometimes wrapped in leather, attached by a sinew thong about two inches

in length, to the end of a stout leather-covered handle, measuring

nearly two feet. A loop fastened to the end held in the hand prevents

the warrior from losing the weapon in the fight, and allows him to hold

the club in readiness while he uses the bow and arrow.[620] They also

have a circular shield about two and a half feet in diameter, which is

considered a very important part of a warrior's equipment, not so much

from the fact that it is arrow-proof, as from the peculiar virtues

supposed to be given it by the medicine-men. The manufacture of a shield

is a season of great rejoicing. It must be made from the entire fresh

hide of a male two-year-old buffalo, and the process is as follows. A

hole is dug in the ground and filled with red-hot stones; upon these

water is poured until a thick steam arises. The hide is then stretched,

by as many as can take hold of it, over the hole, until the hair can be

removed with the hands and it shrinks to the required size. It is then

placed upon a prepared hide, and pounded by the bare feet of all

present, until the ceremony is concluded. When the shield is completed,

it is supposed to render the bearer invulnerable. Lewis and Clarke also

make mention of a species of defensive armor "something like a coat of

mail, which is formed by a great many folds of dressed antelope skins,

united by means of a mixture of glue and sand. With this they cover

their own bodies and those of their horses, and find it impervious to

the arrow." I find mention in one instance only, of a shield being used

by the Utahs. In that case it was small, circular, and worn suspended

from the neck. The fishing spear I have already described as being a

long pole with an elk-horn point. When a fish is struck the shaft is

loosened from its socket in the head, but remains connected with the

latter by a cord.[621] Arrows are occasionally poisoned by plunging

them into a liver which has been previously bitten by a

rattlesnake.[622]

[Sidenote: MANNER OF MAKING WAR.]

The tribes that possess horses always fight mounted, and manage their

animals with considerable address. In war they place their reliance upon

strategy and surprise; fires upon the hills give warning of an enemy's

approach. Prisoners of war are killed with great tortures, especially

female captives, who are given over to the women of the victorious tribe

and by them done to death most cruelly; it is said, however, that male

prisoners who have distinguished themselves by their prowess in battle,

are frequently dismissed unhurt. Scalps are taken, and sometimes

portions of the flesh of a brave fallen enemy are eaten that the eater

may become endued with the valor of the slain. He who takes the most

scalps gains the most glory. Whether the warriors who furnished the

trophies fell by the hand of the accumulator or not, is immaterial; he

has but to show the spoils and his fame is established. The Snakes are

said to be peculiarly skillful in eluding pursuit. When on foot, they

will crouch down in the long grass and remain motionless while the

pursuer passes within a few feet of them, or when caught sight of they

will double and twist so that it is impossible to catch them. The custom

of ratifying a peace treaty by a grand smoke, common to so many of the

North American aborigines, is observed by the Shoshones.[623] The pipe,

the bowl of which is usually of red stone, painted or carved with

various figures and adorned with feathers, is solemnly passed from mouth

to mouth, each smoker blowing the smoke in certain directions and

muttering vows at the same time.

The only tools used before iron and steel were introduced by the whites

were of flint, bone, or horn. The flint knife had no regular form, and

had a sharp edge about three or four inches long, which was renewed when

it became dull. Elk-horn hatchets, or rather wedges, were used to fell

trees. They made water-proof baskets of plaited grass, and others of

wicker-work covered with hide. The Snakes and some of the Utahs were

versed in the art of pottery, and made very good vessels from baked

clay. These were not merely open dishes, but often took the form of jars

with narrow necks, having stoppers.[624]

[Sidenote: LAWS AND GOVERNMENT.]

Boats, as a rule, the Shoshones have none. They usually cross rivers by

fording; otherwise they swim, or pass over on a clumsy and dangerous

raft made of branches and rushes.[625] By way of compensation they all,

except the poorest, have horses, and these constitute their wealth. They

have no regular currency, but use for purposes of barter their stock of

dried fish, their horses, or whatever skins and furs they may possess.

They are very deliberate traders, and a solemn smoke must invariably

precede a bargain.[626] Although each tribe has an ostensible chief, his

power is limited to giving advice, and although his opinion may

influence the tribe, yet he cannot compel obedience to his wishes. Every

man does as he likes. Private revenge, of course, occasionally overtakes

the murderer, or, if the sympathies of the tribe be with the murdered

man, he may possibly be publicly executed, but there are no fixed laws

for such cases. Chieftainship is hereditary in some tribes; in others it

is derived from prestige.[627]

The Utahs do not hesitate to sell their wives and children into slavery

for a few trinkets. Great numbers of these unfortunates are sold to the

Navajos for blankets. An act which passed the legislature of Utah in

1852, legalizing slavery, sets forth that from time immemorial, slavery

has been a customary traffic among the Indians; that it was a common

practice among them to gamble away their wives and children into

slavery, to sell them into slavery to other nations, and that slaves

thus obtained were most barbarously treated by their masters; that they

were packed from place to place on mules; that these unfortunate humans

were staked out to grass and roots like cattle, their limbs mutilated

and swollen from being bound with thongs; that they were frozen,

starved, and killed by their inhuman owners; that families and tribes

living at peace would steal each other's wives and children, and sell

them as slaves. In view of these abuses it was made lawful for a probate

judge, or selectmen, to bind out native captive women and children to

suitable white persons for a term not to exceed twenty years.[628]

Polygamy, though common, is not universal; a wife is generally bought of

her parents;[629] girls are frequently betrothed in infancy; a husband

will prostitute his wife to a stranger for a trifling present, but

should she be unfaithful without his consent, her life must pay the

forfeit. The women, as usual, suffer very little from the pains of

child-bearing. When the time of a Shoshone woman's confinement draws

near, she retires to some secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and

remains there for about a month, alone, and procuring her subsistence

as best she can. When the appointed time has elapsed she is considered

purified and allowed to join her friends again. The weaker sex of course

do the hardest labor, and receive more blows than kind words for their

pains. These people, in common with most nomadic nations, have the

barbarous custom of abandoning the old and infirm the moment they find

them an incumbrance. Lewis and Clarke state that children are never

flogged, as it is thought to break their spirit.[630]

[Sidenote: GAMBLING AND DRINKING.]

The games of hazard played by the Shoshones differ little from those of

their neighbors; the principal one appears to be the odd-and-even game

so often mentioned; but of late years they have nearly abandoned these,

and have taken to 'poker,' which they are said to play with such

adroitness as to beat a white man. With the voice they imitate with

great exactness the cries of birds and beasts, and their concerts of

this description, which generally take place at midnight, are discordant

beyond measure. Though they manufacture no intoxicating liquor

themselves, they will drink the whisky of the whites whenever

opportunity offers. They smoke the _kinikkinik_ leaf when no tobacco can

be procured from the traders.[631] In connection with their smoking

they have many strange observances. When the pipe is passed round at

the solemnization of a treaty, or the confirmation of a bargain, each

smoker, on receiving it from his neighbor, makes different motions with

it; one turns the pipe round before placing the stem to his lips;

another describes a semicircle with it; a third smokes with the bowl in

the air; a fourth with the bowl on the ground, and so on through the

whole company. All this is done with a most grave and serious

countenance, which makes it the more ludicrous to the looker-on. The

Snakes, before smoking with a stranger, always draw off their moccasins

as a mark of respect. Any great feat performed by a warrior, which adds

to his reputation and renown, such as scalping an enemy, or successfully

stealing his horses, is celebrated by a change of name. Killing a

grizzly bear also entitles him to this honor, for it is considered a

great feat to slay one of these formidable animals, and only he who has

performed it is allowed to wear their highest insignia of glory, the

feet or claws of the victim. To bestow his name upon a friend is the

highest compliment that one man can offer another.

The Snakes, and some of the Utahs, are skillful riders, and possess good

horses. Their horse-furniture is simple. A horse-hair or raw-hide lariat

is fastened round the animal's neck; the bight is passed with a single

half-hitch round his lower jaw, and the other end is held in the rider's

hand; this serves as a bridle. When the horse is turned loose, the

lariat is loosened from his jaw and allowed to trail from his neck. The

old men and the women have saddles similar to those used for packing by

the whites; they are a wooden frame made of two pieces of thin board

fitting close to the sides of the horse, and held together by two

cross-pieces, in shape like the legs of an isosceles triangle. A piece

of hide is placed between this and the horse's back, and a robe is

thrown over the seat when it is ridden on. The younger men use no

saddle, except a small pad, girthed on with a leather thong. When

traveling they greatly overload their horses. All the household goods

and provisions are packed upon the poor animal's back, and then the

women and children seat themselves upon the pile, sometimes as many as

four or five on one horse.[632]

[Sidenote: DISEASES AND BURIAL.]

The poorer Utahs are very subject to various diseases, owing to exposure

in winter. They have few, if any, efficient remedies. They dress wounds

with pine-gum, after squeezing out the blood. The Snakes are much

affected by rheumatism and consumption, caused chiefly by their being

almost constantly in the water fishing, and by exposure. Syphilis has,

of course, been extensively introduced among all the tribes. A few

plants and herbs are used for medicinal purposes, and the medicine-men

practice their wonted mummeries, but what particular means of cure they

adopt is not stated by the authorities. I find no mention of their

having sweat-houses.[633]

Concerning the disposal of the dead usage differs. In some parts the

body is burned, in others it is buried. In either case the property of

the deceased is destroyed at his burial. His favorite horse, and, in

some instances, his favorite wife, are killed over his grave, that he

may not be alone in the spirit land. Laceration in token of grief is

universal, and the lamentations of the dead person's relatives are heard

for weeks after his death, and are renewed at intervals for many months.

Child-like in this, they rush into extremes, and when not actually

engaged in shrieking and tearing their flesh, they appear perfectly

indifferent to their loss.[634]

[Sidenote: SHOSHONE CHARACTER.]

The character of the better Shoshone tribes is not much worse than that

of the surrounding nations; they are thieving, treacherous, cunning,

moderately brave after their fashion, fierce when fierceness will avail

them anything, and exceedingly cruel. Of the miserable root and grass

eating Shoshones, however, even this much cannot be said. Those who have

seen them unanimously agree that they of all men are lowest. Lying in a

state of semi-torpor in holes in the ground during the winter, and in

spring crawling forth and eating grass on their hands and knees, until

able to regain their feet; having no clothes, scarcely any cooked food,

in many instances no weapons, with merely a few vague imaginings for

religion, living in the utmost squalor and filth, putting no bridle on

their passions, there is surely room for no missing link between them

and brutes.[635] Yet as in all men there stands out some prominent

good, so in these, the lowest of humanity, there is one virtue: they are

lovers of their country; lovers, not of fair hills and fertile valleys,

but of inhospitable mountains and barren plains; these reptile-like men

love their miserable burrowing-places better than all the comforts of

civilization; indeed, in many instances, when detained by force among

the whites, they have been known to pine away and die.

TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

[Sidenote: NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS.]

To the NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory extends from Rogue River

on the north to Eel River south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the

Californian boundary east, including the Klamath, and other lakes, are

assigned, according to the authorities, the following tribal boundaries:

There are 'the Hoopahs, and the Ukiahs of Mendocino;' 'the Umpquas,

Kowooses or Cooses, Macanootoony's of the Umpqua river section, Nomee

Cults, and Nomee Lacks of Tehama County; the Copahs, Hanags, Yatuckets,

Terwars and Tolowas, of the lower Klamath river; the Wylaks and

Noobimucks of Trinity county mountains west from Sacramento plains; the

Modocs of Klamath Lake, the Ylackas of Pitt River, the Ukas and Shastas

of Shasta county.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 8, 1860_.

'The _Tototins_ are divided into twelve bands; eight of them are located

on the coast, one on the forks of the Coquille, and three on Rogue

river.' 'The Tototins, from whom is derived the generic name of the

whole people speaking the language, reside on the north bank of the

Tototin river, about four miles from its mouth. Their country extends

from the eastern boundary of the Yahshutes, a short distance below their

village, up the stream about six miles, where the fishing-grounds of the

Mackanotins commence.' 'The country of the Euquachees commences at the

"Three Sisters," and extends along the coast to a point about three

miles to the south of their village, which is on a stream which bears

their name. The mining town of Elizabeth is about the southern boundary

of the Euquachees, and is called thirty miles from Port Orford. Next

southward of the Euquachees are the Yahshutes, whose villages occupy

both banks of the Tototin or Rogue river, at its mouth. These people

claim but about two and a half miles back from the coast, where the

Tototin country commences. The Yahshutes claim the coast to some

remarkable headlands, about six miles south of Rogue river. South of

these headlands are the Chetlessentuns. Their village is north of, but

near, the mouth of a stream bearing their name, but better known to the

whites as Pistol river. The Chetlessentuns claim but about eight miles

of the coast; but as the country east of them is uninhabited, like

others similarly situated, their lands are supposed to extend to the

summit of the mountains. Next to the Chetlessentuns on the south are the

Wishtenatins, whose village is at the mouth of a small creek bearing

their name. They claim the country to a small trading-post known as the

Whale's Head, about twenty-seven miles south of the mouth of Rogue

River. Next in order are the Cheattee or Chitco band, whose villages

were situated on each side of the mouth, and about six miles up a small

river bearing their name.... The lands of these people extend from

Whale's Head to the California line, and back from the coast

indefinitely.... The Mackanotin village is about seven miles above that

of the Tototins, and is on the same side of the river. They claim about

twelve miles of stream. The Shistakoostees succeed them (the

Mackanotins). Their village is on the north bank of Rogue river, nearly

opposite the confluence of the Illinois. These are the most easterly

band within my district in the South.' _Parrish_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,

1854, pp. 283-9. 'Dr. Hubbard, in his notes (1856) on the Indians of

Rogue River and South Oregon, on the ocean, before alluded to, gives the

following list of names of Rancherias and clans of the Lototen or

Tutatamys tribe. Masonah Band, location, Coquille river; Chockrelatan

Band, location, Coquille forks; Quatomah Band, location, Flore's creek;

Laguaacha Band, location, Elk river; Cosulhenten Band, location, Port

Orford; Yuquache Band, location, Yugua creek; Chetlessenten Band,

location, Pistol river; Yah Shutes Band, location, Rogue river;

Wishtanatan Band, location, Whale's head; Cheahtoc Band, location,

Chetko; Tototen Band, location, six miles above the mouth of Rogue

river; Sisticoosta Band, location, above Big Bend, of Rogue river;

Maquelnoteer Band, location, fourteen miles above the mouth of Rogue

river.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 18, 1860_. The Tutotens were a large tribe,

numbering thirteen clans, inhabiting the southern coast of Oregon.

_Golden Era_, _March, 1856_. 'Toutounis ou Coquins, sur la rivière de ce

nom et dans l'intérieur des terres.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.

335. 'On the lower part of the Clamet River are the Totutune, known by

the unfavorable soubriquet of the Rogue, or Rascal Indians.' _Hale's

Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 221. The bands of the

Tootooton tribe 'are scattered over a great extent of country--along the

coast and on the streams from the California line to twenty miles north

of the Coquille, and from the ocean to the summit of the coast range of

mountains.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 259. Taylor places

the Tutunahs in the northwest corner of Del Norte County. _MS. Map._

The _Hunas_ live in California a little south of Rogue River, on the way

north from Crescent City. _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 314.

_Modoc_, by some _Moädoc_, is a word which originated with the

Shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies.

'Their proper habitat is on the southern shore of Lower Klamath Lake, on

Hot Creek, around Clear Lake, and along Lost River in Oregon.' _Powers_,

in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 535. They own the Klamath River from

the lake 'to where it breaks through the Siskiyou range to the

westward.' _Id._, vol. xi., p. 21. In the northern part of Siskiyou

County. _MS. Map_. 'The Modocs of the Klamath Lake were also called

Moahtockna.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. East of the Klamaths, whose

eastern boundary is twenty-five or thirty miles east of the Cascade

Range, along the southern boundary of Oregon, 'and extending some

distance into California, is a tribe known as the Modocks. East of these

again, but extending farther south, are the Moetwas.' 'The country round

Ancoose and Modoc lakes, is claimed and occupied by the Modoc Indians.'

_Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 262-3. 'The Modocs (or Moadoc,

as the word is pronounced) known in their language as the Okkowish,

inhabit the Goose lake country, and are mostly within the State of

California.... The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means all

distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to these

Indians by white men in early days from hearing the Shastas speak of

them.' See _Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 121.

The _Oukskenahs_, in the north-western part of Siskiyou County. _MS.

Map._

[Sidenote: THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBES.]

The _Klamaths_ or _Lutuami_--'Lutuami, or Tlamatl, or Clamet Indians.

The first of these names is the proper designation of the people in

their own language. The second is that by which they are known to the

Chinooks, and through them to the whites. They live on the head waters

of the river and about the lake, which have both received from

foreigners the name of Clamet.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,

vol. vi., p. 218. That portion of the eastern base of the Cascade Range,

south of the forty-fourth parallel, 'extending twenty-five or thirty

miles east, and south to the California line, is the country of the

Klamath Indians.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 262. The

Tlameths 'inhabit the country along the eastern base of the Cascade and

Sierra Nevada Mountains, and south to the Great Klameth Lake.'

_Thompson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 283. The Clamets inhabit

'Roquas River, near the south boundary' (of Oregon). _Warre and

Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hudson's Bay_, p. 81. 'Lutuami, Clamets; also

Tlamatl--Indians of southwestern Oregon, near the Clamet Lake.'

_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 100. 'Klamacs, sur la rivière de ce nom et

dans l'intérieur des terres.' _De Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335.

Clamet: on the upper part of the river, and sixty miles below the lake

so named. _Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255.

'Next east of the Shastas are the Klamath Lake Indians, known in their

language as the Okshee, who inhabit the country about the Klamath lakes,

and east about half way to the Goose Lake, to Wright Lake, and south to

a line running about due east from Shasta Butte.' _Steele_, in _Ind.

Aff. Rept._, 1864, pp. 120-1. 'The name of Klamath or Tlamath, belonging

to the tribes on the lake where the river rises, is not known among

those farther down.... Thus, at the forks, the Weitspeks call the river

below Pohlik, signifying down; and that above Pehtsik, or up; giving,

moreover, the same name to the population in speaking of them

collectively. Three distinct tribes, speaking different languages,

occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the Shasté, of which

the lowest extends up to Bluff Creek, a few miles above the forks. Of

these there are, according to our information, in all, thirty-two

villages.... The names of the principal villages ... are the Weitspek

(at the forks), Wahsherr, Kaipetl, Moraiuh, Nohtscho, Méhteh, Schregon,

Yauterrh, Pecquan, Kauweh, Wauhtecq, Scheperrh, Oiyotl, Naiagutl,

Schaitl, Hopaiuh, Rekqua, and Weht'lqua, the two last at the mouth of

the river.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 138.

The _Eurocs_ inhabit 'the lower Klamath from Weitspeck down, and along

the coast for about twenty miles.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.

viii., p. 530. The Eurocs 'inhabit the banks of the Klamath from the

junction of the Trinity to the mouth, and the sea coast from Gold Bluff

up to a point about six miles above the mouth of the Klamath.' _Powers'

Pomo, MS._

The _Cahrocs_ live between the Eurocs and the foot of the Klamath

Mountains, also a short distance up Salmon River. 'On the Klamath River

there live three distinct tribes, called the Eurocs, Cahrocs, and

Modocs; which names mean respectively, "down the river," "up the river,"

and "head of the river."' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii.,

p. 328. Speaking of Indians at the junction of Salmon and Klamath

Rivers, Mr. Gibbs says: 'they do not seem to have any generic

appellation for themselves, but apply the terms "Kahruk," up, and

"Youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without

discrimination, in the same manner that the others (at the junction of

the Trinity) do "Pehtsik," and "Pohlik."' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.

iii., p. 151.

The _Tolewahs_ are the first tribe on the coast north of Klamath River.

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139. The Tahlewahs are

a 'tribe on the Klamath River.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 179. 'In the

vicinity of Crescent City and Smith's River there are the ... Lopas,

Talawas, and Lagoons.' _Heintzelman_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, pp.

391-2. 'In Del Norte County ... the Haynaggis live along Smith River,

the Tolowas on the Lagoon, and the Tahatens around Crescent City.'

_Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Cops, Hanags, Yantuckets, and Tolawas, are

'Indian tribes living near the Oregon and California coast frontiers.'

_Crescent City Herald_, _Aug. 1857_. The Tolowas at the meeting point of

Trinity, Humboldt, and Klamath counties. _MS. Map._

The _Terwars_, north-west of the Tolowas. _MS. Map._

The _Weitspeks_ are the 'principal band on the Klamath, at the junction

of the Trinity.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 422;

_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 200.

The _Oppegachs_ are a tribe at Red-Cap's Bar, on the Klamath River.

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 148.

The _Hoopahs_ live 'am unteren Rio de la Trinidad, oder Trinity River.'

_Buschmann_, _Das Apache als eine Athhapask. Spr._, p. 218. 'Indian

tribe on the lower part of the Trinity River.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p.

82. The Hoopas live 'in Hoopa Valley, on the lower Trinity River.'

_Power's Pomo, MS._, p. 85. 'The lower Trinity tribe is, as well as the

river itself, known to the Klamaths by the name of Hoopah.' _Gibbs_, in

_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139; see also p. 422. In the

northern part of Klamath County. _MS. Map._

'Upon the Trinity, or Hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or

Otahweiaket, there are said to be eleven ranches, the Okenoke, Agaraits,

Uplegoh, Olleppauh'lkahtehtl and Pephtsoh; ... and the Haslintah,

Aheltah, Sokéakeit, Tashhuanta, and Witspuk above it; A twelfth, the

Méyemma, now burnt, was situated just above "New" or "Arkansas" River.'

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139.

The _Copahs_, in the extreme north of Klamath county, north of the

Hoopahs. _MS. Map._ The Cops are mentioned as 'living near the Oregon

and California coast frontiers,' in the _Crescent City Herald_, _Aug.,

1857_.

The _Kailtas_ live on the south fork of Trinity River. _Powers' Pomo,

MS._

The _Pataways_ occupy the banks of the Trinity, from the vicinity of Big

Bar to South Fork. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Chimalquays_ lived on New River, a tributary of the Trinity.

_Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Siahs_ 'occupied the tongue of land jutting down between Eel River,

and Van Dusen's Fork.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Sians or Siahs lived on

the headwaters of Smith River. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.

iii., p. 139.

The _Ehneks_, Eenahs, or Eenaghs, lived above the Tolewas on Smith

River. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139. 'Ehnek was

the name of a band at the mouth of the Salmon or Quoratem River.' _Id._,

p. 422; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 67.

_Wishosk_ 'is the name given to the Bay (Humboldt) and Mad River Indians

by those of Eel River.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.

422; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 201.

The _Weeyots_ are 'a band on the mouth of Eel River and near Humboldt

Bay.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 200. The Humboldt Bay Indians call

themselves Wishosk; and those of the hills Teokawilk; 'but the tribes to

the northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel River, Weyot, or

Walla-walloo.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 133.

'The _Patawats_ live on the lower waters of Mad River, and around

Humboldt Bay, as far south as Arcata, perhaps originally as far down as

Eureka.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

_Ossegon_ is the name given to the Indians of Gold Bluff, between

Trinidad and the Klamath. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii.,

p. 133.

'The _Lassics_ formerly dwelt in Mad River Valley, from the head waters

down to Low Gap, or thereabout, where they borrowed on the Wheelcuttas.'

_Powers' Pomo, MS._

_Chori_ was the name given to the Indians of Trinidad by the Weeyots.

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 133.

The _Chillulahs_ 'occupied the banks of Redwood Creek, from the coast up

about twenty miles.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Oruk, Tchololah, or Bald

Hill Indians, lived on Redwood Creek. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,

vol. iii., p. 139.

The _Wallies_ occupy the sandy country north of Humboldt Bay. _Overland

Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 536.

'The _Wheelcuttas_ had their place on the Upper Redwood Creek, from the

land of the Chillulahs up to the mountains. They ranged across southward

by the foot of the Bald Hills, which appear to have marked the boundary

between them and the Chillulahs in that direction; and penetrated to Van

Dusen's Fork, anent the Siahs and Lassics, with whom they occasionally

came in bloody collision.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Veeards_ 'live around lower Humboldt Bay, and up Eel River to Eagle

Prairie.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Shastas_ live to the south-west of the Lutuamis or Klamaths.

_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218. 'Sastés, dans

l'intérieur au Nord de la Californie.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.

335. 'The Shasta Indians, known in their language as Weohow--it meaning

stone house, from the large cave in their country--occupy the land east

of Shasta river, and south of the Siskiyou mountains, and west of the

lower Klamath lake.' _Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 120. The

Shastas occupy the centre of the county of that name. _MS. Map._

'Indians of south-western Oregon, on the northern frontiers of Upper

California.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 168. Watsahewah is the name 'of

one of the Scott River bands of the Shasta family.' _Gibbs_, in

_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 422. The name is spelled variously

as Shasty, Shaste, Sasté, &c.

The _Palaiks_ live to the southeast of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. _Hale's

Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218. 'Indians of

south-western Oregon, on the northern frontiers of Upper California.'

_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 145.

On the Klamath are the Odeeilahs; in Shasta Valley the Ikarucks,

Kosetahs, and Idakariúkes; and in Scott's Valley the Watsahewas and

Eehs. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 171.

'The _Hamburg Indians_, known in their language as the Tka, inhabit

immediately at the mouth of Scott's river, known in their language as

the Ottetiewa river.' _Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 120.

'The _Scott's Valley Indians_, known in their language as the Iddoa,

inhabit Scott's Valley above the cañon.' _Ib._

'The _Yreka_ (a misnomer for Yeka--Shasta Butte) Indians, known in their

language as the Hoteday, inhabit that part of the country lying south of

Klamath river, and west of Shasta river.' _Ib._

The _Yuka_ or Uka tribe 'inhabited the Shasta Mountains in the vicinity

of McCloud's fork of Pitt River.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. The

Ukas are directly south of the Modocs. _MS. Map._ 'The Yukeh, or as the

name is variously spelt, Yuka, Yuques, and Uca, are the original

inhabitants of the Nome-Cult, or Round Valley, in Tehama County ... and

are not to be confounded with the Yukai Indians of Russian River.'

_Gibbs_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 123.

'The _Noser_ or _Noza_ Indians ... live in the vicinity of Lassen's

Butte.' _Siskiyou Chronicle_, _May, 1859_.

The _Ylakas_ are to the southeast of the Ukas. _MS. Map._

The CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy the whole of that portion of California

extending north and south, from about 40° 30´ to 35°, and east and west,

from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary. They are tribally

divided as follows:

'The _Mattoles_ have their habitat on the creek which bears their name,

and on the still smaller stream dignified with the appellation of Bear

River. From the coast they range across to Eel River, and by immemorial

Indian usage and prescriptive right, they hold the western bank of this

river from about Eagle Prairie, where they border upon the Veeards, up

southward to the mouth of South Fork.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Betumkes_ live on the South Fork of Eel River. _Gibbs_, in

_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 634. In the northern part of

Mendocino County. _MS. Map._

The _Choweshaks_ live on the head of Eel river. _Gibbs_, in

_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421. Tribes living on the Middle

Fork of Eel River, in the valley called by the Indians Betumki were the

Naboh Choweshak, Chawteuh Bakowa, and Samunda. _Id._, p. 116. The

Choweshaks lived on the head of Eel River. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 48.

'The _Loloncooks_ live on Bull Creek and the lower South Fork of Eel

River, owning the territory between those streams and the Pacific.'

_Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Batemdakaiees_ live in the valley of that name on the head of Eel

River. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 17.

[Sidenote: RUSSIAN RIVER AND COAST TRIBES.]

The _Pomos_ consist of 'a great number of tribes or little bands,

sometimes one in a valley, sometimes three or four, clustered in the

region where the headwaters of Eel and Russian rivers interlace, along

the estuaries of the coast and around Clear Lake. Really, the Indians

all along Russian river to its mouth are branches of this great family,

but below Calpello they no longer call themselves Pomos.... The broadest

and most obvious division of this large family is, into Eel river Pomos

and Russian river Pomos.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ix., pp.

498-9.

The Castel Pomos 'live between the forks of the river extending as far

south as Big Chamise and Blue Rock.' _Id._, p. 499.

The Ki-Pomos 'dwell on the extreme headwaters of South Fork, ranging

eastward to Eel River, westward to the ocean and northward to the Castel

Pomos.' _Ib._, _MS. Map_.

'The Cahto Pomos (Lake people) were so called from a little lake which

formerly existed in the valley now called by their name.' _Powers_, in

_Overland Monthly_, vol. ix., p. 500.

The Choam Chadéla Pomos (Pitch Pine People) live in Redwood Valley.

_Id._, p. 504.

The Matomey Ki Pomos (Wooded Valley People) live about Little Lake.

_Ib._

The Camalèl Pomos (Coast People) or Usals live on Usal Creek. _Ib._

The Shebalne Pomos (Neighbor People) live in Sherwood Valley. _Ib._

The Pome Pomos (Earth People) live in Potter Valley. Besides the Pome

Pomos there are two or three other little rancherias in Potter Valley,

each with a different name; and the whole body of them are called Ballo

Ki Pomos (Oat Valley People). _Id._

The Camalel Pomos, Yonsal Pomos, and Bayma Pomos live on Ten Mile, and

the country just north of it, in Mendocino County. _Tobin_, in _Ind.

Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 405.

'The Salan Pomas are a tribe of Indians inhabiting a valley called

Potter's Valley.' _Ford_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 257.

The _Niahbella Pomos_ live in the north-west of Mendocino County. _MS.

Map._

The _Ukiahs_ live on Russian River in the vicinity of Parker's Ranch.

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 112, 421. 'The Yuka

tribe are those mostly within and immediately adjoining the mountains.'

_Mendocino Herald_, _March, 1871_. The Yukai live on Russian River.

_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 285. The Ukias are in the south-eastern part

of Mendocino County. _MS. Map._

The _Soteomellos_ or Sotomieyos 'lived in Russian River valley.' _Cal.

Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Shumeias_ 'lived on the extreme upper waters of Eel River, opposite

Potter Valley.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Tahtoos_ 'live in the extreme upper end of Potter Valley.' _Ib._

The _Yeeaths_ live at Cape Mendocino. _Tobin_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,

1857, p. 406.

The _Kushkish_ Indians live at Shelter Cove. _Id._, p. 405.

The _Comachos_ live in Russian River Valley, in Rancheria and Anderson

Valleys. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Kajatschims_, _Makomas_, and _Japiams_ live in the Russian River

Valley, north of Fort Ross. _Baer_, _Stat. und Ethno._, p. 80.

The _Gallinomeros_ occupy Dry Creek Valley and Russian River Valley

below Healdsburg. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Masalla Magoons_ 'live along Russian river south of Cloverdale.'

_Id._

The _Rincons_ live south of the Masalla Magoons. _Id._

The _Gualalas_ live on Gualala or Wallalla Creek. _Id._

The Nahlohs, Carlotsapos, Chowechaks, Chedochogs, Choiteeu, Misalahs,

Bacowas, Samindas, and Cachenahs, Tuwanahs, lived in the country between

Fort Ross and San Francisco Bay. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.

iii., p. 634.

_Chwachamaju_ (Russian Severnovskia) or Northerners, is the name of one

of the tribes in the vicinity of Fort Ross. _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_,

_Stat. und Ethno._, p. 80. 'Severnovskia, Severnozer, or "Northerners."

Indians north of Bodega Bay. They call themselves Chwachamaja.'

_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 170.

The _Olamentkes_ live at Bodega. _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. und

Ethnog._, p. 80; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 20.

The _Kainamares_ or Kainaméahs are at Fitch's Ranch, extending as far

back as Santa Rosa, down Russian River, about three leagues to Cooper's

Ranch, and thence across the coast at Fort Ross, and for twenty-five

miles above. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 102. 'The

Kanimares had rancherias at Santa Rosa, Petaluma, or Pataloma, and up to

Russian river.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. 'The proper name of

Russian river in Sonoma valley is Canimairo after the celebrated Indians

of those parts.' _Id._, _June 8, 1860_. The Indians of the plains in

vicinity of Fort Ross, call themselves Kainama. _Kostromitonow_, in

_Baer_, _Stat. und Ethno._, p. 80. The Kyanamaras 'inhabit the section

of country between the cañon of Russian river and its mouth.' _Ford_, in

_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 257.

The _Tumalehnias_ live on Bodega Bay. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,

vol. iii., p. 102.

The _Socoas_, _Lamas_, and _Seacos_, live in Russian River Valley in

the vicinity of the village of Sanél. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Sonomas_, Sonomis, or Sonomellos, lived at the embarcadero of

Sonoma. _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. The Sonomas lived in the

south-eastern extremity of what is now the county of Sonoma. _MS. Map._

The _Tchokoyems_ lived in Sonoma valley. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's

Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421. The Chocuyens lived in the region now called

Sonoma county, and from their chief the county takes its name.

_Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p. 22. The word Sonoma means 'Valley of the

Moon.' _Tuthill's Hist. Cal._, p. 301. The Tchokoyems live in Sonoma

Valley. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 184.

'The _Timbalakees_ lived on the west side of Sonoma valley.' _Cal.

Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Guillicas_ lived 'northwest of Sonoma,' on the old Wilson ranch of

1846. _Ib._; _MS. Map_.

The _Kinklas_ live in 39° 14´ north lat. and 122° 12´ long. _Wilkes'

Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 201. The Klinkas are a 'tribu

fixée au nord du Rio del Sacramento.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.

358. South of the Rogue River Indians 'the population is very scanty

until we arrive at the valley of the Sacramento, all the tribes of which

are included by the traders under the general name of Kinklá, which is

probably, like Tlamatl, a term of Chinook origin.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in

_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 221.

The Talatui live 'on the Kassima River, a tributary to the Sacramento,

on the eastern side, about eighty miles from its mouth.' _Hale's

Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 631. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._,

p. 180.

The _Oleepas_ live on the Feather River, twenty miles above Marysville.

_Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 293.

'The Nemshous, as stated by General Sutter, roamed (prior to 1846)

between the Bear and American rivers; across the Sacramento were the

Yolos and Colusas; north of the American Fork were the Bashones. On the

banks of the river north of Fort Helvetia, roamed the Veshanacks, the

Touserlemnies and Youcoolumnies; between the American (plain and hills)

and the Mokalumne roamed the Walacumnies, Cosumnies, Solumnees,

Mokelumnees, Suraminis, Yosumnis, Lacomnis, Kis Kies and Omochumnies.'

_Cal. Farmer_, _June 8, 1860_. The Colusas live in the north-eastern

corner of Colusa County. The Yolos, in the northern part of the county

of that name. West of them the Olashes. The Bushones in the south of

Yolo County. The Nemshoos in the eastern part of Placer County. The

Yukutneys north of them. The Vesnacks south-west of the Nemshoos, and

north of the Pulpenes. The Youcoulumnes and Cosumnes are in the eastern

part of Amador county. The Mokelumnes south of them. The Yachachumnes

west of the Mokelumnes. _MS. Map_. 'Yolo is a corruption of the Indian

Yoloy, which signified a region thick with rushes, and was the name of

the tribe owning the tule lands west of the Sacramento and bordering on

Cache Creek.' _Tuthill's Hist. Cal._, p. 301. The following are names of

rancherias of tame Indians or Neophytes in the Sacramento Valley;

Sakisimme, Shonomnes, Tawalemnes, Seywamenes, Mukelemnes, Cosumne.

Rancherias of wild Indians or Gentiles, are: Sagayacumne, Socklumnes,

Olonutchamne, Newatchumne, Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omatchamne,

Yusumne, Yuleyumne, Tamlocklock, Sapototot, Yalesumne, Wapoomne, Kishey,

Secumne, Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshan, Palanshan, Ustu, Olash, Yukulme,

Hock, Sishu, Mimal, Yulu, Bubu, Honcut. _Indian Tribes of the Sacramento

Valley, MS._ Tame Indians or Neophites: Lakisumne, Shonomne, Fawalomnes,

Mukeemnes, Cosumne. Wild Indians or Gentiles: Sagayacumne, Locklomnee,

Olonutchamne, Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omutchamne, Yusumne,

Yaleyumne, Yamlocklock, Lapototot, Yalesumne, Wajuomne, Kisky, Secumne,

Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshaw, Palanshawl Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock,

Lishu, Mimal, Ubu, Bubu, Honcut. _Sutter's Estimate of Indian

Population, 1847, MS._ The Ochecamnes, Servushamnes, Chupumnes,

Omutchumnes, Sicumnes, Walagumnes, Cosumnes, Sololumnes, Turealemnes,

Saywamines, Nevichumnes, Matchemnes, Sagayayumnes, Muthelemnes, and

Lopstatimnes, lived on the eastern bank of the Sacramento. The Bushumnes

(or Pujuni), (or Sekomne) Yasumnes, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yaesumnes, Huk, and

Yucal, lived on the western bank of the Sacramento. _Hale's Ethnog._, in

_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 630, 631.

The _Yubas_ or _Yuvas_ lived on Yuva River, a tributary to the

Sacramento. _Fremont's Geog. Memoir_, p. 22.

The _Meidoos_ and _Neeshenams_ are on the Yuba and Feather Rivers. 'As

you travel south from Chico the Indians call themselves Meidoo until you

reach Bear River; but below that it is Neeshenam, or sometimes mana or

maidec, all of which denote men or Indians.' _Powers_, in _Overland

Monthly_, vol. xii., p. 21.

The _Cushnas_ live near the south fork of the Yuba River. _Schoolcraft's

Arch._, vol. ii., 506; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 59. Taylor also

mentions the Cushnas south of the Yuba. _Cal. Farmer_, _May 31, 1861_.

[Sidenote: CLEAR LAKE TRIBES.]

The _Guenocks_ and _Locollomillos_ lived between Clear Lake and Napa.

_Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Lopillamillos_ or Lupilomis lived on the borders of Clear lake.

_Ib._; _MS. Map_.

The _Mayacmas_ and _Tyugas_ dwell about Clear Lake. _San Francisco

Herald_, _June, 1858_. The Mayacmas and Tyugas 'inhabited the vicinity

of Clear lake and the mountains of Napa and Mendocino counties.' _Cal.

Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_; _MS. Map_.

The _Wi-Lackees_ 'live along the western slope of the Shasta mountains

from round Valley to Hay Fork, between those mountains on one side and

Eel and Mad Rivers on the other, and extending down the latter stream

about to Low Gap.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Wye Lakees, Nome Lackees,

Noimucks, Noiyucans and Noisas, lived at Clear Lake. _Geiger_, in _Ind.

Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 438.

_Napobatin_, meaning 'many houses,' was the collective name of six

tribes living at Clear Lake: their names were Hulanapo, Habenapo or

stone house, Dahnohabe, or stone mountain, Möalkai, Shekom, and Howkuma.

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 109.

The _Shanelkayas_ and _Bedahmareks_, or lower people, live on the east

fork of Eel River. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 109.

'The _Sanéls_ live at Clear lake.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,

vol. iii., p. 112. 'The Sanels occupy Russian River Valley in the

vicinity of the American village of Sanel.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Bochheafs_, _Ubakheas_, _Tabahteas_, and the _Moiyas_, live between

Clear Lake and the coast. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii.,

p. 112.

The _Socoas_, _Lamas_, and _Seacos_, occupy Russian River Valley in the

vicinity of the village of Sanel. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Napas_ 'inhabited the Salvador Vallejo ranch of Entre-Napa--that is

the place between Napa river and Napa creek.' _Hittell_, in _Hesperian

Mag._, vol. iv., p. 56; _Cal. Farmer_, _June 7, 1861_. 'The Napa Indians

lived near that town and near Yount's ranch.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30,

1860_.

'The _Caymus_ tribe occupied the tract now owned by G. C. Yount.'

_Hittell_, in _Hesperian Mag._, vol. iv., p. 55.

'The _Calajomanas_ had their home on the land now known as the Bale

ranche.' _Ib._

The _Mayacomas_ dwelt in the vicinity of the hot springs in the upper

end of Napa Valley. _Ib._

The _Ulucas_ lived on the east of the river Napa, near the present

townsite. _Id._, p. 56.

'The _Suscols_ lived on the ranch of that name, and between Napa and

Benicia.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. 'The former domain of the

Suscol Indians was afterwards known as Suscol ranch.' _Hittel_, in

_Hesperian Mag._, vol. iv., p. 56; _MS. Map_.

The _Tulkays_ lived 'below the town of Napa.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30,

1860_.

The _Canaumanos_ lived on Bayle's ranch in Napa valley. _Ib._

The _Mutistuls_ live 'between the heads of Napa and Putos creeks.'

_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 111.

The _Yachimeses_ originally occupied the ground upon which the city of

Stockton now stands. _Cal. Farmer_, _Dec. 7, 1860_.

The _Yachichumnes_ 'formerly inhabited the country between Stockton and

Mt. Diablo.' _San Francisco Evening Bulletin_, _Sept. 9, 1864_.

The _Suisunes_ live in Suisun valley. _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

Solano County was named from their chief. _Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p.

22; _Tuthill's Hist. Cal._, p. 301.

The _Ullulatas_ 'lived on the north side of Suisun Valley.' _Cal.

Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Pulpenes_ lived on the eastern side of Suisun Valley. _Ib._

The _Tolenos_ lived on the north side of Suisun Valley. _Ib._

The _Karquines_ lived on the straits of that name. _Ib._

The _Tomales_, Tamales, Tamallos, or Tamalanos, and Bollanos, lived

between Bodega Bay and the north shore of San Francisco Bay. _Id._,

_March 2, 1860_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Socoisukas_, _Thamiens_, and _Gerguensens_ or Gerzuensens 'roamed

in the Santa Clara valley, between the Coyote and Guadalupe rivers, and

the country west of San Jose city to the mountains.' _Id._, _June 22,

1860_.

The _Lecatuit_ tribe occupied Marin county, and it is from the name of

their chief that the county takes its name. _Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p.

22.

'The _Petalumas_ or the _Yolhios_ lived near or around that town.' _Cal.

Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Tulares_, so called by the Spaniards, lived between the northern

shore of the bay of San Francisco and San Rafael. _Gibbs_, in

_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421.

The _Wapos_ inhabited 'the country about the Geysers.' _Ford_, in _Ind.

Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 257.

The _Yosemites_ inhabited the valley of the same name. The Tosemiteiz

are on the headwaters of the Chowchilla. _Lewis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,

1857, p. 399.

The _Ahwahnachees_ are the inhabitants of Yosemite Valley. _Hittel's

Yosemite_, p. 42.

[Sidenote: TRIBES NEAR THE MISSION DOLORES.]

The following names of rancherías which formerly existed in the vicinity

of the Mission Dolores, are taken from the Mission Books: Abmoctac,

Amutaja, Altanui, Aleytac, Anchin, Aleta, Aramay, Altajumo, Aluenchi,

Acnagis, Assunta, Atarpe, Anamás, Acyum, Anamon, Cachanegtac, Caprup,

Cazopo, Carascan, Conop, Chutchin, Chagunte, Chapugtac, Chipisclin,

Chynau, Chipletac, Chuchictac, Chiputca, Chanigtac, Churmutcé, Chayen,

Chupcan, Elarroyde, Flunmuda, Génau, Guloismistac, Gamchines, Guanlen,

Hunctu, Halchis, Horocroc, Huimen, Itáes, Juniamuc, Josquigard, Juchium,

Juris, Joquizará, Luidneg, Luianeglua, Lamsim, Livangelva, Livangebra,

Libantone, Macsinum, Mitliné, Malvaitac, Muingpe, Naig, Naique, Napa,

Ompivromo, Ousint, Oturbe, Olestura, Otoacte, Petlenum, or Petaluma,

Pruristac, Puichon, Puycone, Patnetac, Pructaca, Purutea, Proqueu, Quet,

Sitlintaj, Suchni, Subchiam, Siplichiquin, Siscastac, Ssiti, Sitintajea,

Ssupichum, Sicca, Soisehme, Saturaumo, Satumuo, Sittintac, Ssichitca,

Sagunte, Ssalayme, Sunchaque, Ssipudca, Saraise, Sipanum, Sarontac,

Ssogereate, Sadanes, Tuzsint, Tatquinte, Titmictac, Tupuic, Titiyú,

Timita, Timsim, Tubisuste, Timigtac, Torose, Tupuinte, Tuca, Tamalo, or

Tomales, Talcan, Totola, Urebure, Uturpe, Ussete, Uchium, Véctaca,

Vagerpe, Yelamú, Yacmui, Yacomui, Yajumui, Zomiomi, Zucigin ...

Aguasajuchium, Apuasto, Aguasto, Carquin, (Karquines), Cuchian, Chaclan,

Chiguau, Cotejen, Chuscan, Guylpunes, Huchun, Habasto, Junatca, Jarquin,

Sanchines, Oljon, Olpen, Olemos, Olmolococ, Quemelentus, Quirogles,

Salzon, Sichican, Saucon, Suchigin, Sadan, Uquitinac, Volvon (or

Bolbon). 'The tribes of Indians upon the Bay of San Francisco, and who

were, after its establishment, under the supervision of the Mission of

Dolores, were five in number; the Ahwashtees, Ohlones (called in Spanish

Costanos, or Indians of the Coast), Altahmos, Romanons, and Tuolomos.

There were, in addition to these, a few small tribes, but all upon the

land extending from the entrance to the head of San Francisco Bay, spoke

the same language.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _May 31, 1861_. The

tribes mentioned by Adam Johnston in Schoolcraft, who lived around the

Missions of Dolores and Yerba Buena, were the 'Ahwashtes, Ohlones,

Altahmos, Romanans, and Tulomos. The Ohlones were likely the same called

by the old priests, Sulones, Solomnies, the Sonomis were another.'

_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 506. 'The following races of

Californians were named to us living within the precincts of the Mission

of San Francisco; Guymen, Utschim, Olumpali, Soclan, Sonomi, Chulpun,

Umpin, Kosmitas, Bulbones, Tchalabones, Pitem, Lamam, Apalamu,

Tcholoones, Suysum, Numpali, Tamal, and Ululato.' _Chamisso_, in

_Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 51. 'On compte dans cette seul mission

(San Francisco) plus de quinze différentes tribus d'Indiens: les

Khoulpouni; les Oumpini; les Kosmiti; les Lamanès; les Bolbonès; les

Pitemèns; les Khalalons; les Apatamnès, ils parlent la même langue et

habitent le long des bords du Rio Sacramento; les Guimen; les

Outchioung; les Olompalis; les Tamals; les Sonons ils parlent la même

langue; ces tribus sont les plus nombreuses dans la mission de San

Francisco; les Saklans; les Ouloulatines; les Noumpolis; les Souissouns;

ils parlent des langues différentes.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt. iii.,

pp. 5, 6. 'California Indians on the Bay of San Francisco, and formerly

under the supervisions of the Mission Dolores. There were five tribes:

Ashwashtes, Olhones (called by the Spaniards Costanos, or Indians of the

coast), Altahmos, Romonans, and Tulomos. A few other small tribes round

the bay speak the same language.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 53. 'Um die

Bai von San Francisco die Matalánes, Salses und Quiróles, deren

Sprachen, eine gemeinsame Quelle haben.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol.

ii., pt. ii., p. 454. The Olchones 'inhabit the seacoast between San

Francisco and Monterey.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 78. The

Salsonas, 'viven unas seis leguas distantes rumbo al Sueste (of San

Francisco Bay) por las cercanias del brazo de mar.' _Palou_, _Vida de

Junípero Serra_, p. 214.

The _Korekins_ formerly lived at the mouth of the San Joaquin.

_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 141.

'The rancherias of Indians near this Mission, all within eight or ten

miles of Santa Cruz, ... were: Aulintac, the rancheria proper to the

Mission; Chalumü, one mile north-west of the Mission; Hottrochtac, two

miles north-west; ... Wallanmai; Sio Cotchmin; Shoremee; Onbi; Choromi;

Turami; Payanmin; Shiuguermi; Hauzaurni. The Mission also had neophytes

of the rancherias of Tomoy, Osacalis (Souquel), Yeunaba, Achilla,

Yeunata, Tejey, Nohioalli, Utalliam, Locobo, Yeunator, Chanech, Huocom,

Chicutae, Aestaca, Sachuen, Hualquilme, Sagin, Ochoyos, Huachi, Apil,

Mallin, Luchasmi, Coot, and Agtism, as detailed in a letter from Friar

Ramon Olbez to Governor de Sola, in November, 1819, in reply to a

circular from him, as to the native names, etc., of the Indians of Santa

Cruz, and their rancherias.' _Cal. Farmer_, _April 5, 1860_.

The _Mutsunes_ are the natives of the Mission of San Juan Baptista.

_Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 23_, and _June 22, 1860_; _Hist. Mag._, vol. i., p.

205.

The _Ansaymas_ lived in the vicinity of San Juan Bautista. _Cal.

Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. 'Four leagues (twelve miles) southeast of the

Mission (Monterey), inside the hills eastward, was the rancheria of

Echilat, called San Francisquita. Eslanagan was one on the east side of

the river and Ecgeagan was another; another was Ichenta or San Jose;

another Xaseum in the Sierra, ten leagues from Carmelo; that of

Pachhepes was in the vicinity of Xaseum, among the Escellens. That of

the Sargentarukas was seven leagues south and east of the river in a

Canaditta de Palo Colorado.' _Cal. Farmer_, _April 20, 1860_.