Operations of the Commissariat Relief Department--Not to interfere
with Mealmongers or Corn Merchants--Effects of this Rule--Deputation
from Achill (_Note_)--Organization of the Commissariat Relief
Department--Reports on the Potato Crop--The Blight in
Clare--Commissary-General Hewetson's Opinion--Commissary-General
Dobree's Report--Depôts--Universality of the Blight--Rules with
regard to Food Depôts--Fault of the Treasury--Scarcity of
Food--Depôts besieged for it in the midst of harvest--Depôts to be
only on the West Coast--What was meant by the West Coast--Coroner's
Inquests at Mallow--Rev. Mr. Daly--Lord Mountcashel--Famine
Demonstration at Westport--Sessions at Kilmacthomas--Riot at
Dungarvan--Capt. Sibthorpe's Order--Mr. Howley's Advice--Attempt to
rescue Prisoners--Captain Sibthorpe asks leave to fire--Refused by
Mr. Howley--Riot Act read--Leave to fire given--People retire from
the town--Two men wounded--The carter's reason for fighting--Lame
Pat Power--Death of Michael Fleming, the carter--Formidable bands
traverse the country--Advice of the
Clergy--Carrigtuohill--Macroom--Killarney--Skibbereen--March on that
town by the workmen of Caheragh--Dr. Donovan's account of the
movement--The military, seventy-five in number, posted behind a
schoolhouse--Firmness and prudence of Mr. Galwey, J.P.--Biscuits
ordered from the Government Store--Peace preserved--Demonstration at
Mallow--Lord Stuart de Decies--Deputation from Clonakilty to the
Lord Lieutenant--Ships prevented from sailing at Youghal--Sir David
Roche--Demonstrations simultaneous--Proclamation against food
riots--Want of mill-power--No mill-power in parts of the West where
most required--Sir Randolph Routh's opinion--Overruled by the
Treasury--Mr. Lister's Account of the mill-power in parts of
Connaught--Meal ground at Deptford, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and
Rotherhithe; also in Essex and the Channel Islands--Mill-power at
Malta--Quantity of wheat there--Five hundred quarters purchased--The
French--The Irish handmill, or quern, revived--Samples of it
got--Steel-mills--Mill-power useless from failure of
water-supply--Attempt to introduce whole corn boiled as food.
Two Governmental departments were told off to do battle with the Irish
Famine; namely, the Board of Works and the Commissariat Relief Office.
The duty of the former was to find employment for those who were able to
work, at such wages as would enable them to support themselves and
their families; the latter was to see that food should be for sale
within a reasonable distance of all who were necessitated to buy it, and
at fair market prices; but more than this the Commissariat Office was
not empowered to do. Corn merchants, food dealers, and mealmongers were
not to be interfered with; on the contrary, they were to be encouraged
in carrying on their trade. It was only where such persons did not
exist, or did not exist in sufficient numbers, that the Commissariat
depôts were to sell corn or meal to the people. No food was to be given
away by Government; none was to be sold under price, it being assumed
that the people could earn enough to support themselves. Government
feared that, if they began to undersell the merchants and dealers, those
classes would give up business, which, in the Government's opinion,
would be a very great evil. Mealmongers and food dealers are generally
very shrewd men; and it was believed, with much reason, that they
succeeded in raising prices when it suited them, and in many cases in
realizing even large fortunes, by working on the apprehensions of the
Government in respect to this very matter.[159]
The Commissariat Relief Department was organized at the close of 1845,
for the purpose of managing the distribution of Indian meal, imported at
that time by Sir Robert Peel, to provide against the anticipated
scarcity of the spring and summer of 1846. Its head-quarters were in
Dublin Castle, and its chief was a Scotch gentleman, Sir Randolph
Routh--a name which, like some others, must occur pretty frequently in
these pages. The Commissariat people, as is usual in such cases, began
by instituting extensive inquiries. They ordered their subordinates to
furnish reports of the state of the potato crop throughout the country.
The Assistant Commissaries-General and others employed in this service,
in due time, made their reports, which in the main agreed with the
statements in the public journals, and with the opinion prevalent
everywhere among the people; thus differing with those officers of the
Board of Works who held that there were more sound potatoes in Ireland
than was generally admitted. So early as the 11th of August, Mr. White,
writing from Galway to Assistant Commissary-General Wood, makes a most
unfavourable report of the state of the crop in Clare; the Blight, he
says, was general and most rapid in its effects, a large quantity of the
potatoes being already diseased, and a portion perfectly rotten. "I am,
therefore, clearly of opinion," he continues, "that the scarcity of the
potato last year will be nothing compared with this, and that, too,
several months earlier."[160] Commissary-General Hewetson sent specimens
of diseased potatoes to the Secretary of the Treasury in the middle of
August, with this information: "The crop seems to have been struck
almost everywhere by one sweeping blast, in one and the same night. I
mentioned a hope that the tubers might yet rally, many of the stalks
having thrown out fresh vegetation; I fear it is but a futile
hope."[161] Just about the same time, Assistant Commissary-General
Dobree reports to the same quarter: "It is superfluous to make any
further report on the potato crop, for I believe the failure is general
and complete throughout the country, though the disease has made more
rapid progress in some places than in others. In a circuit of two
hundred miles, I have not seen one single field free from it; and
although it is very speculative to attempt a calculation on what is not
yet absolutely realized, my belief is that scarcely any of the late
potatoes will be fit for human food."[162]
Considerable stores of oatmeal and Indian corn remained in the
Government depôts throughout the country, when they were closed in
August. By a Treasury Minute, these were ordered to be concentrated at
six points; two in the interior, namely, Longford and Banagher, and four
on the coast, Limerick, Galway, Westport, and Sligo.
Like the heads of the Board of Works, the Commissariat officials thought
they would have had some time to arrange their various duties, appoint
their subordinates, fit up their offices, such as had any, in a snug and
convenient manner, and print and circulate query sheets without number;
and all this in spite of their own observations and reports--in spite of
this overwhelming fact, which, if they adverted to it at all, does not
seem to have impressed them--namely, that they were in the middle of a
great famine, and not at the beginning of it; that they were entering on
the second year of it with exhausted resources, while the blight which
caused it was far more general and destructive than it had been the year
before; in short, that it was universal, sweeping, immediate, terrible.
The Government depôts already in existence, as well as those to be
established, were only to be in aid of the regular corn and meal trade;
and no supplies were to be sold from them, until it was proved to the
satisfaction of the Assistant Commissary-General of the district that
the necessity for so doing was urgent, and that no other means of
obtaining food existed. This rule was, in some instances, kept so
stringently, that people died of starvation within easy distance of
those depôts, with money in their hands to buy the food that would not
be sold to them. The Treasury, rather than Commissary-General Routh or
his subordinates, was to blame for this; their strong determination,
many times expressed, being, that food accumulated by Government should
be husbanded for the spring and summer months of 1847, when they
expected the greatest pressure would exist. This was prudence, but
prudence founded on ignorance of the real state of things in the
closing months of 1846. The dearth of food which they were looking
forward to in the coming spring and summer arose fully FIVE MONTHS
before the time fixed by the Government; but they were so slow, or so
reluctant to realize its truth, that great numbers of people were
starved to death before Christmas, because the Government locked up the
meal in their depôts, in order to keep the same people alive with it in
May and June! "It is most important," says a Treasury Minute--these were
the days of Treasury Minutes--"it is most important that it should be
remembered, that the supplies provided for the Government depôts are not
intended to form the primary or principal means of subsistence to the
people of the districts in which the depôts are established, but merely
to furnish a last resource, when all other means of subsistence, whether
derived from the harvest just got in, or from importations, are
exhausted, and the depôts are, therefore, in no case to be drawn upon
while food can be obtained by purchase from private parties."[163] This
Minute is addressed to Sir Randolph Routh, who had written to the
Treasury ten days before, pressing upon them the necessity of large and
immediate purchases of corn. "We have no arrivals yet announced," he
says, "either at Westport or Sligo, and the remains there must be
nothing, or next to nothing. The bills of lading from Mr. Erichsen are
all for small quantities, which will be distributed, and perhaps eaten,
in twelve or twenty-four hours after their arrival. It would require a
thousand tons to make an impression, and that only a temporary one. Our
salvation of the depôt system is in the importation of a large supply.
These small shipments are only drops in the ocean." And further on in
the same letter: "We began our operations on the 1st of September or
thereabouts; and here, in the midst of harvest, before any Commissariat
arrangement for supplies from abroad could be matured, we find the
country besieging our depôt for food, and scarcely a proprietor stirring
in their behalf."[164]
Government depôts were only to be established where it was probable that
private enterprise would not offer a sufficient quantity of food for
sale. On this principle, the north, east, and south were left to be
supplied through the usual channels of commerce; the depôt system being
confined to the west coast. What was meant precisely by the west coast
does not seem to have been settled at the outset, but in answer to an
enquiry from Sir R. Routh on the subject, the Treasury, on the 31st of
October, defined it to be the country to the west of the Shannon, with
the County Donegal to the north, and Kerry to the south, with a small
corner of Cork, as far as Skibbereen, because that town was on the
western coast.[165]
We have seen the rapid increase of labourers on the Relief Works from
October to December, yet famine was always far ahead of the Government.
Their arrangements for the first famine year were made with reference to
the closing of all operations at harvest time, in 1846, but there was no
harvest that year _for the poor_; their crop had vanished before the
destroyer, and they were actually worse off at the end of August, 1846,
than they had been since the beginning of the Potato Blight. In that
year, the potatoes never came to maturity at all, and any that were
thought worth the labour of digging, were hurried to market, and sold
for any price they fetched, before they would melt away in the owners'
hands. One of the Commissariat officers asked a farmer's wife, who was
selling potatoes of this kind, what was the price of them; "two pence a
stone, sir," she replied, "is my price," but lowering her voice, she
_naively_ added, "to tell you the truth, sir, they are not worth a
penny." Even in September--it was on the 18th of that month--a
resolution was passed by the Mallow Relief Committee, that from
information laid before them, and from the verdicts of several coroner's
inquests, held during the previous few days, disease of the most fatal
character was spreading in the districts around them, in consequence of
the badness of the food purchasable by the working classes. A little
later, the Rev. Mr. Daly announced to the ratepayers at the Fermoy
sessions, that at the moment he was addressing them, numbers of persons
were living on cabbage leaves, whose countenances were so altered, and
whose whole appearance was so changed by starvation and wretchedness,
that he could hardly recognise them. Lord Mountcashel, the Chairman of
the sessions, on the same occasion used these remarkable words: "The
people are starving; they have no employment; they require to be
attended to immediately, for, starvation will not accommodate itself to
any man's convenience." Nothing truer. Many landlords throughout the
country made similar observations; but to all such, the representatives
of the Government replied, and not without a good show of reason, that
whilst landlords talked in this manner, they themselves, with rare
exceptions, did nothing to employ the people, nor did they, in any way,
relieve the fearful pressure upon the Public Works.
The earliest famine demonstration seems to have taken place in Westport
on the 22nd of August. On that day a large body of men marched four
deep, and in a very orderly manner, to Lord Sligo's residence, beside
the town. They made their intention known beforehand to the inspector of
police, and asked him to be present to show they had no illegal designs.
They were chiefly from Islandeady and Aughagown. Lord Sligo, accompanied
by some gentlemen, who were staying with him, received them at his hall
door. They said they wanted food and work. His lordship assured them
that he had already represented, in the strongest terms, the necessity
of measures being taken to secure a supply of both, and that he would
repeat his application. They seemed satisfied with this, and quietly
retired.
Towards the end of September, however, the state of the country became
very unsatisfactory and even alarming. The low rate of wages fixed by
the Government; the high price of provisions; the closing of the
Government depôts; the large quantities of corn which they saw sent
daily to England, whilst they who raised it starved, were amongst the
chief causes which excited the people to acts of intimidation. In
several instances they went in formidable bodies to the presentment
sessions, apparently under the impression that the ratepayers, there
assembled, had something to do with fixing the amount of wages, which of
course was a popular error. On Monday, the 28th of September, a special
sessions was appointed to be held at Kilmacthomas, some fourteen miles
from Dungarvan, and notices were extensively circulated the day before,
by unknown hands, calling on the people to assemble at Dungarvan on that
day, as the military would be away at the sessions. The avowed object of
this assemblage was to seize provisions by force, or at least to lay
down a scale of prices beyond which they should not be raised. The
authorities had, of course, timely notice of this movement, and left a
sufficient force in the town to protect it. The precaution was not an
idle one, for soon after the dragoons took their departure for
Kilmacthomas, about five thousand men entered Dungarvan, led by a person
named Power, well known in the locality as "lame Pat." The town was
guarded by sixty soldiers and fifty-four police, but in the face of such
numbers, their officers considered it the best policy to stand upon the
defensive, and do nothing until a breach of the peace had been
committed. They, however, cautioned the people, and advised them to
return to their houses; they did not take their advice, but went round
to the various places in which corn was stored, and threatened the
owners, if they attempted to export any of the produce they had
purchased. They next proceeded to the shops where Indian meal was on
sale, and uttered similar threats against the vendors if they charged
more than one shilling a stone for it. Meantime Captain Sibthorpe, the
officer in command of the detachment of the 1st Royal Dragoons that had
gone to Kilmacthomas in the morning, finding the number of people there
assembled less than he had anticipated--only five hundred or so--and
being aware that a much larger body was expected at Dungarvan, asked
permission from the magistrates to return to that town. At first, they
were very loath to grant his request, but having at length yielded, he
left forty-eight policemen for their protection, and marched his men
back to Dungarvan. It was a journey of three or four hours. On their
arrival they found the people under Power had concluded their
preliminary business of visiting the stores and shops, and not being
provided with a commissariat to supply them with rations, they were
levying contributions from the bakers of the town. Seeing this, Captain
Sibthorpe ordered his dragoons to ride them down, and drive them off,
which they did. Some prisoners were taken, lame Pat Power, their leader,
being of the number. The prisoners having been secured, Mr. Howley, the
resident magistrate, addressed the people; he explained to them the
illegality and folly of their proceedings, and assured them he would
forward to the Government any document detailing what they considered as
their grievances, provided that it was couched in respectful language;
and further, that he would do all he could to have any reasonable
request of theirs complied with. Upon this they retired and drew up a
statement which they handed to him, and which he promised to send to the
Lord Lieutenant. So far so good. The day's proceedings might be fairly
supposed to have ended here--but no--what about the prisoners? The
people refused to go away without them. The magistrates would not
release them, but assured their comrades that their punishment should be
light. This did not satisfy them, and they commenced to use violent
language and to throw stones. Orders were given to clear the square,
which service was performed by the dragoons, who drove them into the
neighbouring streets; but as the stone-throwing was continued, the
police were sent to drive them away; failing to do this, the dragoons
were ordered to advance, whereupon, it is said, a shout was raised in
Irish by the people to "kill them," which was followed by a shower of
stones. Things began to look so critical, that Captain Sibthorpe asked
permission from Mr. Howley to order his men to fire, but that gentleman
refused the permission. Captain Sibthorpe then asked Mr. Howley to allow
him to take that responsibility upon himself, but he still refused,
saying that as an important trust had been reposed in him, he would
retain that trust, and allow no firing until their lives were
imperilled. The stone-throwing continued; Mr. Howley at length said to
the other magistrates that there was no use in talking any more to the
people, and that he must read the riot act, which he accordingly did. He
then warned them of the dangerous course they were pursuing--a shower of
stones was the response. Captain Sibthorpe now told Mr. Howley that he
would withdraw his men from the town, unless they were permitted to
fire. The order was given; the dragoons were drawn up in sections of
four--each section firing in its turn. In this manner twenty-six shots
were fired, each round being answered by a volley of stones. When the
firing had continued for some time, the people retired from the town;
they were followed by the dragoons, but entrenching themselves behind
the walls and ditches, they prepared to renew the conflict, under more
favorable circumstances, but the opportunity was not afforded them. It
grew late--the town, at any rate, was cleared, and the success of the
troops being by no means so certain upon this new battle ground they
were withdrawn by the magistrates. On their return to town, they found
two men had been wounded, and as usually happens in such cases, one of
them had no connection whatever with the business, being a carter
employed in carrying baggage for the troops. When asked how he came to
be among the belligerents, having no interest in the matter, he replied,
that he was under the impression the troops had orders not to fire on
the people, or if they did, it should be with blank cartridge; he was
confirmed in this belief by the fact, that the first four or five shots
took no effect; but, "at any rate," he added, "when I saw the fun going
on, I could not resist the temptation of joining in it."
The persons arrested on the occasion, fifty-one in number, were brought
up for trial before the sitting barrister in about a month afterwards.
All pleaded guilty, and received merely nominal punishment, with the
exception of "lame Pat," their leader. He, poor fellow, was sentenced to
one year's imprisonment, although he declared he had been four days and
four nights living on cabbage leaves and salt, previous to his
misconduct. But the saddest part of this Dungarvan tale is, that the
poor carrier, whose name was Michael Fleming, died of his wounds on the
26th of October, in the Workhouse, to which he had been removed for
medical treatment.
Formidable bands went about, in some portions of the country, visiting
the houses of farmers, and even of the gentry, warning them not to raise
the price of provisions, and also asking for employment. Notices
continued to be distributed, and posted up in public places, calling
assemblies of the people in various towns of the South, in order to
discuss their existing state and future prospects. A notice posted on
the chapel of Carrigtwohill, calling one of those meetings, warned such
as absented themselves that they would be marked men, as there was
famine in the parish, and they should have food or blood. The priests of
the place advised and warned their flocks against those illegal
proceedings, and the evils to themselves which must necessarily spring
from them. This had the desired effect, and the objects contemplated by
the promulgators of the notice were entirely foiled. At Macroom, crowds
of working men paraded the streets, calling for work or food. Food they
urgently required, no doubt, for two of those in the gathering fell in
the street from hunger. One, a muscular-looking young man, was unable to
move from the spot where he sank exhausted, until some nourishment was
brought to him, which revived him.[166] At Killarney, a crowd, preceded
by a bellman and a flag of distress, paraded the streets, but the
leaders were arrested and lodged in Bridewell. In the neighbourhood of
Skibbereen, the people employed in breaking stones for macadamizing the
roads struck work, and marched into the town in a body, asserting that
the wages they were receiving was insufficient to support them. The
overseer alleged that enough of work had not been done by the men, and
that task work should be introduced. Their answer was, that the stones
given them to break, being large field stones, _were as hard as anvils_,
and they could not break more of them in a given time than they had
done; and that death by starvation was preferable to the sufferings they
had already endured.
Those men worked some miles from Skibbereen, at a place called Caheragh,
and before their arrival, the wildest rumours were afloat as to their
coming and intentions. It was Wednesday, the 30th of September. At
twelve o'clock on that day, the principal inhabitants met to consult
with Mr. Galwey, the magistrate, as to what course they should adopt in
the emergency. Whilst thus engaged, Dr. Donovan, who had been on
professional duty, rode in from the country, and announced that a body
of men, consisting, as far as he could judge, of from eight hundred to a
thousand, appeared on the outskirts of the town. They were marching in
regular order, ten deep. Twenty-two years after the event, Dr. Donovan
thus narrates the cause of this extraordinary movement, and the
impression made upon his mind by the terrible phalanx, on its appearance
before the trembling town of Skibbereen: "Some difficulty," he says,
"occasionally arose in making out the pay lists," and as the people were
entirely dependent for their day's support on their day's wages, great
suffering and inconvenience resulted from the slightest delay. In
addition to these causes of inconvenience, supplies of food had
sometimes to be procured, and on this particular occasion serious
consequences had nearly resulted from the obstinacy of an official, (a
Mr. H----,) a commissariat officer, who boasted of his experience in
matters of the kind, during the Peninsular campaigns of the Duke of
Wellington, and who refused to allow any food to be sold to the people,
although ready money was offered on the spot. An additional difficulty
arose when it was made known that extensive works in the neighbourhood,
upon which over one thousand persons had been employed, were stopped.
Great excitement was the result, and it was determined by the whole body
of workmen employed upon the Caheragh relief works, to march into
Skibbereen, levy contributions, and enforce compliance with their
demands. About twelve o'clock in the day, a number of persons, amounting
to about a thousand, marched in the direction of the town, and had
nearly reached their destination before the fact was made known. I
believe I was, myself, one of the first who saw the approach of those
once stalwart men, but now emaciated spectres; and cannot describe
adequately the interesting appearance of the body, as they marched
along, bearing upon their shoulders their implements of labour, such as
spades, shovels, etc., which, in the glitter of a blazing sun, produced
a most surpassing effect. Immediately a most exciting scene took place.
Under the apprehension that shops would be rifled, shutters were put up
and doors were closed. The servants in charge of children hastened to
their respective habitations, and everything denoted that a serious
onslaught was unavoidable. The military force in the town amounted to
seventy-five men, and by the sound of trumpet they were at once summoned
to their post, and positive directions were given that under no
circumstances should the invading party be allowed to enter the town.
The interposition of a long schoolhouse prevented the military from
being seen until the party were within twenty yards of the school. The
orders were then given to prime and load, and I cannot describe what my
feelings were as the clink of the ramrods clearly denoted what was
likely to follow. Fortunately, the force upon this occasion was under
the command of Mr. Michael Galwey, J.P., a gentleman remarkable for his
firmness and courage, his kindness and humanity, and extraordinary
influence among the people. When a sanguinary affray was almost
inevitable, he took advantage of a temporary lull, and cried out in a
stentorian voice: "Three cheers for the Queen, and plenty of employment
to-morrow," a call which was immediately responded to in the best manner
that the weakened vocal powers of the multitude would admit of. The
threatening aspect of affairs was completely changed. Mr. G., in his own
familiar phraseology, said, "H----, we must get the biscuits, and we
will all then go home in good humour." No sooner said than done. The
stores were opened, the biscuits were distributed, the price was paid,
the effusion of blood was avoided, and this neighbourhood was saved from
what in the commencement threatened to be a most fearful calamity.[167]
It may be further mentioned that the people were four hours at the
entrance to the town before they finally retired, although repeatedly
called upon to do so by Mr. Galwey, who had resorted to the extreme
measure of reading the riot act. The people's constant reply was, that
they might as well be shot as not, as they had not tasted food for
twenty-four hours. Several of the neighbouring gentlemen took an active
part in the day's proceedings, as well as Mr. Galwey, more especially
Mr. M'Carthy Downing, the present worthy member for the county.
A body of men, numbering about five hundred, marched through Mallow, on
their way to the Workhouse, where they began to scale the walls, at the
same time exclaiming that they were starving and wanted food. Temporary
relief was distributed to them outside the Workhouse, upon which they
retired. It was reported that an attack had been made upon Lord Stuart
de Decies, on occasion of his attending the special sessions at
Clashmore, during which it was said that several persons cried out,
"Knock him down;" but his Lordship, in a letter to the newspapers, gave
a complete contradiction to this report. A deputation from the
magistrates of Clonakilty, consisting of the Rev. Mr. Townsend, the
rector, and John O'Hea, Esq., waited on the Lord Lieutenant on the 5th
of October. They stated they were deputed by the clergy of all
denominations, the magistrates, the gentry, and the people of the
district, to lay before Government the utter desolation caused by the
destruction of the potato crop; the poor having been for some time past
living on cabbage leaves and food of that description. They pressed upon
his Excellency the urgent necessity which existed for sending an
immediate supply of provisions into the locality. The magistrates, they
stated, had directed them to say that they would not be responsible for
the peace of the district, if such a supply as would check the
exorbitant price of meal were not sent forthwith. At Youghal two ships
laden with corn for exportation were stopped by the people, and for some
time prevented from sailing. Large numbers assembled at Macroom, with
the apparent intention of making an attack upon property; but, through
the advice and judicious conduct of Sir David Roche, they dispersed.
Horses engaged in carrying corn to the coast for exportation were
sometimes shot. In a few places, especially in Connaught, convoys of
meal and flour were seized and carried off.
The troops and police had a hard time of it. Detachments of either, or
both, had to be despatched to those places in which disturbances had
occurred, or were apprehended. Numerous arrests were made in every
instance.
A very alarming symptom in those assemblages was that they occurred
almost simultaneously, many of them even on the same day, although there
is no trace of this being the result of previous organization. At the
moment, the whole framework of society in Ireland was shaken and
disjointed, and, in fact, on the point of falling into utter confusion;
yet there were no manifestations of reckless wickedness--the demands of
the people did not go beyond the cry for food and employment, at fair
wages.
The Lord Lieutenant issued a proclamation against those food and labour
riots, calling on magistrates and others to assist in protecting "the
lawful trade in the articles of food." He also announced that the
Government works would be stopped, wherever those employed on them
manifested a disposition, "by violence, to obtain a higher rate of
wages," or to resist the arrangements made by the officers of the Board
of Works. His Excellency added, that he desired in an especial manner to
thank the ministers of religion, of all persuasions, for their useful
and exemplary conduct on the trying occasion of those riots.
The want of conveniently situated mill-power, to grind the Indian and
other corn purchased by the Government, caused them for some time great
anxiety. It was of the utmost importance to have the means of grinding
corn as near as possible to their depôts. Economy, convenience,
regularity, despatch, would be secured by it. In reply to inquiries on
the subject, it was found that the quantity of corn required for current
demands could not be ground within reach of those depôts at all. At
Broadhaven and Blacksod Bay, on the western coast, both in the midst of
a famished population, there was no available mill-power whatever. Even
where mills existed, a new difficulty arose. The policy of the
Government was to encourage, as much as possible, private enterprise in
supplying food for the people; and this private enterprise had the
mills, in many places, pre-engaged. For instance, such was the case at
the important stations of Westport and Limerick. Sir Randolph Routh,
pressed by this difficulty, wrote to the Treasury, to say he could not
altogether forego the Government claim to have, at least, some corn
ground at Westport. As to the mill-power at Limerick, it was so
uncertain, so dependant on the weather, and so very much required there
by the merchants, that he would make no demand upon it. Mr. Lister,
however, the official at Westport, dissuaded him from grinding any corn
even there. Quoting from a recent Treasury Minute, the passage about not
opening the depôts, while food could be obtained by the people from
private dealers, at reasonable prices, he continues: "To delay resorting
to this alternative, and in order to stimulate exertion, it is, I beg to
repeat, absolutely essential that the trade should have the full and
exclusive benefit of all the mill-power in its own locality."[168] In a
Treasury Minute of September the 8th, the head of the Commissariat is
informed that, considering the limited mill-power in the neighbourhood
of Westport, and how important it was that private merchants, who had
ordered consignments of Indian corn to that port, should have ready
means of grinding it, "My Lords" express their opinion, that the
supplies intended for the Government depôt at Westport should, if
possible, consist only of meal; and they promise to give directions
that not only that depôt, but all the Government depôts in Ireland,
should, as far as practicable, be replenished with that article.
Mr. Lister, in the letter just cited, encloses to Sir R. Routh, in a
tabular form, an account of the mill-power in Westport, Newport, and
along the coast of Mayo and Connemara. He informs his Chief that there
were, in the extent of country named, ten ordinary mills and twenty
"gig" mills in all, capable of grinding one hundred and seventy tons of
oatmeal per day. Five of those mills were fit to grind Indian corn, and
wheat could be ground at all, except the gig mills. The mill-power of
Galway and its vicinity, taking in Loughrea, Gort, Cong, and Tuam, was
not so considerable. In that extent there were thirteen mills, capable
of grinding about five hundred and twenty tons a-week; but some of these
were not available for Government business. All could grind Indian corn.
They were entirely dependant on the water-supply: when it failed, which
generally happened about the end of September, they had to cease
working.[169] Foreseeing the great difficulty of being able to command
sufficient mill-power near those places in which their depôts were, the
Treasury ordered a return of the mill-power at the chief government
victualling establishments on the English coast, as there would be no
difficulty in sending meal to Ireland from those places. It was found
that the combined available mill-power of Deptford, Portsmouth, and
Plymouth could turn out no more than two hundred and fifty quarters
a-day.[170] However, it was put in requisition as soon as possible. In
addition, Indian corn was ground at the King's mills, Rotherhithe, and
by some private mills engaged for the purpose. There were one thousand
tons of barley ground in Essex, and some even in the Channel Islands.
The mill-power at Deptford was, meantime, increased by an additional
engine. If anyone be curious enough to enquire, how the numberless sacks
necessary to carry all this meal and corn to Ireland were supplied, the
answer is--the Ordnance Department undertook that service, and supplied
as many sacks as were required, at 1s. 7-3/4d. each.
The Treasury also put themselves in communication with the authorities
in Malta, relative to its mill-power, and the facilities that might
exist there for purchasing grain in quantity. The Comptroller of the
Victualling Department informed them, that he had twenty pair of stones
worked by mules, and twelve pair by steam, and that many private mills
could be engaged for hire. All the mills, however, which were worked by
mules were required for the fleet, and could not be employed for any
other purpose. Referring to the enquiry as to the purchase of grain, he
reports that large quantities of wheat were generally kept on sale at
Malta. As to quality, he says, Odessa wheat is hard and good, but can
only be ground by "lava stones;" Egyptian inferior, the biscuit made
from it not being liked; oats were to be had in abundance; barley
scarcer, but both of good quality. Mr. Trevelyan, on the part of the
Treasury, writes back in these terms to Deputy Commissary-General
Ibbotson: "It is my wish that a considerable quantity of grain should be
purchased at once, consisting altogether of Indian corn, if it is to be
procured, or, if not, partly of Indian corn, and partly of barley, oats,
and _wheat of an inferior_, but wholesome quality."[171]
In compliance with this order, a purchase of five hundred salms, or
quarters, of Indian corn was at once made, and the mills were set to
work; but there were not such stocks of grain in Malta as reported at
first, and once again the Secretary of the Treasury expresses his
suspicions that the French had been making food purchases in the
Mediterranean.[172]
To enable the people to be, to some extent, independent of mill-power,
it occurred to the authorities to revive the use of the old Irish
hand-mill, or quern. This very ancient and rude contrivance had been
employed in many countries as well as our own; nor had it as yet fallen
into complete desuetude in parts of Scotland and the Shetland Islands.
Mr. Trevelyan had seen it with the army in India, and he hoped by
getting samples of various kinds of quern, to have one constructed that
would be of considerable importance in the present crisis, especially in
very out-of-the-way districts. In September, Lord Monteagle, who showed
much practical good sense and kindheartedness throughout the famine,
called the attention of the Treasury to this matter, and requested that
some steel mills and querns should be placed at the disposal of the
Commissariat officer on duty in his district; for, said he, the markets
are rising, and the people, by buying corn and grinding it for
themselves, will have food cheaper than if they bought meal; and
moreover they can thus occupy old people for whom no other employment
can be found. The quern, adds his lordship (alluding to Matt. c. 24, v.
41) is literally the Scripture mill--"two women shall be grinding at the
mill," etc. As to the steel mills, such as those used for grinding
coffee, they were considered too expensive to be brought into use; mills
of this description, specially tempered to grind Indian corn, not being
purchasable even in quantity at a less cost than from four to five
pounds each. Curiously enough, the Treasury could not obtain specimens
of the Scotch or Irish quern, so they procured an Indian one, from the
museum of the India House. They also got a French hand-mill, which was
considered superior at least to the Indian one. The attempt to revive
the use of the quern had no success except in a single instance. Captain
Mann, the officer in charge at Kilkee, induced a coast-guard there to
take to quern making. This man turned out querns at from ten to twelve
shillings each, and got a ready sale for them; Mr. Trevelyan recommended
them to all, but it would seem their sale was confined to the locality.
The Irish mill-power given above was considerable for the extent of the
district, but as the machinery was worked exclusively by water, the
mills, of course, were idle when the water supply failed. Towards the
end of September the mills in and about Westport could not, on this
account, execute the orders of the corn merchants, to say nothing of the
Government business. Captain Perceval, who had charge of the district,
under the Relief Commissariat Department, called attention to this fact,
and suggested that _whole_ corn should be issued from the depôt, which
could be cooked without being ground into meal. He says he had made a
trial of this plan, by steeping the grain at night, and boiling it next
morning; in this manner it made what he terms "a very nice podge," like
pease-pudding, and, to his taste, preferable to stirabout. The Treasury
called Sir R. Routh's attention to this suggestion, deeming it important
to be able to turn Indian corn into a palatable food, without being
either ground or bruised. Commissary-General Hewitson prepared a
memorandum on the subject, and put it in circulation, especially amongst
the Relief Committees. How far the recommendation was acted on does not
appear.[173]
FOOTNOTES:
[159] A deputation from the island of Achill had an interview with Sir
R. Routh, at his office, on Saturday night, October the 10th. The
deputation stated the peculiar circumstances of Achill--the total
destruction of the potato crop there, and the absence of grain crops in
any quantity, owing to the exposed position of the island. The principal
object of the deputation was to procure a supply of food from the
Government Stores, for which the inhabitants were ready to pay. Sir R.
Routh replied, that no supply of food of any consequence could be
expected before the latter end of November, and that even then it was
not his intention to recommend to the Government to sell the food at a
price lower than that demanded by the merchants, as it was essential to
the success of commerce that the mercantile interests should not be
interfered with. Rev. Mr. Monahan, one of the deputation, remarked that
the Government acted differently last year, and sold cheap for the
purpose of bringing down the markets. Sir R. Routh admitted the fact,
but regretted it, as it gave bad habits to the people, and led them to
expect the adoption of a similar course now, whereas the Government was
determined not to interfere with the merchants, but to act more in
accordance with the enlightened principles of political economy. Rev.
Mr. Monahan said he could not understand why the Government was to be
fettered by notions of political economy at such a crisis as this. Sir
R. Routh remarked that nothing was more essential to the welfare of a
country than strict adherence to free trade, and begged to assure the
rev. gentleman that, if he had read carefully and studied Burke, his
illustrious countryman, he would agree with him, Sir R. Routh.
This interview called forth much sarcastic commentary from the press.
"And so," writes the _Nation_, "there is a military gentleman in Dublin,
having the control of all public relief operations throughout the
country, whose answer to all deputations--whose sole fixed idea--whose
Bible and Articles-of-War--appears to be the 'strict rules' and 'the
enlightened principles of political economy.' People come to him from
the extreme west, and tell him there is in their parish neither potatoes
nor corn--that they have neither stores at home, nor trade from other
places; and ask him, as 'Commissary-General,' and public relief officer,
what he is to do with them? The epauletted philosopher strait replies
that trade must take its course (such was the word of command), that
'nothing was more essential to the welfare of a country' (so it was
written in the orderly book) 'than strict adherence to the principles of
free trade;' and that if the deputation doubted it, they might read
Burke." A leading morning journal remarked, that Sir R. Routh's reply to
the Achill deputation had not even the merit of originality; for there
was an Eastern story, in which it was related how a deputation of Sheiks
came, once upon a time, to the Calif, and announced the sad intelligence
that all their date trees had withered, and his subjects were perishing
throughout the region whence they had come. They demanded assistance:
but before the Calif could make any reply, an old Moollah, who stood by,
told them to return home _and read the Koran,--Freeman's Journal_.
[160] Commissariat Series, p. 6.
[161] _Ib._ p. 15.
[162] _Ib._ p. 16.
[163] Treasury Minute, Sept. 29. Commissariat Series, p. 63.
[164] Letter to Mr. Trevelyan, dated 19th Sept. Commissariat Series p.
80.
[165] Commissariat Series, p. 208.
[166] _Cork Examiner_.
[167] MS. Memoir of his experience during the Famine, kindly written for
the author by Daniel Donovan, Esq., M.D., Skibbereen.
[168] Commissariat Series, part I, p. 46.
[169] Commissariat Series, part I, p. 55.
[170] _Ib._ p. 50.
[171] Commissariat Series, p. 122.
[172] Mr. Trevelyan gives the following caution to the
Commissary-General at Malta: "I am told that the Egyptian wheat is mixed
with the mud of the Nile; and if such be the case, it will, of course,
be washed before it is ground."--Commissariat Series, p. 156.
_Salm_ was the word used at Malta for "quarter," being, probably, a
corruption of the Spanish _salma_, a ton.
[173] In some parts of Ireland there existed a custom of boiling new
wheat in this manner, but without steeping. It was merely intended as a
mess for children, in order to give them the first of the wheat at
reaping time, but was not continued as a mode of cooking it. This mess
was called in, Irish _gran bruitead_, (pron. _grawn breehe_), _boiled_
or _cooked grain_.