CHAPTER X._Women in the Printing Trades: A Sociological Study.

_WAGES._

We have succeeded in getting the authentic records of wages from about

eighteen firms in London, representing every branch of work in

connection with printing, binding, and despatch, and employing together

1,000 hands--more in busy, less in slack weeks. We have also less

detailed information about some half-dozen other firms.

These studied together and apart will no doubt give a correct general

impression of the amount and variability of wages paid, but

circumstances have made it very difficult to group them so as to give a

simple bird's-eye view of the whole.

These circumstances are partly due to the very great differences between

the class of work done by the various firms, and the difficulty of

tabulating the workers under a few definite heads; partly to the

difficulty of collecting records. Our investigators were recommended:--

i. To get complete wage sheets for as many weeks as their time and the

courtesy of the manager allowed, making the record as complete as

possible for 1899, and extending their researches back as far as the

books existed, choosing the wage sheets of one week in every month.

ii. To trace individual workers through as long a period as possible,

choosing workers who would best illustrate all the various conditions of

employment.

iii. To note any other information.

As regards i., we have the wage sheets for some 470 separate weeks, in

addition to the complete lists of two very small firms for one and four

years respectively; ii., the complete earnings of about 130 hands for

periods varying from one to fourteen years.

Owing to the fact that it was impossible to get the complete lists

through 1899 for many firms, and that the periods of slackness and full

work were not the same in different places, it proved very difficult to

handle the wage lists. At last the plan was adopted of getting complete

lists of one busy week, one typical week, and one slack week in 1899,

leaving the employers to choose the weeks, unless our investigators

could make a complete record. In the following analysis we have

endeavoured to bring out the salient features of the statistics of each

firm separately, and we have then grouped together all the typical

weeks, either chosen by the employer or selected by us from the series;

and it is believed that this grouping gives an adequate idea of the

wages at a time which the trade regards as ordinary.

The earnings of the 130 individual hands is a very valuable and, it may

be, almost unique record. Many interesting facts are brought out by

their study, and the records should have a place in sociological

literature apart from their interest in the present connection.

It has been necessary to make a technical use of averages in collating

and tabulating the material, and we offer the following explanations.

Where the word "average" is used without qualification, it is the

ordinary arithmetic average, obtained by dividing the total by the

number of payees. This is the best for general quantitative

measurements.

In most cases the median and quartiles and sometimes the dispersions

have been calculated. They may be explained as follows. Suppose the

wages of, say, sixty persons to be arranged in ascending order, _e.g._,

5_s._, 5_s._ 3_d._, 6_s._, 6_s._ 1_d._ ... 11_s._ 9_d._, 12_s._, 12_s._

6_d._, then the wage _halfway_ up the list is the _median_ wage; thus,

there are as many individuals above the median as below it. The wages

halfway from the ends to the median (_i.e._, fifteenth and forty-fifth

from bottom), are the _quartiles_, so that between the quartiles half

the wages are grouped. Thus, if the median and quartiles in the above

list were 7_s._ 6_d._, 10_s._ 6_d._, 12_s._ 6_d._, there would be

fifteen earning less than 7_s._ 6_d._, fifteen more than 12_s._ 6_d._,

thirty between 7_s._ 6_d._ and 12_s._ 6_d._, thirty below and thirty

above 10_s._ 6_d._ For a single measurement of the grouping of the wages

about their median, the distance between it and the quartiles is

significant: in this example 3_s._ and 2_s._ are these distances. The

more convenient way of stating this is to express half the distance

between the quartiles (2_s._ 6_d._) as a fraction of their average

10_s._, which is generally very nearly the median. This fraction (¼ or

·25) we call the _dispersion_, and it enables us to study the changing

character of a group in a very simple and efficient manner.

I.--STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE VARIOUS FIRMS.

FIRM A.

_Information obtained._--Wages of thirty-six hands tabulated week by

week through 1899.

Total amount paid in wages and total number employed each week,

1885-1899.

The whole wages sheet for one week in July and one week in November for

each of these fifteen years.

A. is a firm employing from fifty to one hundred and ten women and girls

as folders, stitchers and sewers. The number employed has changed

gradually; in 1885-7 there were about a hundred: from 1888 to 1894 the

number continually diminished to sixty, and after a brief spurt in the

autumn of 1894 to one hundred and fifteen and a rapid fall, has from

1895 to 1899 gradually risen from fifty to ninety.

Through the fifteen years which the statistics cover, 1885-1899, the

_annual_ average (roughly calculated) has fluctuated within the narrow

limits of 8_s._ 9_d._ and 10_s._ 6_d._; it was above 10_s._ in 1888,

1889, 1897, 1898, 1899; below 9_s._ in 1886 and 1894. This average

includes the learners. But when examined more minutely it is seen that

the fluctuations week by week and month by month are very rapid.

Briefly, there is a change of about 4_s._ in four-weekly cycles. Thus in

November, 1899, the averages for the five weeks were 10_s._, 11_s._

2_d._, 13_s._ 9_d._, 13_s._ 10_d._, 12_s._

In November the wages are much higher than in July, and evidently more

regular in character; the number earning near the average is also

greater. Thus the "dispersion" in November is generally about ·2 (the

quartiles and median being, for example, 12_s._, 15_s._, 18_s._); while

in July it is generally about ·4 (_e.g._, 3_s._ 9_d._, 6_s._ 3_d._,

8_s._ 9_d._). Again, it seems quite doubtful each year whether there

will be any July wages worth the name; the median in four weeks selected

each year in July changes from 2_s._ 11_d._ to 8_s._ 2_d._; while that

for selected weeks in November is from 10_s._ 8_d._ to 17_s._ 11_d._, a

smaller proportionate variation.

The majority are piece workers.

The following table shows the wages in two weeks (slack and busy) in

1899. The figures are probably typical of similar weeks in previous

years.

+-------------------+------------+------------+

| FIRM A. | July 14th, | Nov. 29th, |

| | 1899. | 1899. |

| From to | Numbers | Numbers |

| _s.__d._ _s.__d._ | earning. | earning. |

+-------------------+------------+------------+

| 24 0 26 0 | 1 | 2 |

| 22 0 24 0 | 0 | 5 |

| 20 0 22 0 | 1 | 12 |

| 18 0 20 0 | 0 | 9 |

| 16 0 18 0 | 2 | 5 |

| 14 0 16 0 | 4 | 14 |

| 12 0 14 0 | 5 | 10 |

| 10 0 12 0 | 4 | 11 |

| 8 0 10 0 | 11 | 1 |

| 6 0 8 0 | 17 | 2 |

| 4 0 6 0 | 11 | 2 |

| 2 0 4 0 | 6 | 2 |

| -- -- 2 0 | 1 | 1 |

+-------------------+------------+------------+

July 14th, 1899: Median, 7_s._;

Quartiles, 5_s._ 8_d._, 9_s._ 11_d._;

Dispersion, ·27.

Nov. 29th, 1899: Median, 14_s._ 6_d._;

Quartiles, 11_s._ 10_d._, 19_s._;

Dispersion, ·23.

+-------+-----------------------------------+

| FIRM | Average |

| A. | Wage. |

| +-----------+-----------+-----------+

| | 1st | 2nd | Year. |

| | Six | Six | |

+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| 1885 | 8 11 | 9 2 | 9 1 |

| 1886 | 8 4 | 9 5 | 8 10 |

| 1887 | 8 8 | 9 5 | 9 0 |

| 1888 | 8 0 | 10 7 | 9 4 |

| 1889 | 9 5 | 10 11 | 10 1 |

| 1890 | 10 4 | 10 10 | 10 6 |

| 1891 | 9 0 | 10 1 | 9 6 |

| 1892 | 8 4 | 9 8 | 9 0 |

| 1893 | 9 4 | 8 8 | 9 0 |

| 1894 | 8 2 | 9 8 | 8 11 |

| 1895 | 8 5 | 10 4 | 9 4 |

| 1896 | 9 5 | 10 0 | 9 8 |

| 1897 | 9 10 | 10 11 | 10 4 |

| 1898 | 10 6 | 10 1 | 10 4 |

| 1899 | 9 11 | 10 4 | 10 1 |

+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-------+-----------+-----------+

| FIRM | Median |

| A. | Wage. |

| +-----------+-----------+

| | Week | Week |

| | in | in |

| | July. | Nov. |

+-------+-----------+-----------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| 1885 | 8 2 | 15 2 |

| 1886 | 4 5 | 17 0 |

| 1887 | 5 5 | 14 7 |

| 1888 | 8 9 | 14 6 |

| 1889 | 9 3 | 17 2 |

| 1890 | 6 7 | 17 11 |

| 1891 | 6 6 | 16 10 |

| 1892 | 7 0 | 15 4 |

| 1893 | 6 2 | 10 8 |

| 1894 | 3 0 | 13 11 |

| 1895 | 5 4 | 14 4 |

| 1896 | 5 7 | 11 8 |

| 1897 | 6 7 | 15 0 |

| 1898 | 4 7 | 11 4 |

| 1899 | 7 0 | 13 3 |

+-------+-----------+-----------+

For the 15 years:

1st six months, 9_s._;

2nd six months, 10_s._;

year, 9_s._ 6_d._

FIRM B.

_Information obtained._--Wages of five hands tabulated week by week,

for years 1886-99, 1887-99, 1896-99, 1898-99, 1899, respectively.

Monthly earnings and half-yearly bonus for all regular hands, 1888-99.

Weekly wages of all hands throughout eighteen months in the years

1886-96 and 1899, three weeks in 1877 and two in 1898.

This firm employs folders, stitchers, and sewers.--The number of

permanent hands employed increased with slight variations from two in

1886 to twelve in 1899. Jobbers are occasionally employed, sometimes as

many as there are permanent hands.

Considering the regular hands and choosing each year a wage earner near

the median for that year, we have the following table.

+--------+-----------+-----------+------------------+

+--------+-----------+-----------+------------------+

| | £ _s._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| 1887 | 18 0 (a) | 10 6 | 14 3 |

| 1888 | 39 6 | 21 8 | 15 6 |

| 1889 | 38 16 | 20 4 | 15 4 |

| 1890 | 36 6 | 16 6 | 14 4 |

| 1891 | 39 0 | 18 9 | 15 4 |

| 1892 | 39 12 | 20 0 | 15 7 |

| 1893 | 38 8 | 24 0 | 15 2 |

| 1894 | 40 3 | 15 0 | 15 9 |

| 1895 | 37 10 | 19 0 | 14 10 |

| 1896 | 40 7 | 20 0 | 15 9 |

| 1897 | 37 11 | 19 6 | 14 10 |

| 1898 | 40 7 | 20 0 | 15 11 |

| 1899 | 29 11 (b) | 14 9 | 15 6 |

+--------+-----------------------+------------------+

(a) half-year

(b) 9 months

In a typical week, January 5th-12th, 1899, the wages were:

Full workers, average, 16_s._ 2_d._

1 at 21_s._

5 between 16_s._ and 17_s._

4 " 15_s._ and 16_s._

1 at 14_s._ 10_d._

1 " 12_s._ 9_d._

Learners in their third year, 2 at 10_s._ 6_d._

" " second " 1 " 5_s._

9 jobbers, average 5_s._ 5_d._

1 at 7_s._ 2_d._

4 between 5_s._ and 7_s._

4 less than 5_s._

Average, for all except learners, 11_s._ 7_d._

FIRM C.

_Information obtained._--Complete list of wages for first week in every

month, from January, 1897, to February, 1900.

Full lists in five weeks described as "slack," "busy," or "typical."

The wages of fifteen hands tabulated, most of them throughout 1897-99.

The work is divided into four departments:--

Binders, from twenty-nine to thirty-eight hands. The median wage

fluctuated in the three years between 11_s._ and 17_s._, excluding

holiday weeks; 13_s._ is the general average. About six are on time

wages.

In the warehouse, where Government folding is done, five hands are

employed. The median wage of this group fluctuated in 1897 between

16_s._ and 27_s._, being low at the end of 1897. In 1898 and 1899 it was

a little steadier, averaging about 21_s._ (piece rates).

In the envelope room, where folding and relief stamping is done, seven

to thirteen hands are employed. The median wage is very variable,

fluctuating from 9_s._ to 16_s._, and averaging about 12_s._, chiefly

time wages.

Machine ruling is done by from four to eleven girls. Their median wage

was nearly steady at 6_s._ in 1897 and 1898, and rose regularly to 8_s._

in 1899. Nominally these were time wages.

The following table shows detailed wages in five selected weeks

(learners excluded).

+------------------+--------------------------+-------+---------+

| +--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+

| | Nov., | Feb., | Nov., | Dec., | March, |

| | 1898. | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+

| Binders-- | No. | No. | No. | No. | No. |

| Above 20_s._ | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 |

| 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 0 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 5 | 3 | 9 | 13 | 1 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 7 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 0 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 7 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 2 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 8 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 14 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 3 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 2 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+

| 8_s._ to 9_s._ | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 0 |

| 7_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 6_s._ " 7_s._ | 1 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 |

| 5_s._ " 6_s._ | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 |

| 4_s._ " 5_s._ | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 |

| 3_s._ " 4_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |

| 2_s._ " 3_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+

| Warehouse | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |

| Earnings. | 22 4 | 24 1 | 27 9 | 28 0 | 21 6 |

| | 22 1 | 24 1 | 26 10 | 26 10 | 20 8 |

| | 22 1 | 23 3 | 26 4 | 26 3 | 20 8 |

| | 20 5 | 22 1 | 24 6 | 24 9 | 19 3 |

| | 12 7 | 20 10 | 11 3 | 24 0 | 15 6 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

FIRM D.

_Information obtained._--Complete lists of wages in all weeks in 1899.

Wages of thirty-one hands tabulated week by week through 1899.

The lists are made up in five divisions.

1. Sixty-five to seventy-eight employed in sewing, folding and collating

(of whom eleven to seventeen are learners). Excluding Bank Holiday weeks

and learners, the average wage fluctuates only between 10_s._ and 13_s._

9_d._ Average for 1st half, 12_s._; 2nd half, 11_s._ 6_d._; year, 11_s._

9_d._

2. Eighty to ninety (including sixteen to twenty-three learners),

collating and sewing. Average from 10_s._ 7_d._ to 16_s._ 3_d._ Average

for 1st half, 13_s._ 5_d._; 2nd half, 13_s._ 2_d._; year, 13_s._ 3_d._

3. Eighty-three to ninety-two (including thirteen to thirty learners),

folding. Average from 10_s._ 6_d._ to 16_s._ 5_d._ Average for 1st half,

13_s._; 2nd half, 13_s._; year, 13_s._

4. Layers-on, about six. Average fluctuates from 12_s._ to 24_s._ 8_d._;

1st half, 15_s._ 7_d._; 2nd half, 16_s._ 11_d._; year, 16_s._ 3_d._

5. Lookers-over, four or six. Fluctuates from 11_s._ 8_d._ to 15_s._

10_d._ Average for year, 13_s._ 8_d._

The following table shows detailed wages in five selected weeks.

+------------------+-----------------+-----------------+--------+

| +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | Feb. | Feb. | June | Oct. | Dec. |

| | 24th, | 23rd, | 30th, | 13th, | 8th, |

| | 1899. | 1900. | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| Above 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 |

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 5 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 16 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 6 | 3 | 11 | 10 | 33 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 23 | 20 | 26 | 40 | 36 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 45 | 58 | 51 | 52 | 59 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 40 | 44 | 45 | 38 | 17 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 35 | 32 | 26 | 24 | 19 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 24 | 19 | 15 | 24 | 17 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 15 | 15 | 6 | 18 | 7 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 9 | 9 | 4 | 5 | 0 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |

| Median | 12 9 | 13 4 | 14 0 | 13 8 | 14 10 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| Quartiles | 15 0 | 14 9 | 15 6 | 16 0 | 18 0 |

| | 10 0 | 10 4 | 11 4 | 10 6 | 13 4 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| Dispersion | ·20 | ·17 | ·18 | ·20 | ·15 |

+------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

FIRM E.

_Information obtained._--Complete wage list for one week each month from

August, 1894, to December, 1899.

Wages of eight hands tabulated, five through the whole period.

Folding, stitching and sewing are done. Number employed was nearly

regular, but increased from forty to sixty, and fell back to fifty.

The median fluctuates rapidly and greatly, but shows a gradual rise from

13_s._ (with fluctuations down to 8_s._ and up to 16_s._) to 16_s._

(with fluctuations down to 10_s._ and up to 19_s._). The "dispersion"

has changed little, and was about ·15.

The following weeks (table p. 121) show the general run of wages.

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| FIRM E. | Feb. | July, | Nov. | Feb. |

| | 1895. | 1895. | 1895. | 1899. |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Above 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 1 | 5 | 3 | 0 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 4 | 10 | 10 | 3 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 8 | 17 | 18 | 4 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 13 | 8 | 14 | 12 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 9 | 7 | 7 | 19 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 4 | 5 | 2 | 10 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |

| Median | 11 4 | 12 7 | 12 5 | 9 10 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Quartiles | 12 11 | 14 7 | 14 4 | 10 11 |

| | 9 8 | 10 8 | 10 7 | 8 4 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Dispersion | ·14 | ·16 | ·14 | ·13 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | Week, |

| | | | | 1900. |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Above 24_s._ | 0 | 4 | 1 | 0 |

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 5 | 9 | 4 | 1 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 9 | 9 | 13 | 2 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 12 | 8 | 7 | 0 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 7 | 10 | 9 | 3 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 9 | 6 | 7 | 9 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 3 | 0 | 4 | 12 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 0 | 1 | 3 | 13 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | 10 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |

| Median | 16 5 | 17 8 | 16 3 | 10 3 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Quartiles | 18 7 | 20 1 | 18 10 | 12 0 |

| | 13 5 | 15 5 | 13 9 | 8 4 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Dispersion | ·16 | ·13 | ·16 | ·17 |

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

FIRM F.

_Information obtained._--Wages for all hands each week in 1896, and

until March, 1900. So few are employed that no average can be given, and

the wages are treated later under individual hands.

Also a small bookbinding firm.

1. A quick folder; wages generally from 12_s._ to 16_s._, but

fluctuations down to 5_s._ and up to 20_s._

2. A quick sewer; very fluctuating, about 10_s._

3. A collator at 3¼_d._ per hour; 12_s._, with fluctuations.

FIRM G.

_Information obtained._--List of wages paid in 2nd week in each month,

1896, February, 1900, and four other weeks.

Wages of fourteen hands; six throughout the period.

All Departments.

_Weeks Selected at Beginning and End of Data._

+------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

| FIRM G. | 1896. |

| +--------------+--------------+--------------+

| | Feb. | July | Nov. |

| | 8th. | 11th. | 14th. |

| +----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+

| | -- | Machine | -- | Machine | -- | Machine |

+------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+

| Above 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 0 |

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 |

| 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 4 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 7 | 0 |

| 16_s._ to 18_s._ | 5 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 9 | 0 |

| 14_s._ to 16_s._ | 7 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 9 | 0 |

| 12_s._ to 14_s._ | 3 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 6 | 0 |

| 10_s._ to 12_s._ | 10 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 8_s._ to 10_s._ | 1 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 4 | 0 |

| 6_s._ to 8_s._ | 0 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 0 | 2 |

| 4_s._ to 6_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 |

| 2_s._ to 4_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+

| (Apprentices excluded.) |

+------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

| Median (without | 14s. | -- | 15s. | -- | 16s. | -- |

| rulers). | 8d. | | | | 6d. | |

+------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

| FIRM G. | 1899. |

| +--------------+--------------+--------------+

| | July | Nov. | Dec. |

| | 8th. | 11th. | 9th. |

| +--------------+----+---------+----+---------+

| | -- | Machine | -- | Machine | -- | Machine |

+------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+

| Above 24_s._ | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 |

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 5 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 0 |

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 10 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 12 | 0 |

| 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 6 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 11 | 0 |

| 16_s._ to 18_s._ | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 3 | 0 |

| 14_s._ to 16_s._ | 2 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 8 | 0 |

| 12_s._ to 14_s._ | 9 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 8 | 0 |

| 10_s._ to 12_s._ | 13 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 8_s._ to 10_s._ | 3 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 7 | 3 |

| 6_s._ to 8_s._ | 1 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 7 |

| 4_s._ to 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 2_s._ to 4_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+

| (Apprentices excluded.) |

+------------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+

| Median (without | 14s. | -- | 16s. | -- | 18s. | |

| rulers). | | | 6d. | | 2d. | |

+------------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+

_Machine Ruling._--Four to nine hands, generally seven to nine. Time

wages. Median moves slowly and steadily from 6_s._ to 7_s._ during

1896-99.

_Stamping._--Four, increasing to twelve hands, sometimes sixteen. The

low wages are time (presumably learners); the rest piece. Time hands are

excluded in the medians here, and in binding and despatch. Median is

sometimes fluctuating, but not far from 12_s._ or 13_s._ for long.

_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._

1896 1st half-year 14 3 2nd half-year 11 0

1897 " " 13 0 " " 13 0

1898 " " 12 4 " " 11 11

1899 " " 12 6 " " 11 11

1900 " " 14 2 (two months)

_Binding room_, including despatch, till middle of 1897, when numbers

fell from forty to twenty. The despatch room, beginning with twenty,

increased to thirty hands.

Binding--median varies from 11_s._ to 17_s._

_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._

1896 1st half-year 14 1 2nd half-year 16 1

1897 " " 14 8 " " 15 4

1898 " " 15 0 " " 14 4

1899 " " 14 2 " " 13 11

1900 " " 14 2 (two months)

Despatch--median steadier and rising.

_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._

1897 1st half-year -- -- 2nd half-year 15 0

1898 " " 17 6 " " 18 11

1899 " " 19 4 " " 20 9

1900 " " 16 3 (two months)

FIRM H.

_Information obtained._--Wage list, 3rd week in every month, 1895-98.

Every week in 1899, and eight special weeks. Wages of three hands

tabulated throughout period.

Work done.--Printers' folding, sewing, magazines. No bookbinding.

Twenty-four to thirty-eight hands. Median very variable; _e.g._, July,

1899, 14_s._ 2_d._, 16_s._ 6_d._, 13_s._ 7_d._, 15_s._ 10_d._

_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._

1895 1st half-year 11 5 2nd half-year 13 3

1896 " " 13 10 " " 12 4

1897 " " 12 11 " " 10 2

1898 " " 11 5 " " 16 0

1899 " " 13 1 " " 14 1

General trend to 13_s._

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| FIRM | Feb. | Aug. | Jan. | March | Oct. | Aug. | Sept. | Apr. |

| H. | 15th | 16th | 24th | 9th | 7th | 25th | 15th | 6th |

| | 1895 | 1895 | 1898 | 1898 | 1898 | 1899 | 1899 | 1900 |

| | | | (a) | (b) | (c) | (a) | (c) | (b) |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| 23s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 22s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 20s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 21s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| 19s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 |

| 18s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 |

| 17s. | 3 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 5 | 4 |

| 16s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 2 |

| 15s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| 14s. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 0 | 5 | 1 |

| 13s. | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 |

| 12s. | 4 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 1 |

| 11s. | 6 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 10s. | 4 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| 9s. | 4 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 0 |

| 8s. | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 |

| 7s. | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| 6s. | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| 5s. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| | | | | (d) | | | | |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| 4s. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| 3s. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

| Me- | 11s. | 9s. | 10s. | 15s. | 17s. | 9s. | 14s. | 17s. |

| dian | | 4d. | 3d. | 6d. | | 3d. | 7d. | 2d. |

+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+

(a) Slack.

(b) Typical.

(d) 3 learners

FIRM I.

Publishers and bookbinders. No printers' folding.

_Information obtained._--Wage lists: 2nd week in each month, October,

1898, to March, 1900. Total wages every week to March, 1900. Wages of

nine hands tabulated throughout.

+----+-------------+------+-----------------------------+------+

| FIRM |

+ I. +-------------+------+-----------------------------+------+

| | Median | Quarterly Averages |

| | varies | (excluding Bank Holiday). |

| | from +------+-----------------------------+------+

| | _s._ _d._ | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 |

+----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+

| C. | 11 0 - 21 4 | 20 2 | 19 3 | 16 9 | 13 4 | 20 8 | 17 3 |

+----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+

| S. | 7 0 - 15 6 | 14 0 | 12 8 | 9 10 | 8 6 | 13 6 | 13 0 |

+----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+

| F. | 8 3 - 14 2 | 13 2 | 13 0 | 8 11 | 10 0 | 12 2 | 10 5 |

+----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+

| T. | 13 0 - 16 4 | 15 8 | 15 11 | 13 6 | 13 4 | 15 0 | 14 0 |

+----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+

48 hours: no record of overtime.

C. = Collators (18 to 23)

S. = Sewers (27 to 40)

F. = Folders (53 to 91)

T. = Time workers putting in plates (17 to 22)

+------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+

| FIRM I. | Nov. | March | July | Nov. | Feb. |

| | 11th | 10th | 14th | 10th | 9th |

| | 1898 | 1899 | 1899 | 1899 | 1900 |

+------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+

| 32_s._ to 34_s._ | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 |

| 30_s._ " 32_s._ | 1 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 |

| 28_s._ " 30_s._ | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 |

| 26_s._ " 28_s._ | 1 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 24_s._ " 26_s._ | 5 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 1 |

| 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 2 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 2 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 11 | 9 | 1 | 10 | 3 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 14 | 16 | 0 | 11 | 3 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 20 | 16 | 2 | 14 | 14 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 25 | 22 | 10 | 13 | 15 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 22 | 28 | 18 | 30 | 32 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 24 | 32 | 20 | 25 | 24 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 14 | 17 | 27 | 6 | 15 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 7 | 5 | 30 | 4 | 11 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 3 | 3 | 18 | 1 | 5 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 4 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 |

| 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+

The total wage bill was:--

1898. £ 1899. £ 1899. £ 1900. £

Oct. 462 Jan. 428 July 245 Jan. 330

Nov. 483 Feb. 471 Aug. 263 Feb. 346

Dec. 430 March 569(a) Sept. 502(a) March 408(a)

-- April 305 Oct. 417 --

-- May 302 Nov. 403 --

-- June 383(a) Dec. 420(a) --

(a) Five weeks.

Total in 4th quarter, 1898 1375

" 1st " 1899 1468

" 2nd " " 990

" 3rd " " 1010

" 4th " " 1240

" 1st " 1900 1084

FIRM J.

A firm undertaking magazine work. _Information obtained._--General

statement of ordinary wages. Wages in three selected weeks.

Bookfolding, stitching, wrapping, etc. (magazine work). Work is regular

for three weeks; none in the fourth.

+------------------+-------+---------+------------------+--------+

| FIRM J. | Wages of all Employed. |

+ +-------+---------+------------------+--------+

| | (a) | (b) | | (c) |

+------------------+-------+---------+--+---------------+--------+

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 0 | 1 | 34_s._ to 36_s._ | 2 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 0 | 0 | 32_s._ " 34_s._ | 0 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 0 | 2 | 30_s._ " 32_s._ | 3 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 0 | 4 | 28_s._ " 30_s._ | 0 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 0 | 4 | 26_s._ " 28_s._ | 3 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 0 | 1 | 24_s._ " 26_s._ | 1 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 3 | 1 | 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 0 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 4 | 1 | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 3 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 6 | 0 | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 1 |

+------------------+-------+---------+------------------+--------+

| | s. d. | s. d. | | s. d. |

| Median | 8 0 | 15 9 | -- | 26 4 |

| Average | 8 4 | 15 7 | -- | 25 11 |

+------------------+-------+---------+------------------+--------+

(a) Slack Week, Feb. 8th, 1901.

(b) Typical Week, Feb. 15th, 1901.

FIRM K.

A publisher's bookbinder. _Information obtained._--Wage sheet for three

selected weeks in 1898-9.

A week as slack as the slack week here given, was only experienced two

or three times.

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

| | Av. | Av. | Av. |

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

| Folders | 46 13 1 | 55 15 8 | 43 8 7 |

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

| Sewing | 8 22 2 | 8 31 1 | 8 11 7 |

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

| Collators | 3 26 10 | 3 27 2 | 5 14 5 |

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

| Layers-on | 4 14 0 | 4 19 7 | 3 16 11 |

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

| Learners | 2 4 1½ | 2 8 7 | 2 3 7 |

+------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

| 36_s._ to 38_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| 34_s._ " 36_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 |

| 32_s._ " 34_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 30_s._ " 32_s._ | 0 | 7 | 1 |

| 28_s._ " 30_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 |

| 26_s._ " 28_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 |

| 24_s._ " 26_s._ | 0 | 1 | 1 |

| 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 1 | 2 | 0 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 9 | 4 | 0 |

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

| 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 3 | 13 | 2 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 6 | 8 | 3 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 7 | 14 | 4 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 11 | 10 | 2 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 13 | 7 | 15 |

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

| 8_s._ to 10_s._ | 3 | 1 | 16 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 0 | 9 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 1 | 0 | 4 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 1 | 0 | 2 |

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| Median | 13 3 | 16 10 | 9 6 |

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

| Quartiles | 19 1 | 19 10½ | 11 1 |

| | 11 1 | 13 10½ | 7 10 |

+-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+

FIRM L.

Compositors. _Information obtained_: Complete wages of the six hands

employed through 1900.

No. 1 has been in the trade two and a half years. In 1900 she was away

seven weeks (three, slack trade; two, holidays; two, ill); in the

remaining forty-five weeks her wages fluctuated between 5_s._ and 18_s._

3_d._, reached a total of £28 15_s._ 9_d._, making an average of 11_s._

1_d._ weekly through the year, or 12_s._ 7_d._ per week employed.

No. 2 lost four weeks in 1900 through slack trade. In the remaining

forty-eight weeks her wages fluctuated between 5_s._ 6_d._ and 23_s._;

reached a total of £40 4_s._ 11_d._, making an average of 15_s._ 6_d._

weekly through the year.

No. 3 made £52 9_s._, working fifty-one weeks at £1 per week, making

29_s._ overtime, and taking one week's holiday; average, 20_s._ 2_d._

weekly for the year.

No. 4 made £37 16_s._ in forty-four weeks, lost five weeks through

slack trade, and took three weeks' holiday; average, 14_s._ 6_d._ weekly

for the year.

No. 5 made £39 1_s._ 9_d._ in forty-six weeks, lost four weeks through

slack trade, was ill one week and took one week's holiday; average,

15_s._ weekly for the year.

No. 6 made £22 1_s._ 6_d._ in forty-eight weeks, lost three weeks

through slack trade, was ill for one week. She was unsuccessful in her

work, and only averaged 8_s._ 4_d._ a week through the year.

FIRM M.

A press warehouse. _Information obtained._--Wage list in three selected

weeks.

+-----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

| | Feb. | Nov. | July |

| | 9th, | 24th, | 21st, |

| | 1900. | 1899. | 1899. |

+-----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

| Time workers | 36 15 0 | 37 15 6 | 31 13 5 |

| Folders (piece) | 41 13 3 | 50 14 5 | 31 11 10 |

| Sewers " | 7 14 7 | 7 13 6 | 12 9 1 |

| Apprentices | 11 4 1 | 11 4 2 | 5 4 4 |

+-----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

| FIRM M. | Feb. | Nov. | July |

| | 9th, | 24th, | 21st, |

| | 1900. | 1899. | 1899. |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

| Above 26_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 |

| 24_s._ to 26_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 |

| 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 1 | 5 | 2 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 3 | 6 | 1 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 14 | 19 | 1 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 25 | 22 | 19 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 16 | 18 | 20 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 12 | 15 | 15 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 8 | 4 | 3 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 3 | 3 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 5 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 1 | 0 | 4 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

| Median | 14 3 | 14 9 | 12 9 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

| Quartiles | 15 9 | 17 0 | 14 9 |

| | 10 9 | 12 2 | 11 1 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

| Dispersion | ·19 | ·16 | ·14 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+

(Excluding Apprentices.)

FIRM N.

Bookbinders. _Information obtained._--Complete wage sheets for three

selected weeks. Folders, piece; collators, time.

+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

| FIRM N. | Dec. | Oct. | Aug. |

| | 15th, | 6th, | 18th, |

| | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. |

+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

| Collators | 18 15 7 | 17 11 3 | 18 11 0 |

| Folders | 20 13 9 | 12 11 10 | 9 9 0 |

| Learners | 16 4 6 | 5 4 1 | 7 2 9 |

+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

1 Sewing Machinist, 23_s._ 9_d._

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| FIRM N. | Dec. | Oct. | Aug. |

| | 15th, | 6th, | 18th, |

| | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 4 | 1 | 0 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 3 | 1 | 1 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 10 | 1 | 0 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 10 | 6 | 3 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 1 | 10 | 5 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 4 | 6 | 10 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 2 | 3 | 1 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 2 | 1 | 3 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 1 | 3 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 2 | 0 | 1 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| Median | 15 8 | 12 9 | 11 3 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Quartiles | 16 6 | 14 6 | 12 9 |

| | 11 10 | 11 0 | 8 0 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Dispersion | ·16 | ·16 | ·21 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

(Excluding Learners.)

FIRM O.

_Information obtained._--Wage lists in three selected weeks, probably in

first half of 1900. Five hands.

+-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+

+-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| Folder | 17 6 | 20 0 | 12 6 |

| Stitcher | 21 0 | 26 0 | 15 0 |

| Sewer | 12 0 | 15 0 | 8 6 |

| Laying-on | 12 0 | 15 0 | 11 0 |

| Learner | 5 0 | 5 0 | 5 0 |

+-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+

FIRM P.

_Information obtained._--Wage lists in three selected weeks. Wages of

twelve selected workers in these weeks.

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| FIRM P. | Aug. | Dec. | Dec. |

| | 11th, | 15th, | 22nd, |

| | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| | 1 at | 1 at | 1 at |

| | 27_s._ | 28_s._ | 30_s._ |

| | 4_d._ | 2_d._ | 8_d._ |

| | | | |

| Above 24_s._ | 0 | 2 | 0 |

| 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 2 |

| 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 0 | 1 | 12 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 0 | 13 | 24 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 8 | 23 | 21 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 17 | 30 | 21 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 26 | 20 | 13 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 24 | 9 | 9 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 10 | 7 | 1 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 0 | 1 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 |

| | -- | --- | --- |

| | 90 | 106 | 105 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

| Median | 15 0 | 15 3 | 16 8 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Quartiles | 14 0 | 17 2 | 19 2 |

| | 10 8 | 13 0 | 14 3 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Dispersion | ·11 | ·14 | ·15 |

+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

FIRM Q.

_Information obtained._--Wage lists in eleven selected weeks. Work

done--machine ruling in its higher branches, usually done by men; also

paging and numbering (see table, p. 131).

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| FIRM Q. | 1890. | 1891. | 1897. |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 3 | 3 | 0 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 2 | 3 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 9 | 6 | 4 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 9 | 8 | 11 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 15 | 14 | 12 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 5 | 7 | 6 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 6 | 9 | 6 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 6 | 8 | 10 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 8 | 8 | 6 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 5 | 6 | 1 |

| 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | 68 | 71 | 59 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Median | 12 6 | 11 3 | 12 2 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Quartiles | 15 4 | 14 3 | 14 6 |

| | 7 4 | 7 0 | 7 7 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Dispersion | ·3 | ·3 | ·3 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| FIRM Q. | 1897. | 1898. |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 0 | 3 | 0 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 4 | 2 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 6 | 5 | 7 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 10 | 8 | 10 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 12 | 13 | 12 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 6 | 4 | 5 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 7 | 8 | 8 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 7 | 4 | 4 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 3 | 2 | 4 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 3 | 5 | 6 |

| 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | 56 | 56 | 58 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | | | |

| Median | 12 4 | 12 10 | 12 4 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Quartiles | 14 9 | 15 6 | 15 0 |

| | 8 2 | 8 9 | 8 0 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Dispersion | ·3 | ·28 | ·3 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| FIRM Q. | 1899. |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 4 | 3 | 2 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 6 | 8 | 1 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 10 | 6 | 4 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 11 | 9 | 6 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 6 | 10 | 10 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 3 | 5 | 8 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 4 | 5 | 6 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 7 | 9 | 4 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 7 | 2 | 8 |

| 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | 58 | 57 | 50 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Median | 12 0 | 11 4 | 9 6 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Quartiles | 15 0 | 15 0 | 13 0 |

| | 6 0 | 7 3 | 6 0 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Dispersion | ·4 | ·35 | ·37 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| FIRM Q. | 1899. |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| | Nov. 10th. | Dec. 8th. |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 0 | 1 |

| 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 2 |

| 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 10 | 9 |

| 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 9 | 10 |

| 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 7 | 10 |

| 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 5 | 7 |

| 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 7 | 4 |

| 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 5 | 6 |

| 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 6 | 14 |

| 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 8 | 1 |

| 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| | 59 | 64 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| Median | 10 0 | 12 0 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| Quartiles | 15 4 | 15 2 |

| | 6 4 | 6 4 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

| Dispersion | ·41 | ·35 |

+------------------+------------+-----------+

* * * * *

Additional information from other firms, 1900-1901:--

FIRM R. Bookbinders. Folders and sewers, 14_s._, 15_s._; head banders,

15_s._; forty-eight hours weekly all the year.

FIRM S. Eleven numberers; median, 17_s._ 8_d._

FIRM T. Printing works. Piece workers make 5_d._ an hour; time workers,

5½_d._ Four compositors: average, busy week, 23_s._ 2_d._; typical,

19_s._ 11_d._; slack, 18_s._ 9_d._

FIRM U. Vellum sewers, 12_s._ to 13_s._ all the year round; numerical

printers, average week, 15_s._ to 16_s._; slack week, 10_s._

FIRM V.

No. Median. Quartiles.

Folders (piece work): _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._

Slack week 38 12 1 9 6 16 0

Typical week 44 15 6 15 6 20 9

Busy week 38 20 1 17 10 20 0

Counters

(time workers). Stitchers. 1 Packer.

No. Median. No. Median.

_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._

Slack Week 16 10 0 9 9 9 19 1

Typical Week 14 11 6 9 11 7 20 0

Busy week 14 11 7 9 11 2 20 0

In this case there is very little to choose between the weeks entered as

"typical" and "busy" by the employer.

FIRM W.

Two compositors make, at 5½_d._ an hour, 22_s._ or 23_s._ nearly every

week in the year.

* * * * *

The inclusion of the eighty-four workers, of whom we have sufficient

details in firms R. to W., would affect the figures on p. 133 below very

slightly, raising the median and upper quartile 2_d._, and increasing

the proportion between 18_s._ and 22_s._ to 13½ per cent. of the whole

instead of 12¼ per cent.

II.--GENERAL GROUPING OF WAGES.

The material is not sufficiently complete or homogeneous to allow any

complete account of wages at any date; but the tables now given

(supplemented occasionally by the raw material) allow us to offer an

estimate of the grouping in a typical week of 1899, supposing each firm

to be paying typical wages in one and the same week. This method is

rough, and will not support any fine calculations to be based on it; but

at the same time it affords a view, sufficiently accurate for most

purposes, of the general trend and distribution of wages. All classes of

workers, except apprentices and learners, are included.

AN ESTIMATE OF WAGES IN A TYPICAL WEEK IN 1899 OF 1,001 WORKERS IN

ALL BRANCHES.

Less 2_s._ 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._

than to to to to to

2_s._ 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ 12_s._

1 17 41 68 92 131

12_s._ 14_s._ 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ Above

to to to to to to 24_s._

14_s._ 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ 24_s._

174 177 131 72 55 17 25

Of those above 24_s._:

24_s._ 26_s._ 28_s._ 30_s._ 32_s._ 36_s._

to to to to to to

26_s._ 28_s._ 30_s._ 32_s._ 34_s._ 38_s._

11 6 4 1 2 1

These figures are so similar in many respects to those which generally

arise when a large group of trades are massed together, that they afford

strong evidence that they make a fair sample.

Remembering the roughness of the hypothesis, and not assuming that these

wages multiplied by fifty-two give annual earnings, we find, in a week

which the employers regard as typical, the following: Average, 13_s._

8_d._; median, 13_s._ 8_d._; quartiles, 10_s._ 6_d._, 16_s._ 10_d._;

dispersion .23. Thus, half the wage earners obtain between 10_s._ 6_d._

and 16_s._ 10_d._; and 80 per cent. obtain from 7_s._ 4_d._ to 20_s._

There is some doubt as to who are and who should properly be included at

both ends of the series. At the lower end, no doubt, some learners have

been included, and some piece workers excluded, for in a typical week

there would certainly be some cases where the wages were abnormally low.

On the other hand, in the large number above 24_s._, no doubt many above

the status of the ordinary worker are included, and some are definitely

stated to be forewomen.

If we omit all above 24_s._, we have: Average, 13_s._ 4_d._; median,

13_s._ 7_d._; quartiles, 10_s._ 5_d._, 16_s._ 6_d._

The difference in these averages is not significant.

The table is best written in percentage.

2_s._ 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ 12_s._

to to to to to to

4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ 12_s._ 14_s._

2 4 7 9 13 17

14_s._ 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._

to to to to to Above

16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ 24_s._ 24_s._

18 13 7 5½ 2 2½ per cent. earning.

Note, that if these wages were repeated week by week through the year

the average worker would make about £35.

III.--CHANGE OF WAGES BETWEEN 1885 AND 1900.

Where wages are continually fluctuating week by week and month by month,

while, in addition, there are depressions and inflations affecting

various groups of workers for one or two years, it is a matter of very

great statistical difficulty to determine whether wages have on the

whole been stationary, rising, or falling. Even if we had a complete

account year by year these difficulties would remain; but as it is we

are dependent on the records of only seven firms--good, bad, or

indifferent--since 1885, 1887, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898,

respectively. No amount of further research would make such records more

than very insufficient, for it is very rarely that the figures are

preserved for any length of time. What changes there are may very likely

be due to peculiarities of a particular firm, to its success, or to

changes in character of work, and only in case of agreement in all the

figures could we generalise. Our conclusions, then, will be chiefly

negative.

There is no sufficient evidence that wages in 1899 are above or below

wages about 1895, 1890 or 1885; the only difference appears to be due to

individual busy or slack years.

In the two cases (C. and G.) where machine rulers are separated their

wages have risen from 6_s._ to 8_s._ in 1897-99.

As regards the years 1896-99, there is no general agreement as to any

two years, but the figures are consistent with a slight general

improvement from 1895 to 1900.

There is nothing in the figures to show that the course of wages in Firm

A. given above is different from that in the trade in general, while

there is just a little evidence that it is the same. We therefore repeat

the annual average wage in that firm:--

1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889.

9_s._ 1_d._ 8_s._ 10_d._ 9_s._ 9_s._ 4_d._ 10_s._ 1_d._

1890. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1894. 1895.

10_s._ 6_d._ 9_s._ 6_d._ 9_s._ 8_s._ 11_d._ 9_s._ 4_d._

1896. 1897-8. 1899.

9_s._ 8_d._ 10_s._ 4_d._ 10_s._ 1_d._

IV.--WAGES IN DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS.

The occupations are so involved, and the arrangements differ so much

from firm to firm, that it is impracticable to state a definite wage for

any occupation, and the wages are so diverse that it is useless to

speak of an average wage. The table on p. 135 gives a general view of

the wages of those hands who can be labelled with some exactness, and it

is seen that the facts are so complex that they cannot be summarised in

a few words. The wages included are the actual weekly averages (total

annual receipts divided by fifty-two) in 1899, except where they are

otherwise distinguished.

+--------------+-------------------------------------------------+

| WAGES IN | Numbers whose average weekly wages were |

| DIFFERENT | _s._ |

| OCCUPATIONS. +---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| | | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | |

| | > | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to |Above|

| | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 22 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Handfolders | 0 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Folders | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Handsewers, | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 0 |

| and | | | | | | | | | | |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

>6 = Under 6

+--------------+-----------+

| WAGES IN | Median. |

| DIFFERENT | |

| OCCUPATIONS. | |

+--------------+-----------+

| BOOKBINDING | _s._ _d._ |

| HOUSES | |

+--------------+-----------+

| Handfolders | 13 4 |

+--------------+-----------+

| Folders | 12 6 |

| who were | |

| also sewing | |

| machinists, | |

| gatherers, | |

| placers, | |

| or sewers | |

+--------------+-----------+

| Handsewers, | 15 0 |

| or | |

| collators | |

| and | |

| gatherers | |

+--------------+-----------+

+--------------+-------------------------------------------+-----+

| WAGES IN | Numbers whose average weekly wages were | |

| DIFFERENT | _s._ | |

| OCCUPATIONS. +---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| | | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | |

| | - | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to |Above|

| | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 22 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Folders who | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 12 | 3 | 6 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Folders in | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 5 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Gatherers | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Inserters | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Numberers | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Counters in | 0 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Stitchers | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

| Compositors | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 |

+--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+

+--------------+----------+

| WAGES IN | Median. |

| DIFFERENT | |

| OCCUPATIONS. | |

+--------------+----------+

| PRINTING | _s._ _d._|

| HOUSES: | |

+--------------+----------+

| Folders | 18 6 |

| who were | |

| also sewers | Maximum |

| or stitchers | 26 10 |

+--------------+----------+

| Folders in | 15 6 |

| typical | |

| week, 1901 | |

+--------------+----------+

| Gatherers | 18 0 |

+--------------+----------+

| Inserters | -- |

+--------------+----------+

| Numberers | 17 8 |

+--------------+----------+

| Counters in | 11 7 |

| typical | |

| week, 1901 | |

+--------------+----------+

| Stitchers | 11 6 |

+--------------+----------+

| Compositors | 18 6 |

+--------------+----------+

[Illustration: Firm D.--Wages Week by Week in 1899. 1. _Looker-over_

(_time_, 14_s._ 6_d._). 3. _Folder and Sewer (piece)._ Firm G.--1896.

_Dispatch (piece)._]

V.--EARNINGS OF INDIVIDUALS.

Out of the 130 lists we have, showing the actual earnings week by week

of individuals for periods of one to fifteen years, thirty-nine have

been selected, twenty-six of which are tabulated on the following pages

(Appendix VI.), and twelve of which are represented in the following

diagrams. These have been selected as illustrating the various classes

of workers and of work.

The most noticeable characteristic of the diagrams is the frequency and

violence of the fluctuations, and the same is found in a study of the

original figures throughout.

A few time hands (Appendix VI.; diagram C), are nearly regular; only one

shows perfectly regular earnings; many fluctuate as rapidly as the piece

workers (Appendix VI.; diagram D. 2), and on the sheets we have several

actual records of lost time and overtime, showing how these changes

arise; others show a steady increase with slight movements (Appendix

VI.; diagram A. 4).

The four Bank Holiday seasons are marked on most of the diagrams and

wage lists.

The most interesting, novel, and important feature of these lists is the

light thrown on the very obscure relation (obscure in all branches of

industry) between "nominal," "average," or "typical" wages and actual

annual earnings; there are in existence very few actual records of

individuals' earnings over a series of years for any workers in the

United Kingdom. The workers included in the list are among the more

regular ones, who succeed in keeping their place month after month.

Though the wages vary so greatly week by week, yet when we come to take

the average over any period greater than, say, two months, we find there

is but little variation. Thus, in the example from Firm B. in diagram,

the quarterly average is between 16_s._ and 17_s._ for nine years,

except for absence in two quarters, and the annual average is still

more regular. The great bulk of the regular workers (folders and the

like) make a sum between £30 and £40 every year, and between £7 and £11

every quarter.

In view of this result, periodic pressure becomes relatively unimportant

for the regular hands. There is no season in the industry as a whole

shown in the wage lists. The different firms and different workers have

in many cases their regular times of pressure like bank clerks and

schoolmasters; these times are sometimes monthly, sometimes quarterly.

In other cases no rule is to be discovered.

The most important effect of this irregular pressure is in the number of

jobbers employed.

VI.--JOBBERS.

Jobbers usually come in at the busy season and make good money. As they

go from house to house, it is impossible to get a full account of any

particular jobber's earnings.

Jobbers are frequently employed in Firm B, and in many cases the highest

wage earned is by a jobber. Thus in the last week of April, 1895, out of

thirty workers, fifteen were jobbers; the eleven highest sums were

earned by them, five being over £1.

VII.--TIME AND PIECE RATES.

The distinction between time rates and piece rates is not vital; the

method of payment seems to be accidental, and the custom varies from

house to house. Machine rulers seem generally to have time rates, and

these are among the lowest earners, while some of the best paid

permanent hands are also time. On looking through the lists of

individuals' earnings, it is seen that time earnings are sometimes quite

as variable as piece earnings, for hours worked fluctuate continually.

In other cases the time payment is much more regular, showing

fluctuations only at holidays.

APPENDIX I.--POINTS UPON WHICH ENQUIRIES WERE MADE.

1.--TRAINING.

(_a_) Method, Indentures or not.

(_b_) Length.

(_c_) Age when it begins.

(_d_) Premiums.

(_e_) Wages during training.

Comparison between length of training in vogue now and formerly, to be

obtained where possible.

2.--WAGES (_Forms appended_).

Wages throughout the factory or workshop for two or three slack and two

or three busy weeks to be obtained where possible, and for a few

ordinary hands throughout the year.

3.--CONDITIONS OF WORK.

(_a_) Describe the nature of the work, and subdivisions.

(_b_) Is it a season trade?

(_c_) Is it healthy? Is there a special trade disease?

(_d_) Is much strength or intelligence needed?

(_e_) Is dangerous machinery used?

(_f_) Average hours per week; meal hours.

(_g_) Is there a chance of rising? If so, to what position?

4.--ORGANISATION.

What attempts have been made to organise women, and with what success?

Attitude towards, and knowledge about, Women's Unions?

5.--MARRIED AND UNMARRIED WORKERS.

How long do women remain in the trade?

Proportion of married to unmarried.

Are there signs of married women lowering rates of pay?

Comparison between married and unmarried as workers.

6.--SEPARATE FACTORY LEGISLATION.

(A.) Economic effects:--

(_a_) Instances of women being turned off owing to Factory

Legislation.

(_b_) Do the restrictions imposed by the Factory Acts hinder the

employment of women?

(_c_) How far do these restrictions influence wages?

(_d_) How far has legislation diverted the industry from or to,

factory, workshop, or home?

(B.) Contrast between conditions of work before and after Act of 1867.

7.--MEN AND WOMEN.

Instances where either sex replaces the other, and the reasons for it in

each case.

Relative wages when men and women do the same work.

If women's wage is lower, why is it?

Attitude of Men's Unions towards female labour.

8.--WOMEN AND MACHINERY.

How far has machinery increased or diminished women's work?

How far does the cheapness of women's work tend to retard the

introduction of machinery?

9.--HOME WORK.

In which branches is this done, and to what extent?

Plant required.

Rates of pay compared with work done inside.

Why, from the point of view of the home worker in each case, is home

work done?

10.--INFLUENCE OF WOMEN'S WAGES ON THE FAMILY INCOME.

Occupation of husband.

Amount contributed towards home expenses.

APPENDIX II.--DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN TYPICAL FIRMS.

1. A.,[94] _A well-known Printing Firm in London. Employée's

Information._

[Footnote 94: Index letters by which reference is made to the firm in

the body of the volume, except in the chapter on wages.]

WORK.--Folding, sewing, numbering, etc.

REGULARITY.--The work is not seasonal, at any rate at A.

HEALTH.--Numbering is very bad for a weak chest and makes one's head

ache as well. Girls with weak chests cannot stand it. Folding, however,

is not unhealthy unless the hours are too long.

HOURS.--At B. they are 48 per week; but at A. they are 53½, distributed

as follows:--Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, 9 a.m. to 6.30 p.m.;

Thursday, 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.; Friday, 9 a.m. to 8 p.m.; Saturday, 9 a.m.

to 1 p.m.; one hour for dinner and half an hour for tea being allowed

each full working day.

GENERAL.--The sanitary arrangements are very bad at A., and lavatories

open straight out of workrooms, and are in very bad condition. One does

not use them unless she wants to get a fever. The company is very mixed.

"You can tell that it is rather a low place, because the girls wear

curlers and nothing is said. When one works at B. she has to take out

curlers before she comes. You can always tell the sort of place when the

girls wear curlers."

2. _A well-known Printing Firm in London. Forewoman's Information._

WORK.--6 or 7 girls are employed at machine ruling, and a few at vellum

sewing and folding.

REGULARITY.--The girls are kept on all the year round.

HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 7.30 p.m., with one hour for dinner

and half an hour for tea.

PROSPECTS.--Might rise to forewomen, but that not common.

GENERAL.--Work girls have nothing to complain of now; they are always

very well looked after.

3. S., _Small Printing Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._

WORK.--16 girls and 1 man (who is an engineer) are employed, S. helping

himself. Upstairs there are 2 men "blocking," and 2 girls powdering for

them. The girls do all the printing, _e.g._, the informant can set up

the type, lock it into the frame, make ready, and then feed the platen

machine--which alone is used in this firm. Informant can also clean the

machine. She also does "bronzing," _i.e._, dusting-on bronze with a pad.

The girls powdering upstairs do nothing else. A few younger girls fold

circulars.

REGULARITY.--Work is steady, and they are always busy.

HEALTH.--Bronzing is most unhealthy. ----'s colour has all gone since

she was put on to it a few weeks ago. "You are supposed to have milk to

drink, but you never get more than half a cupful at the end of the day,

when it is too late. The inspector has been round and has asked about

the milk, but of course the manager said that milk was always given."

(Informant looked very ill.) She had to stay away from work all the

previous Thursday, and lost a shilling in consequence. Her father and

mother say she must leave the work or she will die. "You see, they lost

a brother of mine at twenty-three and a sister at thirteen, and they

don't want me to go off too."

The powdering done by the girls in the blocking room is very unhealthy.

None of them can stand it long. They get ill and go off elsewhere. It

brings on consumption.

Feeding machines is very tiring.

One girl works the cutting machine, which is unfit for a woman and very

dangerous. A girl who worked it lost her finger and was six weeks in

hospital, but the firm paid her well not to tell. The printing machines

are dangerous, for you often get your fingers caught; it comes back

quicker than you expect.

HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m., with one hour for dinner

and a quarter of an hour for tea; on Saturdays, from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m.,

with half an hour for a meal. They never get away at 6 though, not till

6.30 or later, for there are the machines to be cleaned and things to be

cleared up.

GENERAL.--Mr. S. sometimes comes round and talks as if he were the

kindest of employers. "He'll say, 'Take care of your head, there, dear.'

It makes you sick to hear him. If he'd give better wages it would be

more to the point."

4. Q., _Job Printing Firm in London. Visit to Works._

WORK.--I went through the works and saw 10 extra young girls sticking on

pockets for stamps on to an appeal sheet of ...; one girl feeding a

platen machine which was gumming instead of printing; 4 or 5 upstairs in

the regular folding room folding....

REGULARITY.--Q. has only 4 or 5 regular hands, and when there is a rush

of work, he takes on job hands. "You put up a bill and can easily get

100 if you want them." He dislikes the custom, but does not see how it

is to be obviated in the printing trade. "You suddenly have 75,000

circulars to do, and you don't know when the next order will be."

HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with one hour for

dinner, ten minutes for lunch and ten minutes for tea. Girls prefer

this to half an hour for tea and leaving at 7. On Saturdays the hours

are from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m., no meal time being allowed. The married

women, however, rarely come till 9 a.m.

5. L., _Printing, etc., Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._

WORK.--200 girls are employed at L.'s. Informant does folding now, used

to do sewing by machine.

REGULARITY.--The work is regular, "but you never know when the work is

coming in. They are always busy with the ... guides at the end of the

month, and two or three job hands come in."

HEALTH.--She has always found the occupation healthy.

PROSPECTS.--None; is slow herself. She has worked at L.'s six years, and

has never known of anyone becoming a forelady.

DANGERS.--She has never had an accident, and was working on a machine

for five years.

HOURS.--The hours are from 8.30 a.m. to 7 or 8 p.m., with an hour for

dinner (from 1 p.m. to 2 p.m.), and half an hour for tea (4 p.m. to 4.30

p.m.) and from 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. on Saturdays. Sometimes they are let

off early if there is no work. But some girls go and lark about in the

street, and then the manager scolds the forelady and she will not let

the others go. She never takes a holiday except Bank Holidays.

GENERAL.--Only talks to a few of the girls, but they are quite a nice

set.

6. T., _Weekly Newspaper Firm in London. Visit to Works._

WORK.--Folding, gathering, collating, sewing (all sewing by machinery),

or stabbing with wire, insetting, wrappering (glue pot), feeding folding

machines.

REGULARITY.--It is more or less regular, but there is the regular weekly

and monthly work, so there is less fluctuation than in "binding houses."

Tuesday to Friday are busy days, and the forewoman employs some married

women who come in as long as they are wanted.

DANGERS.--One stitching machine is dangerous, the forewoman said; the

folded sheet has to be pushed along with the hand and there is the

_chance_ of the hand being caught.

HOURS.--The hours are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., occasionally till 8; one

hour being allowed for dinner and half an hour for tea.

PROSPECTS.--The girls may rise to forewomen and a sort of

deputy-forewoman, chosen by forewoman, to overlook certain rooms. The

girls are not, as a rule, at all eager for the responsibility.

7. _Large Bookbinding Firm in London._

(A.) _Manager's Information._

WORK.--Folding, sewing, collating, placing plates, laying-on gold, etc.

REGULARITY.--The work is partly seasonal. They are busy in the winter

time, and work to limits allowed by the Factory Acts; they are slack in

the summer, and may even have no work for three weeks or so at a time.

DANGERS.--They have only had two accidents. One was with an ordinary

sewing machine; the other was with a Bremner machine, when a little girl

was setting it up. She caught her finger in it, but was not away from

work a fortnight.

HOURS.--They work 48 hours per week, allowing one and a half hours for

meals per day, _i.e._, from 8 a.m. to 12, from 1 p.m. to 4 p.m., and

from 4.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m.; on Saturdays, from 8 a.m. to 12. This

really comes to 49 hours a week if the girls are punctual, but he

reckons 48 hours because they are not punctual.

PROSPECTS.--Only a chance of rising to forewomen.

(B.) _Forewoman's Evidence._

REGULARITY.--It is a season trade and they are just beginning to be

slack (March) in Miss X.'s shop where the new work is done.

HEALTH.--Miss X. "had been through it all," and thought folding

dreadfully tiring. There is nothing specially unhealthy about it.

HOURS.--The hours are supposed to be 49 a week, but if there is any work

they do not keep to that. A 48 hours' week only means that the time

workers get paid extra. Miss X. worked in a place where they were

supposed to have 51 hours a week but rarely made more than 40.

The firm make their girls stay as little as possible when there is no

work, but this is very different to most places, as the workpeople are

studied here.

(C.) _Employée's Evidence._

WORK.--In E., Bible work and new or cloth work are quite separate, and

there are separate hands for each. She did folding for the Bible work

herself.

HEALTH.--The work is not very healthy. "Sitting all day is bad for you,"

but there is no special disease. Bible work is light work, as much of it

is on India paper; new work is much heavier.

HOURS.--The hours are from 8.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with an hour for

dinner and half an hour for tea, but when busy they work till 8 p.m. or

9 p.m. This happens about thirty times a year. They are allowed to go

home if there is not work.

[There is a very nice set of girls at the Bible work; they are

particular there about whom they take, and it is a very good house to be

in.]

GENERAL.--It is rather dull and tiring working because they are not

supposed to talk to each other at Bible work.

8. _Printing and Stationery Firm in London. General Information._

TRAINING. In the Book-folding and Vellum Sewing Department the girls

have an agreement to serve two years.

_Age At Beginning._--Fourteen.

_Premium._--None.

_Wages._--6 months at 1_s._, 6 months at 2_s._ 6_d._, 6 months at 5_s._,

and 6 months at 7_s._ 6_d._ per week.

IN THE NUMBERING, RELIEF STAMPING, ETC., PACKING Department there are no

indentures or regular system of apprenticeship but girls are expected to

serve about two years.

_Age At Beginning._--Fourteen.

_Premium._--None.

_Wages._--Girls start at 1_s._ per week, for, say, three months, then

get three-quarter earnings. Very few are trained in this firm, they take

on workers who have learnt elsewhere. How many branches learners are

taught seems to depend on chance. Some old hands do all the processes,

some only one.

MACHINE RULING.--In this department there is no system. Little girls

come and feed at 5_s._ and 7_s._ per week. When they have been at it a

year or two they are drafted off to other departments.

LITHOGRAPHIC WORK.--There is no regular training in this department. It

only takes about two weeks to learn the work done by girls here.

NOTEPAPER FOLDING requires no training. "Why! you could pick it up in a

week or two."

WAGES.--The firm does much work for public bodies, and so has to pay

"fair" wages. The manager did not seem to know whether this applied to

women's work too, but evidently it does.

DEPARTMENT I.--NUMBERING, ETC.--The manager gave wages as 11_s._ to

16_s._ per week, some being paid on time and some on piece work. The

foreman considered 14_s._ to be about the average. The following girls

were questioned:--

One packer got 12_s._ (time wages) per week.

Another packer got 13_s._ (time wages) per week.

One piece relief stamper got about 13_s._ (piece work) per week.

Another piece relief stamper got about 16_s._ (piece work) per

week.

One numberer got 15_s._ (piece work) per week.

DEPARTMENT II.--LITHOGRAPHIC FEEDING.--Here girls start at 6_s._ and

rise up to 14_s._ (time wages).

DEPARTMENT III.--MACHINE RULING.--In this department all wages are for

time work. Quite little girls receive 4_s._ or 5_s._ up to 7_s._ per

week. They are drafted off when they want higher wages than that. There

were, however, two older ones in the room who were folding and counting

the ruled foolscap paper at 14_s._ per week.

DEPARTMENT IV.--BOOK-FOLDING, ETC.--Out of the 45 girls employed in this

department, 10 were on time work, and were being paid from 13_s._ to

16_s._ per week. The piece workers, according to the forewoman, were

making from 13_s._ to 16_s._ per week, taking all the year round. Some

were making over 20_s._ per week.

DEPARTMENT V.--VELLUM WORK.--All 15 girls employed here were on time

work. They got 11_s._ per week when first out of their time; 12_s._

after two years. None were receiving over 12_s._, except one who "makes

up" at 13_s._ a week. These wages were given by the forewoman. The

manager seemed surprised that they were not higher, and remarked that

they were lower than in the book-folding department. The forewoman said

that in most places the vellum workers got more than book workers, but

this firm had arranged otherwise.

DEPARTMENT VI.--The girls FOLDING NOTEPAPER in the warehouse were

getting 13_s._ or 14_s._ (time wages) per week.

WORK.--Department I.--NUMBERING, RELIEF STAMPING, PERFORATING, PACKING,

AND GUMMING going on.

The numbering and the stamping are different trades, done by different

girls, but most of them can do packing as well, though in some cases

they learn packing only. They can mostly do perforating and gumming,

odds and ends too. Some were folding postal forms. Special envelope

orders are done here. About 35 girls were employed.

There was one man doing the illuminating required and working at a

rather heavy press. There was also a good number of youths doing

numbering. I tried vainly to find out what they were paid. The manager

and the foreman said that they were not doing the same work; it was the

same except that a name was stamped on as well as a number (it was on

money orders). Two girls were also doing this, but I was assured that

that was only "by accident." Two or three boys were perforating and

stamping.

DEPARTMENT II.--LITHO PRINTING. Girls were feeding machines and washing

rollers. About 12 girls were employed.

DEPARTMENT III.--MACHINE RULING. Little girls were feeding the ruling

machines, and a few older ones were counting and folding the foolscap

paper; 18 girls were employed.

DEPARTMENT IV.--BOOKBINDING AND SEWING. All sorts of folding, sewing and

stitching (by machine mostly), eyeletting, etc., etc., were being

carried on, and about 45 girls were employed.

DEPARTMENT V.--VELLUM WORK. Sewing, folding, etc., for account books and

ledgers was being done; 15 girls were employed, also one girl

"laying-on" for cloth work, and two or three running errands.

DEPARTMENT VI.--In the WAREHOUSE were three girls folding notepaper.

REGULARITY.--Work here is constant all the year round. The forewoman in

the book-folding department said they only had in job hands about twice

a year.

HOURS.--The firm works about 54 hours per week, _i.e._, from 8 a.m. to 7

p.m., with one hour for dinner, half an hour for tea, and ten minutes

for lunch. On Saturdays they work from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m.

OVERTIME.--It was very difficult to get anything definite about overtime

pay. The manager first said that they all got 6_d._ an hour overtime.

Then he said that piece workers were simply paid at piece rates. The

forewoman in the book-folding department said that time hands got 4_d._

an hour overtime. In the vellum work they never had any overtime. These

extra payments seem to be irregularly made.

PROSPECTS.--The girls can rise to forewoman's position, here or

elsewhere. Vellum work forewoman mentioned that two of her young ladies

had become forewomen elsewhere.

ORGANISATION.--The manager knew that a Women's Union existed, but

thought it was more of a Benefit Society than anything else. He assured

me that the problem of the organisation of women's labour was the

problem in trade, and seemed vaguely to regret that women were so

helpless and ready to be cut down.

MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--The manager estimated twelve years as the

average period that a woman remained in the trade. He fancied that there

were a good many married women here; but when we went round and asked

the different heads of departments we found that the only married ones

were 2 in the litho department, _i.e._, 2 out of 12 in that department,

_i.e._, 2 out of about 128 employed altogether. In the other departments

the forewomen or foremen did not care to have them because they were so

irregular. "You can never count on them." Two widows were employed in

the book-folding department. The head of the litho department had only

lately found out that two of his employees were married--one had run

away from her husband, the other's husband was a stone polisher and she

had to come out to keep the house going. The manager was very decided

that undoubtedly married women's work tended to lower wages. They only

want a little to supplement their husbands' earnings. He explained

afterwards that his remarks applied more to the provinces than to

London. He thought that the thing to aim at in improving the industrial

position of women was the abolition of the married woman worker. How

this could be done he could not say. The forewoman of the book-folding

and sewing department, who had had some experience of married jobbers,

said that they would not do ordinary work at ordinary rates, as they did

not consider it worth their while. They had not _got_ to earn any money,

as they had husbands to fall back upon. The manager said that in the

litho department the single girls thought it _infra dig._ to wash the

rollers, but the married women "made no bones about it."

LEGISLATION.--In no case had women been turned away because of

restrictive legislation. A certain amount of folding and stitching has

to be done by men at night, and he would say that about 2 or 3 men were

employed at this for about one hour five nights in the week. Sometimes

the folding was not ready till 11 p.m., and the men had to hang about

before. The manager thought that the chief grievance of the Factory Acts

was that if only one woman in a department was employed overtime, one of

the thirty legal nights was thereby used up. The manager thought that it

was forty-eight nights you might work overtime, and seemed surprised on

looking up the notices to find that it was thirty only. He approved of

Factory Legislation on the whole, and thought that women had benefited

by it. Personally, he would like to see all overtime abolished by law

for men and women. Men worked worse next day when they had had to sit up

at night. Public bodies were the worst offenders in the matter, "They

have no consciences." The forewoman of the folding and sewing, where

overtime was worked, said that her girls disliked overtime very much;

and she did not think it worth while working them, as they could do less

work next day in consequence. She had much rather that the men did it at

night. She and the manager agreed that in places where women did not

make a decent wage by working ordinary hours they might want to work at

night. As to the effect Factory Legislation had upon the diverting of

work from the home to the workshop, or _vice versâ_, the manager thought

that the tendency had been for work to come in to the factory. There

used to be much more home work.

MEN AND WOMEN.--According to the manager, there is a hard and fast line

drawn by the various Societies in London as to what a woman may or may

not do.

In _Bookbinding_ of all descriptions she is practically confined to

folding and sewing. She may not touch a glue brush or do any putting of

paper books or magazines into paper covers.

In the provinces, on the other hand, the rules of the Consolidated

Societies are different. A woman may do flush binding (_i.e._, books

whose covers are cut on a level with the leaves and which have no

"turnings in") up and foolscap size, two quires. Hence women do diaries,

etc. In certain works at Tonbridge women are set to do this.

_Litter-press Printing._--This firm had never tried female compositors.

They had 100 men. If they tried to introduce women, all the men would go

out and "you'd have a hornet's nest." The idea of paying women at the

same rate as men struck them as ridiculous. "They would never be worth

as much because they stay such a little time." They might some day try

women compositors in their country establishment.

_Feeding Printing Machines._--They might not employ women on platen

machines because of the Union, but were going to try them on smallish

letter-press machines. The Union had no objection to that.

_Machine Ruling._--The firm only had little girls for feeding. The

foreman remarked that at R.'s, "over the water," they had women to do

most of their ruling, but did not seem to think that it would be worth

while to train a woman for it. At first he said that the Men's Union

would object, then said that he thought they would not; only he would

have to give the woman the same pay as a man, "and fancy giving a woman

32_s._ a week!" This was uttered in a tone of supreme contempt. The

manager remarked that he supposed it would not matter paying the woman

the same if she did as much work, but the foreman smiled superior to the

idea.

WOMEN AND MACHINERY.--The manager thought that the output of printed

matter had increased so enormously since the introduction of machinery

that more hands than ever were employed.

The forewoman of the folding and sewing department said that it seemed

as if there must be fewer employed, and yet she had never turned any

off.

HOME WORK.--No home work is given out by the firm. Since so much was

done by machinery it was not worth while to send work out.

INFLUENCE ON FAMILY INCOME.--The manager and forewoman and foreman said

that none of the girls were working for pocket-money. Most lived at home

and helped their parents; some who had no parents lived with relatives.

GENERAL.--The premises were rather nice and the people looked superior

and friendly. There was a great gulf fixed between the litho girls and

the others. The latter look down tremendously on these former and would

not think of speaking to them. They are a much lower set to look at and

their language is reported not to be choice. Many of them were arrayed

in curlers, whilst none of the girls in other departments wore these

decorations.

The vellum sewers were said by their forewoman to be "a nice family

party."

9. _Lithographic Firm. General Information._

GENERAL.--I saw the manager; he was "very much on the spot," friendly

and communicative, and took me all over the works and was quite

interested in showing different processes. He said he had to look sharp

after his workers, and so they often thought him a bully.

WORK.--Chief work done is lithography, but there is also a certain

amount of letter-press work. Engraving and stationery orders are given

out in sub-contract.

TRAINING.--In the binding room, _i.e._, where folding is done, there are

no learners now, but they need to have one or two. These apprentices

were taken on from fourteen years of age without premiums, and were kept

two or three years according to ability. They were paid a few shillings

to begin with, and, if good at their work, they rose gradually. If slow

and stupid, they got nothing. The forewoman said she did not care to

take learners now; "they are more trouble than they are worth."

In the litho room the firm never had apprentices. The new hands come in

and begin "taking-off" for about 8_s._ By-and-by, according to their

nimbleness, they are elevated to "layers-on."

In card mounting there is no training. It is picked up in a few months,

and new hands start at about 8_s._ per week, time wages.

WAGES.--_Binding Room._--The staff (12 girls) are all on time work, the

extra hands are paid piece work. Time wages range from 12_s._ to 14_s._

I was shown last week's wages, and they ranged from 7_s._ to 15_s._, the

forewoman having £1 2_s._ 6_d._; 7_s._ to 8_s._ was the predominant

figure. Job hands on piece "make as much as 15_s._ in a full week," I

was informed, but the wage book that week showed they had only made

about 7_s._ or 8_s._

For overtime, time and a quarter is paid to all time workers, ordinary

rates to piece workers.

_Litho Work._--All wages in this department are time wages, and vary

from 8_s._ to 12_s._ or 14_s._ In the wages book the predominant figure

was 7_s._; there were two 5_s._ and some 8_s._, and up to 12_s._ When

bronzing the workers appeared to get 1_s._ extra.

_Card Mounting._--All time wages paid here, and they were said to range

from 8_s._ to 12_s._ In the wages book, however, 6_s._ and 7_s._ were

the predominant figures. Some were as low as 5_s._, and there were a few

girls who had drawn 8_s._

NO. EMPLOYED.--There were about 200 employees, of whom one-third were

women. The number fluctuated, I was told.

_Litho Artists' Work._--8 or 9 men were employed on this, but no women

on the premises. The firm often accepted sketches from lady artists

living outside, some of whom could even work on stone.

_Litho Machine Work._--Girls are employed feeding litho machines, and

they have about 30 when busy. When I was there only about 12 were

engaged. When bronzing by hand is wanted these girls are set to it (13

were doing it last week). In the same room is

_Card Mounting._--There were only 3 girls at that, but sometimes there

are as many as 12 or 13. This consists of pasting the advertisement,

almanac, etc., on to a piece of cardboard, varnishing it, eyeletting it,

tying the bits of cord through (the 3 girls were doing that), and

sometimes putting gelatine over the surface--a minor trade, at which

they get better paid.

The same girls do occasional work in the _cutting_ room; not at the big

guillotines, but (_a_) at feeding a machine which cuts the strips down

or blocks into bent shapes like a small almanac of ----'s mustard which

I saw; (_b_) at putting shapes on to huge piles of sheets of

advertisements and labels, which are then pressed into the sheets by a

heavy top weight being brought down by steam. They were doing some big

"flies," on to which a string was to be put, so that they could be

whirled round and buzz.

_Binding Room._--There were only about 12 girls employed, but there was

room for 100, and they have them in at a press of work. They do folding

by hand in this firm for certain newspapers and all sorts of

advertisements. Wire stitching is also done. They were folding various

things, packing up labels, and so on, when I was there.

REGULARITY.--The firm's trade fluctuates, but by no regular fixed

seasons; they are always busy before Christmas.

HEALTH.--I was told that it was quite a mistake to think bronzing

unhealthy. The manager stated he had known men at it for months at a

time without any evil effects. They sometimes imagined themselves ill,

but he had never known of a single case of real illness. They grumble at

doing it, and pretend that they are afraid of it because then they get

extra money (1_s._ extra a week). They really object to it because it is

bad for clothes--as you get covered with dust--and uncomfortable to be

all powdered with gold.

He had a machine below on which most work was done, except when there

was a great press. Messrs. ---- gave him out so many thousand to do; he

could not do them fast enough with only one machine, and it was not

worth while having more than one as he had not work enough ordinarily.

No dust escaped from the machine. As a proof of the healthiness of

bronzing he said that he stood for three or four hours in the middle of

it all, "keeping them to their work" (which they want), and got all

covered over with the dust himself. "You wouldn't get a manager doing

that himself if it were unhealthy." He always gave his bronzers one pint

of milk a day to drink, he stated with pride.

The other work, folding, card mounting, etc., was all quite healthy.

Indeed, work was unhealthy more on account of bad ventilation than of

any circumstance belonging to itself; he always had the window open and

a board put across the bottom, 6 ins. high, on the most approved plan.

The workpeople grumbled very much and tried to paste up every crevice

with brown paper, but they could not shut it. They objected to the

incandescent burners which he put in, for they liked the heat of the gas

and missed it.

DANGERS.--Occasionally girls catch their skirts in wheels and so on, but

there are never any "bad accidents." "With people of that class it is

'funk' more than pain that they suffer; they will turn as white as

anything from just a little flesh wound with a cog-wheel." The Factory

Inspectors were very fussy about fencing machinery, he thought. He told

me long stories about men's carelessness and how the boys would sit on

the edge of the lift. He fined them 2_s._ 6_d._ for it.

HOURS.--The hours are about 54 a week, from 8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with

one hour for dinner. The women are allowed by the forewomen to have

lunch in the middle of the morning and tea in the afternoon, and when

the men are industrious the manager has no objection to their taking

"snacks." If it is an idler, he objects.

When busy, the work continues till 8 p.m. He had not used special

exemption once the last year.

PROSPECTS.--There are no prospects except for the girls in the binding

room. The present forewoman ("a jewel") had been with the firm for

thirty years; one or two others whom she had trained could take her

place.

ORGANISATION.--He had no knowledge of any Women's Unions covering the

women employed here. This is a Society house in every branch for the

men, but the manager said, "Trades Unionism is all humbug," and he would

like to do away with it altogether, if possible; but it is so strong in

London that if you want to get good men you must be a Society house.

MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--He employed 2 or 3 married women amongst litho

feeders. The firm ask no questions, but he said he knew most of the

workers.

A lot of the job hands were married, but none of the regular hands in

binding room.

LEGISLATION.--In manager's opinion legislation had not in any way

injured the position of women workers. It did not affect him at all. He

never employed men to fold at night, because it would not pay.

Occasionally, when the litho machines had to be kept working late, he

had to draft in men from other departments to feed them, and he could

understand that a small printer, without different departments, would

find it awkward.

He would not himself have the place open at night with girls working in

it. He would not take the responsibility of that; they would "lark

about, etc." He thought it all to the women's advantage that they must

not work at night.

The intentions of the Factory Acts are good, and he approved of them in

principle, but there was a lot of humbug about them and the L.C.C.

regulations,[95] _e.g._, making him have six basins for lavatory for his

workers. They never used more than two, preferring to follow each other,

and they broke the others, and then round came the inspector and said

you must have six.

[Footnote 95: This is allowed to stand as an indication of the frequent

misunderstandings our investigators met with regarding the L.C.C. This

body appeared to be charged with everything that caused irritation.]

The L.C.C. put a premium on burglary by making it compulsory to have a

way out on to the roof. The Factory Inspector was not a practical man,

and ordered a great deal of unnecessary fencing of machinery. He told me

how one night he kept the girls late without giving notice (the work

came in unexpectedly), and sat by the telephone so as to send up notice

to the forewoman if the inspector came. It was not the Factory Acts

which kept women from being compositors.

MEN AND WOMEN.--Women did litho artists' work at home, and there was no

reason why they should not be quite as good at it as men. It was paid by

the merits of the sketch.

_Feeding Litho Machines._--He used to have boys, and a few years ago

introduced girls. They were much better at it, cleaner, quieter, and

more careful to place the paper exactly than boys.

He still had boys for _feeding letter-press machines_--why, he did not

quite know, except that it was the custom; then, having thought about

it, he said further, that it was because less care was needed. Girls

were no cheaper than the boys were, and were introduced solely on

account of being better workers.

He had no women compositors, and employed only 12 men, and he did not

see how he could work the two together, though he did not see why women

should not do all the setting-up and the display work, though they could

not lift the formes. He did not think the Union objected. It never had

been the custom though.

He never had women to work _cutting machines_. The men would object.

Women never rose to mind the _printing litho machines_; he did not think

they could do it.

He had only one _platen machine_, worked and fed by a boy; but in some

places, where cheap things were done by this machine, _e.g._, paper

bags, girls attended to it.

Men used to do _folding_ in his youth, and they still did _stationers'

folding_, notepaper, etc., in some houses.

HOME WORK.--The firm gave out a certain amount of folding when there

was a press of work. The forewoman knew of old hands and others who

could do it at home. He considered that to be quite a convenient

arrangement.

INFLUENCE ON FAMILY INCOME.--Many of the job hands were married women,

who liked to come out occasionally for a few extra shillings. Others

were single girls, who preferred to be paid by the piece, and go about

from house to house, making as much as time workers for shorter hours.

10. _Paper Colouring and Enamelling Firm in London, also engaged in

Showcard Mounting and Varnishing and Book-edge Gilding. Employer's and

Manager's Information._

Both were very communicative. The former, after repeated questions from

me as to how things were done, took me over the whole place, intending

only to show me the varnishing, and finally letting me see everything.

He is a working-class master who has risen. His father had a small

business, and he has made it a big one. It is one of the biggest firms

in the trade.

TRAINING.--_Card Mounting._--The firm indentures apprentices, who agree

to stay three or four years. They are taken on at fourteen years of age,

and are paid 4_s._ a week for the first year, and then receive a portion

of their piece work earnings, varying according to efficiency, from

one-fourth, one-half, three-fourths, two-thirds, and so on, according to

skill. They come for a month first to see if they suit.

_Paper Colouring and Enamelling._--In this department apprentices are

also indentured for two years. They are taken on at fourteen, and are

paid 4_s._ a week first year, then a portion of their piece earnings as

above.

_Varnishing and Sizing._--No training is given for this. Girls must be

tall, or they are no use. Any girl will be "good at it" after three

weeks.

The employer remarked that parents could not afford to pay a premium. It

was very provoking when girls went off after four years, when a lot of

trouble had been spent in teaching them. I was shown some cards which a

girl, who was supposed to be competent, had spoilt by pasting the sheet

on so that there was a blister; 385 out of 500 were similarly spoilt,

and they cost 6_d._ each, he said.

WAGES.--_Card Mounting and Paper Colouring._--Piece work rates are paid

here, with overtime at the same rate. It is difficult to give an

average. One girl would make 25_s._, while another girl would only make

7_s._ at the same work in the same time. After consideration, the head

gave it as his opinion that 12_s._ 6_d._ a week would be what the

ordinary girl would earn, taking the whole year round, slack with busy

times. They were kept on all the year at this firm. Sometimes a girl

would make as much as 28_s._

It was further stated that a girl might make 6_d._ in less than an hour

at night, when the colours were mixed and she was finishing a job,

whereas it might take her a whole morning to earn the 6_d._ next day.

A quick girl could do 1,000 eyelets in an hour, eyeletting being paid at

10_d._ per 1,000.

_Varnishing and Sizing._--Piece work wages are paid here, with overtime

at same rates. Wages are reckoned by the lump sum for the gross work

done, and divided equally amongst all the hands. The division is made by

the firm, not the workers. We asked one girl what she took last week,

and she said 14_s._; but my guide said that the average would not be so

high for the year, say 12_s._

WORK.--There are four separate departments or businesses here, in three

of which the work is done by women.

_Varnishing and Sizing_, where 16 girls are employed. The calendars,

advertisements, and so on, to be varnished are placed in a pile on a

table underneath the long webbing band, and a girl sits there and feeds.

They are caught up and passed round rollers, and are sized or varnished

as the case may be. Another girl stands facing the machine, seeing that

they pass round all right. They are then carried over the top of the top

roller along the webbing band, which stretches the full length of the

room, till they come to the drum at the end, round which the band passes

on its return journey. There girls take them off and place them in

racks, the bottom one of which is on a small trolley. When a big pile of

racks (about 5½ ft. high) is filled the girls wheel it off, lift up a

door, and push it into a big cupboard which takes up all the middle of

the room, and above which is a fan. There they are left to dry, and when

dry the girls wheel them out again and take out the sheets.

There were two rooms in which this was being done, with about 8 girls in

each. There was also a third room at the side, where they make up odds

and ends, _e.g._, make up packets of "Happy Families," fold odd papers,

eyelet a few things, and so on. There was only 1 girl in this; sometimes

there are several. When a girl comes in first she does this work.

_Card Mounting._--About 30 or 40 girls were employed at this. This

consists in putting the advertisements, calendars, and so on, on to the

big sheets of cardboard and finishing them off. There are various

different processes. The board has to be cut, and this is done either by

a man or a girl who feeds the rotary cutting machine. The sheet of card

is "lined," _i.e._, the back pasted on, and edges pasted over if

required. Then the picture (or calendar) that is to go on it is pasted

down, the girls covering the backs of about four pictures (or

calendars), and then pressing them down one after another. For some work

eyelets are then punched, and in the best work the edges are bevelled by

a little machine consisting of a wheel in a trough, along which the edge

is pushed. In the case of a good deal of School Board work there is a

narrow band of tin or brass at the top which finishes it off, and out of

which comes a brass loop by which to hang it up. The men cut the brass

into slips, and the girls work about five hand machines, the principle

of which is that you put in your map (_e.g._), put the tin or brass slip

of metal in the right position, pull down a handle, lift it up, and the

work comes out with the metal band pressed down on each side and the

loop fixed in the middle. For other work, such as big maps, charts,

diagrams, and so on, wooden rods are used as rollers, etc., and the work

of fastening is done by girls.

_Paper Colouring and Enamelling by Hand._--Only 12 women were engaged

upon this work--a considerable decrease. The sheet of paper to be

coloured is placed in front of the girl, who then wets it over with the

colour (black when I saw it) by means of a brush like a whitewash brush

(the manager said that they were whitewash brushes with the handles

taken off), which she dips into a bowl. She then takes another round

brush, about 10 ins. in diameter, and brushes over the whole surface, so

that the colour lies quite evenly. The sheet of paper is then hung, as

it were, on to a clothes line to dry. These lines stretch over the room.

Enamelling is done in identically the same way, only it is enamel, not

colour, which is put on.

Enamelled paper is the very shiny coloured paper used for end pages of

books, for covering confectionery and similar boxes, etc.

Marbling is never done by this firm. All the coloured paper is in plain

colours, marbling being a quite different process.

_Book-edge Gilding._--Only men are employed in this.

REGULARITY.--The _card mounting_ department is specially busy before

Christmas with calendars, almanacs, etc., but advertisement cards are

turned out all the year.

_Paper colouring_ comes in rushes, but is not a seasonal trade.

_Varnishing_ is sometimes busier at one time than at another, but it is

not seasonal. The work of this firm is such that no job hands are

employed.

HEALTH.--_Paper Colouring and Enamelling._--Mr. ---- called down one

woman who had worked there fourteen years, and her mother before her.

She looked very strong and healthy. The other girls were not so robust

looking as she, but did not look _ill_. One was sitting in one of the

colouring rooms during the dinner hour, her hands all coated over with

paint, eating bread and butter. Mr. ---- rebuked her and told her that

she ought to wash her hands, and that he was always telling her to do

so, but she did not obey, and went on eating stolidly.

The colouring girls were all splashed over, and so were the walls. The

rooms were close and dirty. Work was done standing.

_Card Mounting._--The rooms were close and dirty, and the work seemed

tiring.

_Varnishing and Sizing._--The smell and heat were enough to knock one

down when one first went in, though one ceased to notice it after a bit.

There are hot pipes connected with the machine to dry the papers. The

place looked very dirty, and my guide showed me how the dust all stuck

to any varnish about, so that the racks, if left out for a day, got

covered with flue. The girls did not look strikingly unhealthy. They

have to drag heavy loads about. One or two looked a bit pale.

QUALIFICATIONS.--I should judge that strength was required for all three

departments, as girls are standing all day. Only tall girls are taken in

the varnishing room; short ones would be no good for moving about the

racks. The head said that no great intelligence was wanted for any

department, but a good deal of "perseverance" for card mounting and

paper colouring. If girls are careless at card mounting they spoil the

whole thing.

DANGERS.--The only machinery was the varnishing machine, and the firm

had never had any accident with it, and there seemed no reason why there

should be any. If girls are careless they are dismissed. The employer

considered the Compensation Act to be very unfair: "If a girl slips on

your iron staircase because her shoelace was undone, you have to pay

her."

HOURS.--The hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7.30 p.m., with one hour for

dinner and half an hour for tea; on Saturdays from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. On a

board a notice was put up stating that work begins as follows: 9 a.m.

for women, 8 a.m. for boys, 7 a.m. for men.

PROSPECTS.--There is 1 girl in the _varnishing_ department who gets "a

trifle more than the others," owing to her skill. In _card mounting_

there are no prospects. A foreman manages the _paper colouring_

department, so that there is no chance of the women becoming forewomen.

The firm once tried a forewoman, but she was not a success. She could

not match the colours properly, etc. Mr. ---- and the robust worker

seemed to think such a thing beyond a woman's power (especially the

latter, who scorned the idea of a forewoman).

ORGANISATION.--The head did not know if there was a Union or not. "They

do not give us any trouble."

MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--Only 1 or 2 married women were employed by the

firm, and they were confined to the colouring department. One married

woman had been there fourteen years.

LEGISLATION.--My informant did not consider that legislation had injured

the woman worker at all, but had benefited her by lessening her hours of

labour. Legislation was very hard on him, however, especially in the

paper colouring and varnishing work. "A customer comes in with some work

at 1 o'clock on a Saturday. You say you cannot do it till Monday.

'Well,' he says, 'I shall get it done elsewhere.' People working at home

are found to do it, and as they have not got the machinery or appliances

it means that they work at it all Sunday, and make their little children

of nine or ten work too, whereas the grown women may not work an hour

longer in factories." Mr. ---- evidently feels bitterly about this. It

would not pay to keep men on this kind of work. He would like more than

thirty days a year exemption for overtime. Besides, the girls would

often like to make a few shillings extra overtime. This was corroborated

by the paper-staining girl.

MEN AND WOMEN.--In the head's youth men used to do all the card

mounting; women were introduced for it about twenty-eight years ago.

They were brought in because the men drank so and kept away from work.

Men used to do paper colouring and varnishing, too, and were replaced

by women for the same reason. The Unions gave no trouble about this.

No women were employed in book-edge gilding by this firm. Mr. ---- and

an old man employee said that some people got their wives to help lay-on

the gold and so on, but it did not come to much.

MACHINERY.--_Paper colouring and enamelling_ machinery has diminished

women's work _considerably_. The head used to have 45 women at it--two

whole floors--and now only has 11. It is done by machinery elsewhere. A

certain amount is still done by hand, and must always be, as it is not

worth while putting anything under five reams on a machine.

_Varnishing._--The head invented the present machines because the women

kept away so. There used to be many more women in the trade.

_Card Mounting._--No machines are employed for this. Girls can feed the

rotary cutting machine, but it is generally done by a man.

HOME WORK.--No work is sent out from here. A good deal of paper

colouring and of varnishing is done by people in their own homes (see

under "Legislation").

FAMILY INCOME.--Very little information on this subject could be had

here. One girl in the varnishing room was pointed out to me, dressed in

black, whose father had recently died. She was the eldest of eleven, and

was "keen on picking up an extra shilling or two."

GENERAL.--The whole place was dirty, and there was hardly a vacant inch

to squeeze past in. Mr. ----, however, did not seem a bad sort of man;

the girls did not seem in the least in awe of him. All the girls looked

of the regular factory girl type, sloppy and dirty, and with their hair

in curlers or curl papers.

Mrs. ----, the paper stainer, who came down to talk to me, seemed a

friendly, rough-and-ready, low-class woman. Her mother worked in the

trade, and when she herself was a baby her cradle was rocked on the

colouring board, and "many is the night" that she sat up all night as a

child helping her mother at home. She seemed to have thriven on it, and

to be immensely proud of her industrial career.

11. _Bookbinding Firm, West End. London. Employée's Evidence._

WORK.--Trade in the West End is quite different to that in City firms.

This employée picked to pieces and sewed.

REGULARITY.--Hers was not a seasonal trade. She was busy all the year

round, but in January and July there was a special press, owing to the

number of magazine volumes then being bound.

HOURS.--She worked 48 per week, the length of the ordinary day being

from 8.30 a.m. to 6 p.m.

PROSPECTS.--She had never known anyone who rose to be a forewoman, but

supposed some did rise. Girls from West End shops could not be City

forewomen because they knew nothing about machines, and in all

advertisements for forewomen knowledge of sewing machines was put as a

necessary qualification.

GENERAL.--I asked why their hours were so much shorter than dressmakers,

and have come to the conclusion that it was because the men had got an

eight-hours' day. She said this class of workers in City shops is lower

than in these West End places, and yet in the City workplaces the best

industrial training is given.

12. _Bookbinding Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._

WORK.--Works at a large place about five minutes' walk away (not the

same place where she learned). There are four rooms of women. N. M.

works in a room on the third floor, where there are 80 women under two

forewomen, sisters. In this room folding, stitching, gathering and

sewing (hand) is done.

In the fourth room there are 12 girls doing machine sewing.

The two lower floor rooms each have about 10 or 12 girls. In one of them

laying-on of gold is done.

She herself does stitching, folding and gathering, hardly ever sewing.

REGULARITY.--Orders are very slack sometimes, especially just now

(August). There had been a great deal of sitting idle, and they had only

been making 6_s._ or 7_s._ per week. They did not like to go "out to

grass" for fear of losing work if it should chance to come in. It was

difficult to get off for a holiday. Sometimes they were told at 1 p.m.

that they could go home.

HEALTH.--_Gold laying-on_ was unhealthy. The dust got on the chest.

_Folding_ and _Sewing_ were very tiring, because "you are sitting in one

position all day." _Gathering_ is the most pleasant, because you walk

about and get a little exercise that way.

PROSPECTS.--There is not much chance of rising. The forewoman and

under-forewoman are sisters, and stay on and on. If one of them were to

give up, her successor would be taken from the time workers. The piece

workers might rise to be time workers, if they cared.

13. _Bookbinding Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._

WORK.--This informant was engaged at gold laying-on exclusively, but was

originally a folder and sewer.

REGULARITY.--In this firm it is a seasonal trade, and slack sometimes as

well. She left M. because of slackness.

HEALTH.--It is not very healthy. Layers-on cannot have the windows open

because of the draught blowing the gold about, also the gas used for

"blocking" overheats the rooms. Girls sometimes faint three or four

times a day, and get anæmic. After working overtime at ----'s would

often stagger in the streets. "You have to drink a lot of tea to keep

you up."

HOURS.--48 a week is about the normal working time, from 9 a.m. to 7

p.m., with one hour for dinner and half an hour for tea, as at M., and 9

a.m. to 1 p.m. on Saturdays; or else from 8.30 a.m. to 6 p.m., as at N.,

with one hour for dinner, and 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon on Saturdays. She

preferred 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., because then she got a tea half-hour. "One

got so faint going on till 6.30 p.m. from 2 p.m."

At O. there was a great deal of overtime; not at M.

PROSPECTS.--She could have been a sort of forewoman at sixteen over 6

other girls at P., but an older hand persuaded her not to; and being

ignorant of the ways of the world she agreed not to, and then the older

hand became forewoman herself! That was her only chance of promotion.

14. J., _Bookbinding Firm in London. Employée's Evidence and Visit to

Works_.

WORK.--Folding, numbering, perforating, sewing. The regular staff do

all, but the firm take in job hands for folding only, when busy.

REGULARITY.--The regular hands are kept on all the year round.

HOURS.--The hours worked average 54 a week, from 8.30 a.m. to 7.30 p.m.

My informant said they were "obliged by the Factory Act[96] to have half

an hour for lunch from 11 a.m. to 11.30 a.m., but they did not take more

than a quarter of an hour, or else they ate whilst working;" dinner from

1 p.m. to 2 p.m., and tea from 5 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. On Saturdays the

hours are 8.30 a.m. to 2 p.m., with 11 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. for lunch.

[Footnote 96: This, of course, is incorrect.]

PROSPECTS.--The girls may rise to forewomen. One who had just risen

quickly to that position was going off to be married.

GENERAL.--They can cook food on the premises at this firm.

15. B., _Stationery Firm in London. Visit to Works_.

WORK.--About 150 to 200 women are employed.

(1) Hand folding and cementing of envelopes (includes putting band

round packet).

(2) Machine folding and cementing of envelopes (includes putting

band round packet).

(3) Black bordering.

(4) Stamping, plain and relief.

(5) Printing of addresses for circulars, etc. (small machines).

(6) Packing twelve packets in long packets and sample packing.

(7) Vellum sewing (folding, sewing, and looking over).

(8) Perforating (in same room).

(9) Machine ruling.

The number of women at each process in the part of factory seen were as

follows:--

(1) About 27, (2) 30, (3) 1, (4) 4 stamping, (5) about 8, (6) 3

and 1 sample packer (probably many more), (7) 4 sewing, 1 looking

over, 2 hanging about, (8) 1, (9) 4.

There are 42 other workers who are all older hands.

The girls employed in (1) are a superior grade to those in (2)

and will not mix at all. Wages about the same. (3), (4), (5), (6),

(7) and (8) are more or less same grade as (1); (9) are lower than

(2).

REGULARITY.--The work here is steady all the year round.

HEALTH.--All the girls are healthy, and the work is quite healthy.

HOURS.--They work 51 hours per week.

PROSPECTS.--Envelope hand folders can rise to be cementers or forewomen

(envelope hand folders being themselves a superior class to machine

folders or machine rulers); packers can rise to be sample packers.

16. R., _Stationery Firm (Christmas Cards, etc.) in London. Visit to

Works_.

WORK.--There are three departments:--

(1) _Relief Stamping_, with 20 regular hands. These girls work the

presses, which are of the newest kind, and some of which are very heavy.

They do monograms and all sorts of designs on menus, wedding cards,

Christmas cards, ball cards, etc., and stamp in gold, silver, or

colours.

(2) _Hand Painting_, with 21 regular hands. This means filling in

stamped-out or printed designs of various kinds of cards with colour,

_e.g._, figures of soldiers, flowers, and so on.

(3) _Packing Department_, with about 12 regular hands. They do up the

cards in packets, fold and gum special wedding envelopes, paste pictures

on to cards, tie the little ribbon bows on cards, and do all the many

little processes required for finishing this kind of work.

REGULARITY.--The work of this firm is very seasonal. The busy time is

for about three months before Christmas, but they are specially rushed

for the six weeks before Christmas. The regular hands are kept on all

the year round, but about 25 or 30 extra are employed for the packing

room for six weeks before Christmas. In the other departments they get a

few married hands just to come in and help. They are now (July)

preparing books of Christmas cards, but the orders for private Christmas

cards do not come in till November and December.

The girls who work in the packing room pack scents, etc., at other times

of the year.

HEALTH.--The work is quite healthy and the girls all appeared to be

healthy. The premises were light and airy. Two of the relief stamping

presses _looked_ very heavy indeed, and the forewoman said that they

were really men's work. The girls working them always had the same

machines, and did not look ill, though they said that it was very

tiring.

MACHINERY.--Machinery has not displaced women in this firm.

HOURS.--For _stamping and packing_ the hours are from 9 a.m. to 6.30

p.m. with three-quarters of an hour for dinner and a quarter of an hour

for tea; on Saturdays, from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m., with half an hour for

lunch. For _painting_ they are from 9 a.m. to 5.45 p.m., with the same

meal hour; on Saturdays, from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m.

The hours of painters had been shortened about a year ago, and it was

found that they did just as much work. For the six weeks before

Christmas they regularly work from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., with as much

overtime as is allowed, _i.e._, three nights a week.

PROSPECTS.--They may rise to forewomen; _e.g._, the forewoman over the

stampers came as an ordinary hand.

GENERAL.--There is a dining room, and every girl can pay 3_s._ a week

and get dinner of meat and pudding and tea every day. This covers all

expenses, wages of cook, gas for stove, all utensils, etc. Last year

there was money over, so they had free meals for a week.

17. G., _Large Stationery Firm in London. Visit to Works_.

WORK.--About 60 girls are employed. _Stationery and Printing_ with

following divisions:--(1) Plain cameo and relief stamping (about 25

girls), (2) illuminating, _i.e._, putting on the colour by hand (2

girls), (3) envelope folding and cementing (9 girls), (4) packing,

including cleaning (girls in each department), (5) folding notepaper

(saw 3 little girls doing this), (6) feeding printing machines, big and

small, and lithographic machines (about 6 girls), (7) various odd jobs,

_e.g._, cutting visiting cards to proper size, (8) feeding ruling

machine (1 girl).

REGULARITY.--This firm's trade is regular. They are busy all the year

round, though perhaps they are busiest at Christmas. The bulk of their

orders come from the country though.

HEALTH.--The little printing and lithographic girls looked anything but

healthy.

MACHINERY.--Machines have not displaced women. There was nothing

dangerous about the machinery used, though the small printing machine

which 1 girl was feeding _might_ be dangerous.

HOURS.--The hours worked are from 8.30 a.m. to 7 p.m., with one hour for

dinner and half an hour for tea; on Saturdays, from 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.

They work overtime at Christmas.

PROSPECTS.--Girls in (4) may rise to (1), and those in (1) to (2).

18. K., _Stationery Firm in London. Visit to Works_.

WORK.--_Numbering and Perforating_; girls also dust and clean up after

blocking.

REGULARITY.--The work in this firm is regular, "as they work for the

trade."

SKILL.--Intelligence is required for numbering, or else valuable

material is spoilt, _e.g._, the other day a girl, who was six months out

of her time, never changed when she came to the 1,000 and so spoilt the

work, as one figure came out darker. Three numbers are harder to do than

two or four. The firm had tried to take two girls from the blocking work

and teach them numbering, but it was no good, they were not intelligent

enough.

HOURS.--The hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7.30 p.m., with one hour for

dinner, ten minutes for lunch, and ten minutes for tea; on Saturdays,

from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m.

PROSPECTS.--The girls can rise to be forewomen.

19. I., _Stationery and Stamping Firm in London. Employee's Evidence_.

WORK.--Stamping, plain and relief, including tradesmen's cards,

notepaper, Christmas cards, etc.

REGULARITY.--The work here is regular, because they work for the trade.

SKILL.--The girls need arm strength. Artistic taste is also required.

Some never make good stampers on account of deficiency in taste.

MACHINERY.--Machinery has not displaced women.

HOURS.--The hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., with one hour for

dinner, and half an hour for tea; on Saturdays, from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m.

PROSPECTS.--Girls may rise to forewomen. "There is a little girl of

fifteen now, who has only been here a year, and the other day Mr. I.

(who does not say things when he does not mean them) told her that she

would rise to be forewoman one day. She is very good at her work and

knows how things should look."

GENERAL.--The girls are very comfortable here. They have a room to

themselves upstairs, and a dining room and a stove to cook on.

20. F., _Stationery Firm in London. Employee's Evidence_.

WORK.--(1) Envelope folding, which includes creasing, gumming, and

shuffling.

(2) Envelope cementing.

(3) Plain stamping.

(4) Relief stamping.