THE REIGN OF TERROR
For six weeks after the fall of the Gironde, until the 13th of July, the
course of events in France, both in Paris and in the provinces, reflected
the bitterness of the two factions, conqueror and conquered. In a minor
way, it also revealed the fundamental difference of attitude between the
two wings of the successful party, between Danton, content to push the
Girondins out of the way of the national policy, and Robespierre,
rankling to destroy those who offended his puritanical and exclusive
doctrine.
The Girondins had behind them a strong country backing; they had always
been the advocates of the provinces against Paris; some of them had
declared for federalism, for local republics, semi-independent states
centring about Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux. Those who succeeded in
escaping from Paris, made their way to where they might obtain support,
and found, here and there, arms open to {186} receive them. Lyons had
risen against the Government on the 29th of May, and had rid itself of
the Jacobin committee headed by Chalier, that had so far held it under
control. Marseilles followed the example of Lyons. Normandy, where a
considerable group of the fugitive deputies sought refuge, began to make
preparations for marching on the capital.
This was serious enough. But two other dangers, each greater, threatened
Paris. The military situation on the northern frontier was still no
better, while the Vendéens were advancing from success to success, were
increasing the size, the confidence, the efficiency of their armies. In
such a desperate situation Danton seemed the only possible saviour, and
for a few weeks he had his way. New generals were appointed; Custine to
the Netherlands, Beauharnais to the Rhine, Biron to the Vendée; and at
the same time negotiations were opened with the powers. But fortune
refused to smile on Danton. Ill success met him at every turn, and
opened the way to power for Robespierre. On the 10th of June the
Vendéens captured the town of Saumur on the Loire, giving them a good
passage for carrying operations to the northern side of the river. A
council of war decided that an {187} advance should be made into Brittany
and Normandy, both strongly disaffected to the Convention. In the latter
province Brissot and Buzot were already actively forming troops for the
projected march against Paris. But before advancing to the north the
Vendéen generals decided that it was imperative they should capture the
city of Nantes, which controls all the country about the mouth of the
Loire. Preparations were made accordingly, and, as the Vendéens had no
siege train, Cathelineau and Charette headed a desperate assault against
the city on the 29th of June. Cathelineau was killed. Nantes defended
itself bravely. The Vendéens were thrown back, and, as many writers have
thought, their failure at that point and at that moment saved the
Republic.
Apart from this one success, everything had been going ill with Danton's
measures, and the Robespierrists were making corresponding headway. On
the 10th of July the Committee of Public Safety was reconstituted, and
Danton was not re-elected. Couthon and St. Just joined it, and
Robespierre himself went on two weeks later; among the other members
Barère for the moment followed Robespierre, while Carnot accepted every
internal {188} measure, concentrating all his energy on the
administration of the war department.
It was just at this instant, with the Vendéens for the moment checked,
that Normandy made its effort. On the 13th of July its army under the
Baron de Wimpffen, a constitutional monarchist, was met by a Parisian
army at Pacy, 30 miles from the capital. The Normans met with defeat, a
defeat they were never able to retrieve.
On the same day a dramatic event was occurring at Paris,--the last
despairing stroke of the Gironde against its detested opponents. From
Caen, where Brissot and Buzot had been helping to organize Wimpffen's
army, there had started for the capital a few days previously a young
woman, Charlotte Corday. Full of enthusiasm, like Madame Roland, for the
humanitarian ideals that blended so largely with the passions of the
Revolution, she represented in its noblest, most fervent form that French
provincial liberalism that looked to the Girondins for leadership. Like
them she detested the three great figures who had led the Parisian
democracy through massacre to its triumph,--Danton, Robespierre, Marat.
And of the three it was Marat who worked deepest on her imagination,
Marat always baying for {189} blood, always scenting fresh victims,
always corrupting opinion with his scum of printer's ink and poison. To
Charlotte Corday it appeared that in this one individual all that was
noble and beautiful in the Revolution was converted into all that was
hideous and ignoble; and she slowly began to perceive that even a feeble
woman like herself could remove that blot from France, if only she could
find the courage. . .
On the 13th of July, Charlotte Corday, accomplished her twofold
sacrifice. She gained admission to Marat's house and stabbed him in his
bath; she meekly but courageously accepted the consequences. After being
nearly lynched by the mob, she was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal,
and sent to the guillotine.
The Prussians captured Mainz on the 23rd of July, the Austrians
Valenciennes on the 28th. These disasters enabled Robespierre and the
Commune to impose their views as to the conduct of the military affairs
of the Republic. Decrees were passed for purifying the army. The
aristocrat generals, Beauharnais, Biron, Custine, were removed, and,
eventually, were all sent to the scaffold. _Sans-culottes_, some honest,
some capable, many dishonest, many {190} incapable, replaced them.
Sans-culottism reigned supreme. Civic purity became the universal test;
and on this shibboleth the Commune inaugurated a system of politics of
which the Tammany organization in New York offers the most conspicuous
example at the beginning of the 20th century. Hébert was the party boss;
his nominees filled the offices; graft was placed on the order of the
day. The ministry of war and its numerous contracts became the happy
hunting ground of the Parisian politician,--Hébert himself, on one
occasion, working off an edition of 600,000 copies of his _Père Duchesne_
through that ministry. And lastly one must add that the army of the
interior, the army facing the Vendée fell into the hands of the
politicians. An incapable drunkard, Rossignol, was placed in command
instead of Biron who, after two victories over the Vendéens, was
dismissed, imprisoned and sent to the guillotine.
It was perhaps necessary that a brave and dashing soldier of the old
school like Biron should be removed from command, if the decrees of the
Convention for prosecuting the war against the Vendée were to be carried
out. One of those decrees ordered that "the forests shall be razed, the
crops cut down, the cattle {191} seized. The Minister of War shall send
combustible materials of all sorts to burn the woods, brush, and heath."
That was the spirit now entering the Revolution, the fury of destruction,
the dementia of suspicion, the reign of terror.
The terrorists were of two sorts, the men of faction like Hébert;
together with those who accepted terrorism reluctantly but daringly like
Danton; with them terror was a political weapon. With Robespierre,
however, and his Jacobin stalwarts, it was something more, a strangely
compounded thing, a political weapon in a sense, but a weapon behind
which stood a bigot, a fanatic, a temperament governed by jealous fears
and by the morbid revengefulness of the man of feeble physique. It was
Robespierre who always stood for the worst side of terrorism, for all
that was most insidious and deep seated in it; and after its failure and
the reaction in the summer of 1794, it was his name that was deservedly
associated with the reign of terror.
Robespierre in the summer of 1793 was still logically maintaining his
attitude; while Danton fought the enemies of the Republic, he fought
Danton's measures. He told the Jacobin Club that it was always the same
{192} proposal they had to face, new levies, new battalions, to feed the
great butchery. The plan of the enemies of the people,--he did not yet
dare declare that Danton was one of them,--was to destroy the republic by
civil and foreign war. In a manuscript note found after his death, he
says "The interior danger comes from the bourgeois; to conquer them one
must rally the people. The Convention must use the people and must
spread insurrection. . . ." In August, carrying his thought a step
further, he appeals to the Jacobin Club against the traitors whom he sees
in everyone whose opinion diverges a hair's breadth from his own. There
are traitors, he declares, even on the Committee of Public Safety, and
all traitors must go to the guillotine.
At the moment this speech was delivered Admiral Lord Hood had just
captured Toulon, while Marseilles was being attacked by Carteaux at the
head of an army acting for the Convention. Coburg, commanding the
Austrian forces in the Netherlands, was gaining a series of minor
successes, and his cavalry was not much more than four days' march from
Paris. Provisions were being gathered into the city by requisition, that
is, by armed columns operating in the neighbouring departments. {193}
Confiscatory measures passed the Convention for raising a forced loan of
1,000,000,000 francs, for converting "superfluous" income to the use of
the State,--a policy of poor man against rich.
Alongside of these measures terrorism was getting into full swing. The
revolutionary tribunal had its staff quadrupled on the 5th of September;
within a few days the sections were given increased police powers; and
Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varennes, the two strongest supporters of
Hébert in the Convention were elected to the Committee of Public Safety.
On the 17th was passed the famous _Loi des suspects_, the most drastic,
if not the first, decree on that burning question. It provided that all
partisans of federalism and tyranny, all enemies of liberty, all
_ci-devant_ nobles not known for their attachment to the new
institutions, must be arrested; and further that the section committees
must draw up lists of suspects residing within their districts. All this
meant a repetition on a larger and better organized plan of the massacres
of a year before. As Danton had said in the debates on the Revolutionary
Tribunal: "This tribunal will take the place of that supreme tribunal,
the vengeance of the people; let us be terrible so {194} as to dispense
the people from being terrible." Judicial, organized terror was to
replace popular, chaotic terror.
With terror now organized, the prisons filled, and the Revolutionary
Tribunal sending victims to the guillotine daily, the internal struggle
became one between two terrorist parties, of Hébert and of Robespierre,
both committed to the policy of the day, but with certain differences.
Hébert viewed the system as one affording personal safety,--the
executioner being safer than the victim,--and the best opportunity for
graft. The man of means was singled out by his satellites for suspicion
and arrest, and was then informed that a judicious payment in the right
quarter would secure release. Beyond that, Hébert probably cared little
enough one way or the other; he was merely concerned in extracting all
the material satisfaction he could out of life. With Robespierre the
case was different; it was a struggle for a cause, for a creed, a creed
of which he was the only infallible prophet. Poor, neat, respectable,
unswerving but jealous, he commanded wide admiration as the type of the
incorruptible democrat; stiffly and self-consciously he was reproducing
the popular pose of Benjamin Franklin. {195} Between him and Hébert
there could be no real union. He was willing, while Hébert remained
strong in his hold on the public, to act alongside of him, but that was
all.
Under the pressure of the Commune and the Mountain, the Convention put
the laws of terror in force against the defeated Gironde on the 3rd of
October. Forty-three deputies, including Philippe _Egalité_, were sent
to the tribunal, and about one hundred others were outlawed or ordered
under arrest. The Convention, having thus washed its hands before the
public, now felt able to make a stand against the increasing
encroachments of the Commune, and on the 10th St. Just proposed that the
Government should continue revolutionary till the peace, which meant that
the Committee of Public Safety should govern and the constitution remain
suspended.
The Committee showed as much vigour in dealing with the provinces as it
showed feebleness in dealing with Paris. Through August and September,
rebellious Lyons had been besieged; early in October it fell. The
Committee proposed a decree which the Convention accepted,--from June
1793 to July 1794 it accepted everything,--declaring that Lyons should be
razed to the earth. Couthon was {196} sent to carry out this draconian
edict, but proved too mild. At the end of October Collot d'Herbois,
Fouché and 3,000 Parisian _sans-culottes_ were sent down, and for awhile
all went well. Houses were demolished, and executions were got in hand
with so much energy that cannon and grape shot had to be used to keep
pace with the rapidity of the sentences. About three thousand persons in
all probably perished.
It was at this moment that in Paris the guillotine, working more slowly
but more steadily than Fouché's cannon and grape, was claiming some of
its most illustrious victims. From the 12th to the 15th of October, the
Revolutionary Tribunal had to deal with the case of Marie Antoinette.
The Queen, who had been treated with increased severity since the
execution of the King, supported the attacks of the pitiless public
prosecutor, Fouquier-Tinville, with firmness and dignity. The
accusations against her were of the same general character as those
against Louis, and require no special comment. But an incident of the
trial brought out some of the most nauseous aspects of the Hébert régime.
The Commune had introduced men of the lowest type at {197} the Temple,
had placed the Dauphin in the keeping of the infamous cobbler Simon, had
attempted to manufacture filthy evidence against the Queen. Hébert went
into the witness box to sling mud at her in person, and it was at that
moment only, with a look and a word of reply that no instinct could
mistake, that she forced a murmur of indignation or sympathy from the
public. Robespierre was dining when he heard of the incident, and in his
anger with Hébert broke his plate over the table.
The Queen went to the guillotine, driven in an open cart, on the 16th. A
week later the Girondins went to trial, twenty-one deputies, among them
Brissot, Vergniaud, Gensonné and Boyer Fonfrède. Their trial lasted five
days, and among its auditors was Camille Desmoulins,--Desmoulins, whose
pamphlets had helped place his unfortunate opponents where they stood,
Desmoulins, whose heart, whose generosity was stirred, who already was
revolting against terrorism, who was suddenly overwhelmed with a wave of
remorse when sentence of death was pronounced against the men of the
Gironde. It was the first revolt of opinion against the reign of terror,
the first {198} perceptible movement of the conscience of France, and it
was to send Desmoulins himself to the guillotine.
The Girondins went to the scaffold on the 31st of October. The Duc
d'Orléans on the 6th of November; four days later Madame Roland, who met
death perhaps a little pedantically but quite nobly; then, on the 12th,
Bailly. Of the Girondins who had escaped from Paris several committed
suicide, Roland on receiving news of his wife's death; others within the
next few months, Condorcet, Pétion, Buzot.
In this same month of November 1793 was introduced the Revolutionary
Calendar, of which more will be said in the last chapter.[1] The holy
seventh day disappeared in favour of the anti-clerical tenth day, Décadi;
Saints' days and Church festivals were wiped out. This new departure was
a step forward in the religious question which, a few weeks later,
brought about an acute crisis.
Between October and December the climax and the turn were reached in the
Vendean war. After heavy fighting in October Henri de La Rochejacquelein
had invaded Brittany, defeating the Republicans at Chateau Gontier {199}
on the 25th. Rossignol now had under his orders the garrison of Mainz
and two excellent subordinates in Kléber and Marceau, who succeeded, in
spite of their commander, in wresting success at last. On the 13th of
December a tremendous struggle took place at Le Mans in which the
Vendéens were beaten after a loss of about 15,000 men. Kléber gave them
no respite but a few days later cut up the remnants at Savenay. Although
fighting continued long afterwards this proved the end of the Vendean
grand army.
These victories were immediately followed by judicial repression. The
_conventionnel_ Carrier organized a Revolutionary Tribunal at Nantes, and
committed worse horrors than Fouché had at Lyons. Finding a rate of 200
executions a day insufficient he invented the noyade. River barges were
taken, their bottoms were hinged so as to open conveniently, and
prisoners, tied in pairs, naked and regardless of sex, were taken out in
them, and released into the water. At Nantes, like at Arras and several
other points, the proceedings of the Revolutionary Tribunals and of the
gangs who worked the prisons, were marked by gross immorality in dealing
with the women prisoners. At Nantes, Carrier, {200} most thorough and
most infamous of the Terrorists, is said to have caused the death of
15,000 persons in four months.
The fury of the Revolution, which turned to frenzy and dementia at
Nantes, blazed into a marvellous flame of patriotic energy on the
frontiers. Nearly half a million men were enrolled in the course of
1793. A new volunteer battalion was added to each battalion of the old
army, the new unit being named a _demi-brigade_. Rankers were pushed up
to high command, partly by political influence, partly for merit.
Jourdan, an old soldier, a shop-keeper, became general of the army of the
north, and on the 15th of October defeated Coburg at Wattignies. The
brilliant Hoche, ex-corporal of the French guards, was placed at the head
of the army of the Moselle. Pichegru, the son of a peasant, took over
the army of the Rhine. Under these citizen generals new tactics replaced
the old. Pipe-clay and method gave way to Sans-culottism and dash. The
greatest of the generals of the Revolution said: "I had sooner see a
soldier without his breeches than without his bayonet." Rapidity,
surprise, the charging column, the helter-skelter pursuit, were the
innovations of {201} the new French generals. They translated into terms
of tactics and strategy, Danton's famous apostrophe, "Audacity, more
audacity, yet more audacity!"
[1] See Chap. XVII.
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