FOOTNOTE:

[1] For the pass of Ad Lautulas see TERRACINA.

FONNI, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft. above

sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S. of Nuoro by road.

Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village in Sardinia, and situated

among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. The church of the

Franciscans, built in 1708, contains some curious paintings by local

artists. The costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on

the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is

similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are

long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over

that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and

black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a

blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two

identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried

girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black. A little to the N.

of Fonni, by the high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile,

mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ as situated 87 m. from Carales on

the road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the

discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three sides of

a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of baths and other

buildings, and a massive embanking wall above them, some 150 ft. in

length, to protect them from landslips (F. Vivanet, in _Notizie degli

scavi_, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while a discharge certificate (_tabula

honestae missionis_) of sailors who had served in the _classis Ravennas_

was found in some ruins here or hereabouts (_id. ib._, 1882, 440; T.

Mommsen, _Corp. inscr. Lat._ x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several

"menhirs" (called _pietre celtiche_ in the district) and other

prehistoric remains. (T. As.)

FONSAGRADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; 25

m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302. Fonsagrada is situated

3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed between the rivers Rodil and

Suarna. It is an important market for all kinds of agricultural produce,

and manufactures linen and frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing

to the mountainous character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a

railway or navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any

considerable export trade.

FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA (1827-1892), first president of the united

states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas on the 5th of August 1827, being

the third son of Lieut.-Colonel Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He

was educated at the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained

the rank of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864

against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez, dictator of

Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and before the close of

the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel, and some years later

that of general of division. After holding several military commands, he

was appointed in 1886 governor of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In

this position he threw himself heartily into politics, espoused the

republican opinions then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their

exponents with his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the

government at the close of the year removed him from his post, and

recalled him to the capital as director of the service of army material.

Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage

insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed him from

office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the viscount de

Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of the military officers'

political rights. From that time his influence was supreme in the army.

In December 1888, when the Conservative Correa d'Oliveira became prime

minister, Fonseca was appointed to command an army corps on the frontier

of Matto Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a

dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to the chamber

of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in September. Divisions of

opinion soon arose within the Liberal party on the question of

provincial autonomy. The more extreme desired the inauguration of a

complete federal system. Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the

journalist and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to

head an armed movement against the government. The insurrection broke

out on the 15th of November 1889. The government commander, Almeida

Barreto, hastened to place himself under Fonseca's orders, and the

soldiers and sailors made common cause with the insurgents. The affair

was almost bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being

the only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn the

ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican, leaders

and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was constituted by

the army and navy in the name of the nation, with Fonseca at its head.

The council was abolished, and both the senate and the chamber of

deputies were dissolved. The emperor was requested to leave the

territory of Brazil within twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of

November was embarked on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 20th of December a

decree of banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So

universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt at

armed resistance. The provisional government exercised dictatorial

powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891 Fonseca was elected

president of the republic. He was, however, no politician, and possessed

indeed little ability beyond the art of acquiring popularity. His tenure

of office was short. In May he became involved in an altercation with

congress, and in November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond

his constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule

insurrection broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of

November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office. From

that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de Janeiro on the 23rd

of August 1892.

FONSECA, AMAPALA or CONCHAGUA, BAY OF, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean in

the volcanic region between the Central American republics of Honduras,

Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is unsurpassed in extent and security by

any other harbour on the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest

length, by about 30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea

about 18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.)

and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita and

Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called "Los Farellones," divide

the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient depth for

the largest vessels. A channel called "El Estero Real" extends from the

extreme southern point of the bay into Nicaragua for about 50 m.,

reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake Managua. The principal islands in

the bay are Sacate Grande, Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to

Honduras, and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri

belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest, being

about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its position is the

most important in the bay, being about 20 m. in circumference, and

rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft. On the southern and eastern

shores of the island the lava forms black rocky barriers to the waves,

varying in height from 10 to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward

are a number of _playas_ or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the

most considerable of these is the port of Amapala (q.v.). Fonseca Bay

was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named by him after

his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable enemy of Columbus.

FONT (Lat. _fons_, "fountain" or "spring," Ital. _fonte_, Fr. _les

fonts_), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for Christian

baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was administered at rivers or

natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no doubt the primitive form of

the rite was by _immersion_ in the water. _Infusion_--pouring water on

the head of the neophyte--was early introduced into the west and north

of Europe on account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its

occasional danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental

churches. _Aspersion_, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid, but

recorded early examples of its use are rare (see BAPTISM). These

different modes of administering baptism have caused corresponding

changes in the receptacles for the water. After the cessation of

persecution, when ritual and ornament began to develop openly, special

buildings were erected for administering the rite of baptism. This was

obviously necessary, for a large _piscina_ (basin or tank) in which

candidates could be immersed would occupy too much space of the church

floor itself. These baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an

ascent of three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but

not the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber (see

BAPTISTERY).

By the 9th century, however, the use of separate baptisteries had

generally given place to that of fonts. The material of which these were

made was stone, often decorative marble; as early as 524, however, the

council of Lerida enacted that if a stone font were not procurable the

presbyter was to provide a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament

exclusively, which might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the

font never became an important decorative article of church furniture:

"The font, [Greek: kolumbethra] (says Neale, _Eastern Church_, i. 214),

in the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in the

West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the font seldom or

never possesses any beauty. The material is usually either metal or

wood. In Russia the _columbethra_ is movable and only brought out when

wanted."

One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by Anastasius

in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been presented thereto

by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry, overlaid with silver

inside and out. In the middle were two porphyry pillars carrying a

golden dish, on which burnt the Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick

and fed with balsam). On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with

silver statues of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags

poured out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional; the

majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine early

Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed, at Beer-Sheba.

Few if any fonts survive older than the 11th century. These are all of

stone, except a few of lead; much less common are fonts of cast bronze

(a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the Church of St Barthelemy,

Liege). The most ancient are plain cylindrical bowls, with a

circular--sometimes cruciform or quatrefoil--outline to the basin,

either without support or with a single central pillar; occasionally

there is more than one pillar. The basins are usually lined with lead to

prevent absorption by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh,

possesses an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the

circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not

infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone is found.

Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon; hexagons are even less

common, and pentagons very rare. There is a pentagonal font of this

period at Cabourg, dept. Calvados, N. France.

Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief. Arcading

and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and pictorial

representation. A very remarkable leaden font is preserved at

Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in the life of Christ.

At Pont-a-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-reliefs of St John the Baptist

preaching, and baptizing Christ. Caryatides sometimes take the place of

the pillars, and sculptured animals and grotesques of strange design not

infrequently form the base. More remarkable is the occasional

persistence of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very

ancient font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian

symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor (see

G. Stephens' brochure, _Thunor the Thunderer_).

In the 13th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A very remarkable

example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim in Hanover, resting on

four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase from which water is running

(typical of the rivers of Paradise). Above is an inscription explaining

the connexion of these rivers with the virtues of temperance, courage,

justice and prudence. On the sides of the cup are representations of the

passage of the Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the

Virgin and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with

bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and

Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures of Our

Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles, exists at

Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexameters inscribed

upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries octagonal fonts became the

rule. They are delicately ornamented with mouldings and similar

decorations, in the contemporary style of Gothic architectural art.

Though the basin is usually circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are

not infrequently found in which the outline of the basin follows the

octagonal shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this

type are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel.

In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the Norman

conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude examples, such as

those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton, Sussex, are actually of Saxon

times; of course we cannot count as "Saxon fonts" those adapted from

pre-Norman sculptured stones originally designed for other purposes,

such as that at Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are

very common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman

parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain, but

generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage, &c. Among

good examples that might be instanced of this period are Alphington,

Devon (inverted cone, without foot); Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on

caryatides); Ilam, Staffs (cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale,

Sculthorpe, Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the

last, remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a

projecting stoup in the side for the chrism--a unique detail); besides

others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden, Kent; Coleshill,

Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome, Herefordshire. Some of the best

examples of "Norman" fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in

Winchester cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the

Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font at

Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden fonts that

remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in Gloucestershire, 4

in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford and Sussex, 1 in Derby,

Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and Wiltshire); perhaps the finest

examples are at Ashover, Derbyshire, and Walton, Surrey. Early English

fonts are comparatively rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth

ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of an Early

English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be seen at St

Giles', Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the Decorated period

are commoner, but not so frequent as those of the preceding Norman or

subsequent Perpendicular periods. Fonts of the Perpendicular period are

very common, and are generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem,

which, together with the body of the font, are frequently richly

ornamented with panelling. It was also the custom during this period to

ornament the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic

insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however, are as a

rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular work, are stiff

and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable font, with sculptured

figures, belonging to the late 14th century, at West Drayton in

Middlesex.

In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal children

of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544 by Sir R. Lea, and

given by him to the church at St Albans, but was afterwards destroyed by

the Puritans. A silver font existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes

brought to Westminster on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham,

Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the 16th

century. The only existing structure at all recalling the ancient

baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in Bedfordshire. The

font at Luton belongs to the Decorated style, and is enclosed in an

octagonal structure of freestone, consisting of eight pillars about 25

ft. in height, supporting a canopy. The space around the font is large

enough to hold twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a

vessel for containing the consecrated water, which when required was let

down into the font by means of a pipe.

In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, that

baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a precaution

against sorcery:--"Fontes baptismales sub sera clausi teneantur propter

sortilegia." The lids appear at first to have been quite simple and

flat. They gradually, however, partook of the ornamentation of the font

itself, and are often of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated

with finials, crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers

are very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be raised

at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme, Oxon; St Gregory,

Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk; Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary

position of the font in the church was and is near the entrance, usually

to the left of the south door.

See Arcisse de Caumont, _Cours d'antiquites monumentales_ (Paris,

1830-1843); Francis Simpson, _A Series of Antient Baptismal Fonts_

(London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dict.

raisonne de l'architecture_ (1858-1868), vol. v.; J.H. Parker's

_Glossary of Architecture_; Francis Bond, _Fonts and Font-Covers_

(London, 1908). A large number of fine illustrations of fonts,

principally of the earlier periods, will be found in the volumes of

the _Reliquary_ and _Illustrated Archaeologist_. (R. A. S. M.)

FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD (1762-1853), French architect, was

born at Pontoise on the 20th of September 1762. He came of a family

several of whose members had distinguished themselves as architects.

Leaving the college of Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to

L'Isle-Adam to assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect

Andre. To facilitate his improvement Andre allowed him to have access to

his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was sent to Paris

to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and there began his

acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into a life-long friendship.

After six years of study he competed for a prize at the Academy, and,

winning the second for the plan of an underground chapel, he received a

pension and was sent to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The

Revolution breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge

in England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was

employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by the painter,

David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Henceforth he was fully

engaged in the principal architectural works executed in Paris as

architect successively to Napoleon I., Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe.

In conjunction with Percier (till his death) he was employed on the arch

of the Carrousel, the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand

staircase of the Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the

Louvre and the Tuileries. In 1812 he was admitted a member of the

Academy of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the

emperor. With Percier he published the following works--_Palais_,

_maisons_, _et autres edifices de Rome moderne_ (1802); _Descriptions de

ceremonies et de fetes_ (1807 and 1810); _Recueil de decorations

interieures_ (1812); _Choix des plus celebres maisons de plaisance de

Rome et des environs_ (1809-1813); _Residences des souverains,

Parallele_ (1833). _L'histoire du Palais-Royal_ was published by

Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and associate, in 1838, and

himself died in Paris on the 10th of October 1853.

FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S.E. of Paris on the railway

to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 11,108. Fontainebleau, a town of clean, wide and

well-built streets, stands in the midst of the forest of Fontainebleau,

nearly 2 m. from the left bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the

Tambour mansion, and a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of

Ferrara, both of the 16th century, are still preserved; apart from the

palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of General

Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a monument to

President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontainebleau is the seat of a

subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.

The school of practical artillery and engineering was transferred to

Fontainebleau from Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part

of the palace surrounding the cour des offices.

Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills, and

manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are grown in the

vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort, and during the season

the president of the Republic frequently resides in the palace. This

famous building, one of the largest, and in the interior one of the most

sumptuous, of the royal residences of France, lies immediately to the

south-east of the town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by

buildings, extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du Cheval

Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting scene between

Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour de la Fontaine, the Cour

Ovale, built on the site of a more ancient chateau, and the Cour d'

Henri IV.: the smaller Cour des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the

Cour Ovale. The exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. _Fons

Bleaudi_) are equally unknown, but the older chateau was used in the

latter part of the 12th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas Becket

to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued a favourite

residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The creator of the present

edifice was Francis I., under whom the architect Gilles le Breton

erected most of the buildings of the Cour Ovale, including the Porte

Doree, its southern entrance, and the Salle des Fetes, which, in the

reign of Henry II., was decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio

and Nicolo dell' Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber

in France. The Galerie de Francois I. and the lower storey of the left

wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same architect, who

also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin. In the same reign

the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the Chapelle de la Ste Trinite and

the Galerie d'Ulysse, destroyed and rebuilt under Louis XV., was

constructed by Pierre Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes

most to Henry IV., to whom are due the Cour d' Henri IV., the Cour des

Princes, with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs,

used as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase in

the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12,000,000 francs on works

of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and Napoleon III.

devoted considerable sums to the same end. The palace is surrounded by

gardens and ornamental waters--to the north the Jardin de l'Orangerie,

to the south the Jardin Anglais and the Parterre, between which extends

the lake known as the Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large

numbers. A space of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered

by the park, which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of

Henry IV. On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine

white grapes.

_Forest of Fontainebleau._--The forest of Fontainebleau is one of the

most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations it has been

the chosen haunt of French landscape painters. Among the most celebrated

spots are the Vallee de la Solle, the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de

Franchard and d'Apremont, and the Fort l'Empereur. The whole area

extends to 42,200 acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter

of this area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone

supplied a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech,

hornbeam and birch are the chief varieties of trees.

It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical events

which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the Fair, Henry III. and

Louis XIII. were all born in the palace, and the first of these kings

died there. James V. of Scotland was there received by his intended

bride; and Charles V. of Germany was entertained there in 1539.

Christina of Sweden lived there for years, and the gallery is still to

be seen where in 1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to

death. In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of the

edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the great Conde.

In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests in Peter the Great of

Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark; and in the early part of the 19th

century it was twice the residence of Pius VII.,--in 1804 when he came

to consecrate the emperor Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his

prisoner.

See Pfnor, _Monographie de Fontainebleau_, with text by Champollion

Figeac (Paris, 1866); _Guide artistique et historique au palais de

Fontainebleau_ (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, _Recherches sur

Fontainebleau_ (Fontainebleau, 1896).

FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE (1801-1839), French man of letters, was born at

Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began his career as a clerk in a

government office, but was dismissed for taking part in a political

banquet. At the age of nineteen he went to Paris and began to contribute

to the _Tablettes_ and the _Album_. He was brought to trial for

political articles written for the latter paper, but defended himself so

energetically that he secured the indefinite postponement of his case.

The offending paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a

collection of political poems, _Odes et epitres_, and a number of plays,

of which _Perkins Warbec_ (1828), written in collaboration with MM.

Halevy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828 the _Album_ was

revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent but witty attack on

Charles X., entitled _Le Mouton enrage_ (20th June 1829). To escape the

inevitable prosecution Fontan fled over the frontier, but, finding no

safe asylum, he returned to Paris to give himself up to the authorities,

and was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was

liberated by the revolution of 1830, and his _Jeanne la folle_,

performed in the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to

sympathy with the author's political principles than to the merits of

the piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton

history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, which he wrote

in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, _Le Proces d'un marechal de

France_ (printed 1831), was suppressed on the night of its production.

Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of October 1839.

A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis of his

principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin's _Histoire de la

litterature dramatique_, vol. i.

FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607), Italian architect and mechanician, was

born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in 1543. After a good

training in mathematics, he went in 1563 to join his elder brother, then

studying architecture at Rome. He made rapid progress, and was taken

into the service of Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in

the church of Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the

cardinal's pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana

volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense. The

cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of Sixtus V., he

immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect. Amongst the works

executed by him were the Lateran palace, the palace of Monte Cavallo

(the Quirinal), the Vatican library, &c. But the undertaking which

brought Fontana the highest repute was the removal of the great Egyptian

obelisk, which had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from

the place where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in

front of St Peter's he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus

V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation of public

moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his post (1592). This

appears to have been just in time to save the Colosseum from being

converted by Fontana into a huge cloth factory, according to a project

of Sixtus V. Fontana was then called to Naples, and accepted the

appointment of architect to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples

he built the royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a

new harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only

literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the obelisk

(Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was honoured with a public

funeral in the church of Santa Anna. His plan for a new harbour at

Naples was carried out only after his death. His son Giulio Cesare

succeeded him as royal architect in Naples, the university of that town

being his best-known building.

FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter, was the daughter

of Prospero Fontana (q.v.). She was greatly employed by the ladies of

Bologna, and, going thence to Rome, painted the likenesses of many

illustrious personages, being under the particular patronage of the

family (Buoncampagni) of Pope Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman

ladies, from the days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in

1605, showed no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had

done; and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits,

often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works of a

different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness. Among

the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum; the "Virgin lifting

a veil from the sleeping infant Christ," in the Escorial; and the "Queen

of Sheba visiting Solomon." Her own portrait in youth--she was accounted

very beautiful--was perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts

Zappi of Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband,

whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the draperies

in many of Lavinia's pictures. She is deemed on the whole a better

painter than her father; from him naturally came her first instruction,

but she gradually adopted the Caraccesque style, with strong

quasi-Venetian colouring. She was elected into the Academy of Rome, and

died in that city in 1614.

FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597), Italian painter, was born in Bologna, and

became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola. He afterwards worked for Vasari

and Perino del Vaga. It was probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a

practice of offhand, self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of

commissions, and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few

weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Citta di Castello. Along

with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works of parade he

attained a certain measure of success, although his drawing was

incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs to the degenerate

period of the Bolognese school, under the influence chiefly of the

imitators of Raphael--Sabbatini, Sammachini and Passerotti being three

of his principal colleagues. His soundest successes were in portraiture,

in which branch of art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo

introduced him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was

pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court with the

three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand scale, and figured

as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his professional brethren.

Returning to Bologna, after doing some work in Fontainebleau and in

Genoa, he opened a school of art, in which he became the preceptor of

Lodovico and Agostino Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as

reformers and innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue

of Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane history

and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in Bologna,--the

picture of the "Adoration of the Magi," in the church of S. Maria delle

Grazie, being considered his masterpiece--not unlike the style of Paul

Veronese. He died in Rome in 1597.

FONTANE, THEODOR (1819-1898), German poet and novelist, was born at

Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At the age of sixteen he was

apprenticed to a chemist, and after qualifying as an apothecary, he

found employment in Leipzig and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in

England, and settling in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature.

He made repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English

ballads, and as the first fruits of his tours published _Ein Sommer in

London_ (1854); _Aus England, Studien und Briefe_ (1860) and _Jenseit

des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland_ (1860). Fontane was

particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg, in which his home lay;

he was proud of its past achievements, and delighted in the growth of

the capital city, Berlin. The fascination which the country of his birth

had for him may be seen in his delightfully picturesque _Wanderungen

durch die Mark Brandenburg_ (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the

wars of Prussia in _Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864_

(1866) and _Der deutsche Krieg von 1866_ (1869). He proceeded to the

theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs,

remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates in

_Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870_ (1871), and he published the result of

his observations of the campaign in _Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870-71_

(1874-1876). Like most of his contemporaries, he at first sought

inspiration for his poetry in the heroes of other countries. His

_Gedichte_ (1851) and ballads _Manner und Helden_ (1860) tell of

England's glories in bygone days. Then the achievements of his own

countrymen entered into rivalry, and these, as an ardent patriot, he

immortalized in poem and narrative. It is, however, as a novelist that

Fontane is best known. His fine historical romance _Vor dem Sturm_

(1878) was followed by a series of novels of modern life: _L'Adultera_

(1882); _Schach von Wuthenow_ (1883); _Irrungen, Wirrungen_ (1888);

_Stine_ (1890); _Unwiederbringlich_ (1891); _Effi Briest_ (1895); _Der

Stechlin_ (1899), in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the

realistic methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to

the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September 1898

at Berlin.

Fontane's _Gesammelte Romane und Erzahlungen_ were published in 12

vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the

autobiographical works _Meine Kinderjahre_ (1894) and _Von zwanzig bis

dreissig_ (1898), also _Briefe an seine Familie_ (1905); also F.

Servaes, _Theodor Fontane_ (1900).

FONTANES, LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1821), French poet and politician, was

born at Niort (Deux Sevres) on the 6th of March 1757. He belonged to a

noble Protestant family of Languedoc which had been reduced to poverty

by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father and grandfather

remained Protestant, but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His

parents died in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he

found a friend in the dramatist J.F. Ducis. His first published poems,

some of which were inspired by English models, appeared in the _Almanack

des Muses_; "Le Cri de mon coeur," describing his own sad childhood, in

1778; and "La Foret de Navarre" in 1780. His translation from Alexander

Pope, _L'Essai sur l'homme_, was published with an elaborate preface in

1783, and _La Chartreuse_ and _Le Jour des morts_ in the same year, _Le

Verger_ in 1788 and his _Epitre sur l'edit en faveur des

non-catholiques_, and the _Essai sur l'astronomie_ in 1789. Fontanes was

a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became joint-editor of the

_Moderateur_. He married at Lyons in 1792, and his wife's first child

was born during their flight from the siege of that town. Fontanes was

in hiding in Paris when the four citizens of Lyons were sent to the

Convention to protest against the cruelties of Collot d'Herbois. The

petition was drawn up by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered,

he fled from Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and

afterwards at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor

of literature in the Ecole Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he was one

of the original members of the Institute. In the _Memorial_, a journal

edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated reaction to the monarchical

principle. He was exiled by the Directory and made his way to London,

where he was closely associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to

France, and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to write

an _eloge_ on Washington, secured his return to the Institute and his

political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legislative chamber,

of which he was president from 1804 to 1810. Other honours and titles

followed. He has been accused of servility to Napoleon, but he had the

courage to remonstrate with him on the judicial murder of the due

d'Enghien, and as grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he

consistently supported religious and monarchical principles. He

acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis in 1817.

He died on the 17th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving eight cantos of an

unfinished epic poem entitled _La Grece sauvee_.

The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of the 18th

century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-Beuve edited the

_Oeuvres_ (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sympathetic critical study of

the author and his career. But by that time the Romantic movement was in

the ascendant and Fontanes met with small appreciation.

FONTENAY-LE-COMTE, a town of western France, capital of an

arrondissement in the department of Vendee 30 m. N.E. of La Rochelle on

the State railway between that town and Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639;

commune, 10,326. Fontenay, an ancient and straggling town, is situated a

few miles south of the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the

Vendee, at the point where it becomes navigable. The church of

Notre-Dame (15th to 18th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly

sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (16th and 17th

centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town has several

houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most remarkable of these is

the Hotel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600), which contains much rich

decoration together with collections of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay

was the birthplace of many prominent men during the 15th and 16th

centuries, and the Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the

Renaissance style, given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates

the fact. The chief square is named after Francois Viete, the great

mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public institutions

of the town include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.

Among its industries are the manufacture of felt hats, oil and soap and

timber-sawing, flour-milling and tanning. There is trade in horses,

mules, timber, grain, fruit, &c.

Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls. The affix

of "comte" is said to have been applied to it when it was taken by King

Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and given to his brother Alphonse,

count of Poitou, under whom it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to

the English by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by

Duguesclin. It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of

the 16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both by the

republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From 1790 to 1806 it

was capital of the department of Vendee.

FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (1657-1757), French author, was born at

Rouen, on the 11th of February 1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of

January 1757, having thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His

father was an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two

Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his native

city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary precocity and

versatility of his talents. His teachers, who readily appreciated these,

were anxious for him to join their order, but his father had designed

him for the bar, and an advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost

the first cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and

gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was first

directed to poetry; and more than once he competed for prizes of the

French Academy, but never with success. He visited Paris from time to

time and established intimate relations with the abbe de Saint Pierre,

the abbe Vertot and the mathematician Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in

1680, the total failure of his tragedy _Aspar_. Fontenelle afterwards

acknowledged the justice of the public verdict by burning his

unfortunate drama. His opera of _Thetis et Pelee_, 1689, though highly

praised by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and

it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic works not one

has kept the stage. His _Poesies pastorales_ (1688) have no greater

claim to permanent repute, being characterized by stiffness and

affectation; and the utmost that can be said for his poetry in general

is that it displays much of the _limae labor_, great purity of diction

and occasional felicity of expression.

His _Lettres galantes du chevalier d'Her_ ..., published anonymously in

1685, was an amusing collection of stories that immediately made its

mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised

as the rival princesses Mreo and Eenegu, in the _Relation de l'ile de

Borneo_, gave proof of his daring in religious matters. But it was by

his _Nouveaux Dialogues des morts_ (1683) that Fontenelle established a

genuine claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three

years later by the appearance of the _Entretiens sur la pluralite des

mondes_ (1686), a work which was among the very first to illustrate the

possibility of being scientific without being either uninteresting or

unintelligible to the ordinary reader. His object was to popularize

among his countrymen the astronomical theories of Descartes; and it may

well be doubted if that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or

successful expositor among his disciples.

Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687 he removed

to Paris; and in the same year he published his _Histoire des oracles_,

a book which made a considerable stir in theological and philosophical

circles. It consisted of two essays, the first of which was designed to

prove that oracles were not given by the supernatural agency of demons,

and the second that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It

excited the suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus,

published a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition

of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered. To the

following year (1688) belongs his _Digression sur les anciens et les

modernes_, in which he took the modern side in the controversy then

raging; his _Doutes sur le systeme physique des causes occasionnelles_

(against Malebranche) appeared shortly afterwards.

In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of the

determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this quarrel,

especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous occasions had

secured his rejection. He consequently was admitted a member both of the

Academy of Inscriptions and of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he

became perpetual secretary to the latter body. This office he actually

held for the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official

capacity that he wrote the _Histoire du renouvellement de l'Academie des

Sciences_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts and

analyses of the proceedings, and also the _eloges_ of the members,

written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best known of

his _eloges_, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that of his uncle

Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the _Nouvelles de la

republique des lettres_ (January 1685) and, as _Vie de Corneille_, was

included in all the editions of Fontenelle's _Oeuvres_. The other

important works of Fontenelle are his _Elements de la geometrie de

l'infini_ (1727) and his _Apologie des tourbillons_ (1752). Fontenelle

forms a link between two very widely different periods of French

literature, that of Corneille, Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and

that of Voltaire, D'Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in

virtue of his great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually

had much in common with the _beaux esprits_ of the 17th century, as well

as with the _philosophes_ of the 18th. But it is to the latter rather

than to the former period that he properly belongs.

He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-Beuve has

said, he well deserves a place "_dans la classe des esprits infiniment

distingues_"--distinguished, however, it ought to be added by

intelligence rather than by intellect, and less by the power of saying

much than by the power of saying a little well. In personal character he

has sometimes been described as having been revoltingly heartless; and

it is abundantly plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling

strongly the more generous emotions--a misfortune, or a fault, which

revealed itself in many ways. "_Il faut avoir de l'ame pour avoir du

gout._" But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken

too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the esteem of

many friends suffices to show that the theoretical selfishness which he

sometimes professed cannot have been consistently and at all times

carried into practice.

There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle's works, the

first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The best is

that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate works have

been very frequently reprinted and also translated. The _Pluralite des

mondes_ was translated into modern Greek in 1794. Sainte-Beuve has an

interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several useful references, in

the _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii. See also Villemain, _Tableau de la

litterature francaise au XVIII^e siecle_; the abbe Trublet, _Memoires

pour servir a l'histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de M. de

Fontenelle_ (1759); A. Laborde-Milaa, _Fontenelle_ (1905), in the

"Grands ecrivains francais" series; and L. Maigron, _Fontenelle,

l'homme, l'oeuvre, l'influence_ (Paris, 1906).

FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, about 4 m.

S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of Fontenoy, in which

on the 11th of May 1745 the French army under Marshal Saxe defeated the

Anglo-Allied army under the duke of Cumberland. The object of the French

(see also AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE) was to cover the siege of the

then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies, who slowly

advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed of the impending attack,

Louis XV., with the dauphin, came with all speed to witness the

operations, and by his presence to give Saxe, who was in bad health and

beset with private enemies, the support necessary to enable him to

command effectively. Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal

Konigsegg, and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of

Waldeck.

The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river at

Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between Antoing and

Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed, and Fontenoy itself was

put in a complete state of defence. On the left rear of this line, and

separated from Fontenoy by some furlongs of open ground, another redoubt

was made at the corner of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain.

The infantry was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy

redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood; behind them

was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were guarded by a mounted

volunteer corps called _Grassins_. At Calonne the marshal had

constructed three military bridges against the contingency of a forced

retreat. The force of the French was about 60,000 of all arms, not

including 22,000 left in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself,

who was suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to

mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the troops.

At early dawn of the 11th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian army with the

Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vezon, facing towards Fontenoy

and the wood, while the Dutch on their left extended the general line to

Peronne. The total force was 46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe

could actually put into the line of battle.

The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Konigsegg and Waldeck on the

10th grew out of circumstances. A preliminary skirmish had cleared the

broken ground immediately about Vezon and revealed a part of the

defender's dispositions. It was resolved that the Dutch should attack

the front Antoing-Fontenoy, while Cumberland should deliver a flank

attack against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground

between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round the wood was

projected but had to be given up, as in the late evening of the 10th the

Allies' light cavalry drew fire from its southern edge. Cumberland then

ordered his cavalry commander to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to

cover the formation of the infantry. On the morning of the 11th another

and most important modification had to be made. The advance was

beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became visible.

Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby (major and

brevet-colonel 1st Guards), with four regiments and an artillery

detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing its fire with that of

Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the development of the flank

attack. At 6 A.M. the brigade moved off, but it was irresolutely handled

and halted time after time; and after waiting as long as possible, the

British and Hanoverian cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and

extended in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious

cannonade which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir

John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were to have

covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns of the Dutch

towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry forward through the lanes,

each unit on reaching open ground covering the exit and deployment of

the one in rear, all under the French cannonade. This went on for two

hours, and save that it showed the magnificent discipline of the British

and Hanoverian regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack.

Cumberland's own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the

Guards' Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed Antoine

Louis, duc de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Francaises, and another

Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe's artillery commander.

[Illustration: Map of Fontenoy.]

It was now 9 A.M., and while the guns from the wood redoubt battered the

upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby's brigade was huddled together,

motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself galloped thither, and under

his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the last remnants of self-possession. To

Sir John Ligonier's aide-de-camp, who delivered soon afterwards a

bitterly formal order to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the

duke's orders were for him to advance in line with Ligonier's main body.

By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had collapsed.

But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together had roused a

stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the men they led.

Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the Hanoverian general

Zastrow, gave up the right attack and brought his battalions into the

main body. A second halfhearted attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by

some Dutch troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of

these battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland

regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own accord.

Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-marshal had agreed to

take all risks and to storm through between Fontenoy and the wood

redoubt, and had launched the great attack, one of the most celebrated

in the history of war. The English infantry was in two lines. The

Hanoverians on their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to

file into third line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were

the battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-drawn,

accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry followed. The column

may have numbered 14,000 infantry. All the infantry battalions closed on

their centre, the normal three ranks becoming six. If the proper

distances between lines were preserved, the mass must have formed an

oblong about 500 yds X 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).

The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the front line and

gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade order, drums beating

and colours flying, the mass advanced, straight up the gentle slope,

which was swept everywhere by the flanking artillery of the defence.

Then, when the first line reached the low crest on the ends of which

stood the French artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full

enfilade from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy's horse and

foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the front

gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to avoid the fire.

Then the French advanced, and the Guards Brigade and the Gardes

Francaises met face to face. Captain Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760),

lieutenant of the First (Grenadier) Guards, suddenly ran in front of the

line, took off his hat to the enemy and drank to them from a pocket

flask, shouting a taunt, "We hope you will stand till we come up to you,

and not swim the river as you did at Dettingen," then, turning to his

own men, he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers

returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether or not the

French, as legend states, were asked and refused to fire first, the

whole British line fired one tremendous series of volleys by companies.

50 officers and 760 men of the three foremost French regiments fell at

once, and at so appalling a loss the remnant broke and fled. Three

hundred paces farther on stood the second line of the French, and slowly

the mass advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the

French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept the

crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up, the

assailants were practically in square and repelled various partial

attacks coming from all sides. The Regiment du Roi lost 33 officers and

345 men at the hands of the Second (Coldstream) Guards. But these

counter-attacks gained a few precious minutes for the French. It was the

crisis of the battle. The king, though the court meditated flight, stood

steady with the dauphin at his side,--Fontenoy was the one great day of

Louis XV.'s life,--and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to collect

his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians were now at a

standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes were repulsed, but no

progress was made; their cavalry was unable to get to the front, and

Saxe was by now thinking of victory. Captain Isnard of the Touraine

regiment suggested artillery to batter the face of the square,

preparatory to a final charge. General Lowendahl galloped up to Saxe,

crying, "This is a great day for the king; they will never escape!" The

nearest guns were planted in front of the assailants, and used with

effect. The infantry, led by Lowendahl, fastened itself on the sides of

the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the Irish

Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting for the cannon

to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmerie and all the

light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of Richelieu and count

d'Estrees. The left wing of the Allies was still inactive, and troops

were brought up from Antoing and Fontenoy to support the final blow.

About 2 P.M. it was delivered, and in eight minutes the square was

broken. As the infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn

groups the French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts

to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and they

regained the broken ground about Vezon, whence they had come. Cumberland

himself and all the senior generals remained with the rearguard.

The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat less than

normally heavy when distributed over the whole of both armies, but

exceedingly severe in the units really engaged. Eight out of nineteen

regiments of British infantry lost over 200 men, two of these more than

300. A tribute to the loyalty and discipline of the British, as compared

with the generality of armies in those days, may be found in the fact

that the three Guards' regiments had no "missing" men whatever. The 23rd

(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Boschlanger's Hanoverian

regiment suffered even more heavily, and four others of that nation had

200 or more casualties. The total loss was about 7500, that of the

French 7200. The French "Royal" regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men;

some other regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch

lost a bare 7% of their strength.

Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the Prussian Guards

at St Privat is to-day, _a locus classicus_ for military theorists. But

the technical features of the battle are completely overshadowed by its

epic interest, and above all it illustrates the permanent and

unchangeable military characteristics of the British and French nations.

FONTEVRAULT, or FONTEVRAUD (Lat. _Fons Ebraldi_), a town of western

France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 10 m. S.E. of Saumur by

road and 2-1/2 m. from the confluence of the Loire and Vienne. Pop.

(1906) 1279. It is situated in the midst of the forest of Fontevrault.

The interest of the place centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has

been utilized and abused as a central house of detention for convicts.

The church (12th century), of which only the choir and apse are

appropriated to divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by

four cupolas destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the

crossing. In a chapel in the south transept are the effigies of Henry

II. of England, of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard I. of England

and of Isabella of Angouleme, wife of John of England--Eleanor's being

of oak and the rest of stone. The cloister, refectory and chapter-house

date from the 16th century. The second court of the abbey contains a

remarkable building, the Tour d'Evrault (12th century), which long went

under the misnomer of _chapelle funeraire_, but was in reality the old

kitchen. Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc's

_Dictionnaire de l'architecture_. There are three stories, the whole

being surmounted by a pyramidal structure.

The _Order of Fontevrault_ was founded about 1100 by Robert of

Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec, in the

diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher and ascetic.

The establishment was a double monastery, containing a nunnery of 300

nuns and a monastery of 200 monks, separated completely so that no

communication was allowed except in the church, where the services were

carried on in common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers

and other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by the

nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the observance

of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency. The special

feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled the monks as well as

the nuns. At the beginning the order had a great vogue, and at the time

of Robert's death, 1117, there were several monasteries and 3000 nuns;

afterwards the number of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the

same plan. The institute never throve out of France; there were attempts

to introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were three

houses--at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton, and Westwood in

Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in France were recruited from the

highest families, and the abbess of Fontevrault, who was the

superior-general of the whole order, was usually of the royal family of

France.

See P. Helyot, _Hist, des ordres religieuses_ (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13;

Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1907), i. 46; the arts.

"Fontevrauld" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), supply full references to

the literature. The most recent monograph is Edouard, _Fontevrault et

ses monuments_ (1875); for the later history see art. by Edmund Bishop

in _Downside Review_ (1886). (E. C. B.)

FOOD (like the verb "to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng.

_foda_; cf. "fodder"; connected with Gr. [Greek: pateiothai], to feed),

the general term for what is eaten by man and other creatures for the

sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of human food is dealt with

under NUTRITION and DIETETICS.

_Infancy._--The influence of a normal diet upon the health of man (we

exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must depend on the

abnormal conditions existing) begins at the earliest stage of his life.

No food has as yet been found so suitable for the young of all animals

as their mother's milk. This, however, has not been from want of

seeking. Dr Brouzet (_Sur l'education medicinale des enfants_, i. p.

165) had such a bad opinion of human mothers, that he expressed a wish

for the state to interfere and prevent them from suckling their

children, lest they should communicate immorality and disease! A still

more determined pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who

thought life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn

propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer and honey

for milk, which latter he calls "brute's food." Baron Justus von Liebig,

as the result of his chemical researches, introduced a "food for

infants," which in more modern days has been followed by a

multiplication of patent foods. A close imitation of human milk may also

be made by the addition to fresh cow's milk of half its bulk of soft

water, in each pint of which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of

powdered "sugar of milk" and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These

artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value where

for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food, however, for

the first six months is certainly mother's milk alone. A vigorous baby

can indeed bear with impunity much rough usage, and often appears none

the worse for a certain quantity of farinaceous food; but the majority

do not get habituated to it without an exhibition of dislike which

indicates rebellion of the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on

their way to the front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands

secrete an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then

anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered in the light

of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.

The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child's age, partly

by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth nine times out of

ten consists of the lower central front teeth, which may appear any time

during the sixth and seventh month. The mother may then begin to

diminish the number of suckling times; and by a month she can have

reduced them to twice a day, so as to be ready when the second group

makes its way through the upper front gums to cut off the supply

altogether. The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders,

usually after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid

food can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a

considerable portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which

seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.

_Childhood and Youth._--At this stage of life the diet must obviously be

the best which is a transition from that of infancy to that of adult

age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire surrender of every

consideration to the claim of growth is not possible, nor indeed

desirable. Moreover, that abundance of adipose tissue, or reserve new

growth, which a baby can bear is an impediment to the due education of

the muscles of the boy or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so

continuous as before, but at the same time should be more frequent than

for the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule

should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in nutritive

power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate, all sufficient. The

maturity the body then reaches involves a hardening and enlargement of

the bones and cartilages, and a strengthening of the digestive organs,

which in healthy young persons enables us to dispense with some of the

watchful care bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are

generally sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be

allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition which

has hitherto been paramount.

_Adults._--It is only necessary here to refer to the article on

DIETETICS (see also VEGETARIANISM) for a discussion of the food of

normal adults; and to such headings as DIETARY (for fixed allowances) or

COOKERY. Different staple articles of food are dealt with under their

own headings. For animals other than man see the respective articles on

them.

Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those enumerated

under DIETETICS, see Sir Henry Thompson's _Foods and Feeding_ (1894);

Hart's _Diet in Sickness and Health_ (1896); Knight, _Food and its

Functions_ (1895).

FOOD PRESERVATION. The preservation of food material beyond the short

term during which it naturally keeps sound and eatable has engaged human

thought from the earliest dawn of civilization. Necessity compelled man

to store the plenitude of one season or place against the need of

another. The hunter dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man

preserved milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented

grape-juice into wine. With the separation of country from town, the

development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricultural and

food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man from torrid to

arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and sea and of armies on

the march, the problem of the prevention of the natural decomposition to

which nearly all food substances are liable became increasingly urgent,

and forms to-day, next to the production of food, the most important

problem in connexion with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long

as the reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at

preservation were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless processes

which have during modern times been proposed and attempted comparatively

few have stood the test of experience. In the light of modern knowledge,

however, the guiding principles appear to be very simple.

Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it were, of their

own accord. They may lose water by evaporation, and fatty substances may

alter by the absorption of oxygen from the air. They are otherwise quite

stable and unchangeable while not attacked and eaten up by living

organisms, or while the life with which they may be endowed is in a

state of suspense. An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its

ripening change; a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A

substance, in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under

the attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be

available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the life

be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower organism. All

decomposition of food is due to the development within the food of

living organisms. Under conditions under which living organisms cannot

enter or cannot develop food keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length

of time. The problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore,

into that of keeping out or killing off all living things that might

feed upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly belong

to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food preservation

is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.

The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily intelligible when

once their biological origin is recognized. Yeasts cause the

decomposition of saccharine substances into alcohol and carbon dioxide,

acetic and lactic ferments produce from sugar or from alcohol the

organic acids causing the souring of food, moulds as a rule cause

oxidation and complete destruction of organic matter, nitrogenous or

saccharine, while most bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous

constituents, producing albumoses and peptones and breaking up the

complex albumen-molecule into numerous smaller molecules often allied to

alkaloids, generally with the production of evil-smelling gases. These

processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently take place

successively in the decomposition of food, one set of organisms taking

up the work of destruction as the conditions become favourable to its

development and unfavourable to its predecessor. The organisms may come

from the air, the soil or from animal sources. The air teems with

organisms which settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable

nidus; the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life;

while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all animals

harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in countless millions.

Whenever, therefore, food material is exposed to the air, or touched by

the soil or by animals or man, it becomes infected with living cells,

which by their development lead to its decomposition and destruction.

Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals; or their

development may be arrested by cold, removal of water, or by the

presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not destroying their

life. All successful processes of food preservation depend upon one or

other of these circumstances.

_Preservation by Heat._--At the boiling-point of water all living cells

perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about three hours.

Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75 deg. C. (167 deg. F.) in the

presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty at 140 deg.

C. (284 deg. F.). Destruction of life takes place more rapidly in

solutions showing an acid than a feebly alkaline reaction; hence acid

fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which, when quite fresh, is

alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food becomes temporarily sterile, until

a fresh crop of organisms finds access from the air. By repeated cooking

all food can be indefinitely preserved. One of the most important

functions of cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts

against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of certain

fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbarous ages; few

materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and in vegetables some sort of

sterilizing process is attempted by washing (of salads) or removal of

the outer skin (of fruits). All preparation of food for the table,

cooking being the most important, tends towards preservation, but is

effectual only for a few hours or days at most, unless special means are

adopted to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with a

thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with a thin layer of

lard, attempts unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria and other

minute organisms. To preserve food in a permanent manner and on a

commercial scale it has to be cooked in a receptacle which must be

sufficiently strong for transport, cheap, light and unattacked by the

material in contact with it. None of the receptacles at present in use

quite fulfils the whole of these conditions: glass and china are heavy

and fragile, and their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called

tin-plate, is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing to

its strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing

scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrought iron, now

generally consists of steel containing but very little carbon; it is

cleaned by immersion in acid and covered with a very thin layer of pure

tin, all excess of tin being removed by hot rollers and brushes. The

layer of tin, which formerly constituted from 3 to 5% of the total

weight of the plate, has, owing to the increased price of tin and the

improvement in machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight is

only from 1 to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect,

perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all acid

juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception of milk,

all human food is slightly acid, and consequently all food that has been

preserved in tin canisters contains variable traces of dissolved tin.

Happily, salts of tin have but little physiological action.

Nevertheless, the employment cf tin-plate for very acid materials, like

tomatoes, peaches, &c., is very objectionable.

The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as

follows:--The canister, which has been made either by the use of solder

or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material to be

preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the interstices

the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally the former.

Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in pressure chambers,

which are heated by steam to 120 deg. C. or more. The tins are exposed

to that temperature for such time as experience has shown to be

necessary to heat the contents throughout to at least 100 deg. C. The

temperature is then allowed to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of

water, when the tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they

are placed in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride

and are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small

aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the

expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means of a drop of

solder. This process, which was originally introduced by Francois Appert

early in the 19th century, is employed on an enormous scale, especially

in America. The use of lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the

tin covered with a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending.

Imperfect sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development

within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and drummy. More

frequently than not the contents of the larger tins, containing meat or

other animal products, are not absolutely sterile, but the conditions

are mostly such that the organisms which have survived the cooking

process cannot develop. When they can develop without formation of gas

dangerous products of decomposition may be produced without showing

themselves to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine

poisoning have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated with

preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although no class of

preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine formation. The

formation of poisonous substances has never been traced to preserved

fruit or other material poor in nitrogen. The mode of preserving food in

china or glass is quite similar, but the losses by breakage are not

inconsiderable. Food which has been preserved in tins is sometimes

transferred to glass and re-sterilized, the feeling against "tinned"

food caused by the "Chicago scandals" not having entirely subsided. Were

it not for the facts that sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and

that the food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to

keep for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances,

however, there is a distinct limit to the age of soundness of canned

food.

_Preservation by Chemicals._--Salt is the oldest chemical preservative

and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and with wood-smoke,

has been used for many centuries, mainly as a meat preservative. It is

used either dry in layers strewn on the surface of the meat or fish to

be preserved, or in the form of brine in which the meat is submerged or

which is injected into the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is

but moderate. It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is

non-injurious, that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and

that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When aided by

wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power upon traces of

creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite efficient. The addition

of saltpetre is principally for the purpose of giving to the meat a

bright pink tint. The strongly saline taste of pickled meat or salted

butter appears gradually to have become repugnant to a large part of

mankind, and other preservatives have come into use, possessing greater

bactericidal power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to

them is discussed in the article ADULTERATION. At the present time the

use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England. Meat which

has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde, and has thus been

superficially sterilized, is also coming into commerce in increasing

quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is distinctly poisonous, and has the

property of combining with albuminoids and rendering them completely

insoluble in the digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are

not infrequently used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages or

deterioration of so-called "potted meats," which are supposed to last

fresh and sweet on the consumer's table for a considerable length of

time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used in the preservation

of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium fluoride has been found in

butter. The whole of these substances possess decided and injurious

physiological properties. Alcohol now rarely forms a preservative of

food material, its employment being confined to small fruit. The use of

sugar as a preservative depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute

solution it is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it

possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concentrated

syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less does not undergo

any biological change; in the presence of organic acids, like those

contained in fruit, growth of organisms is inhibited when the percentage

of water is somewhat greater. Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in

the manufacture of jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the

surface of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains

unaffected and unaltered.

_Preservation by Drying._--Food materials in which the percentage of

moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little liable to

bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent _Penicillium_.

Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts, which are laden with

otherwise decomposable food material, by the simple expedient of water

removal. The life of cereal grains and many seeds appears to be

unlimited. By the removal of water the most perishable materials, like

meat or eggs, can be rendered unchangeable, except so far as the

inevitable oxidation of the fatty substances contained in them is

concerned and which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat,

upon which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of

attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for comparatively small

articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish. It has been

superseded even among less civilized communities by the spread of canned

food. Fruit, however, is very largely preserved in the dried state.

Grapes are sun-dried and thus form currants, raisins and sultanas, the

last variety being often bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums,

apples and pears are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on

wire sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated with

notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried vegetables,

including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans and cabbages, are also

manufactured.

The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to some

extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due to J. von

Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the middle of the 19th

century. The soluble material is extracted mainly from beef, in

Australia to some extent from mutton, by means of warm water; the

albumen is coagulated by heat and removed, and the broths thus obtained

are evaporated _in vacuo_ until the extract contains no more than about

20% of water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 lb. of lean

beef.

_Preservation by Refrigeration._--At or below the freezing-point of

water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multiplication.

Although it has been asserted that many of them perish when kept for

some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that the vast majority

of bacteria and their germs remain merely dormant. Even so highly

organized structures as cereal seeds do not suffer in vitality on being

kept for a considerable length of time at the far lower temperature of

liquid air. Biological change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point,

and as long as that temperature is maintained food material remains

unaltered, except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation of

water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical alterations due to

oxidation.

Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a reasonably

long time, and without the addition of any preservative substance, food

in a raw condition. It is the only process of preservation which from a

sanitary point of view is entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and

properly employed. Its introduction on a commercial scale has more

powerfully affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less

degree, of the United States than any other scientific advance since

the establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities of

frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are introduced in

the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until required.

Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have become almost

impossible, and the abundance of Australian and New Zealand ranches, and

of West Indian orchards, has been made readily accessible to the British

consumer. For household purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers

suffices to preserve food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used

for the purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored

from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far larger

quantity is artificially produced by the methods described in the

article on REFRIGERATING, which also contains an account of the means by

which low temperatures are produced for industrial purposes of

importation and storage. Fleets of steamships fitted with refrigerating

machinery and insulated cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food

materials, which are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses,

markets and hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July

1873 from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory state.

In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America. The first cargo of

frozen meat was successfully brought to the United Kingdom in 1880 from

Australia in the "Strathleven," fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine.

The temperature in the cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34 deg.

F., whilst in the chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the

freezing room or chambers a much lower temperature (between 0 deg. and

10 deg. F.) is maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled

slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent damage

by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice. The carcasses when

freezing must be hung separated from each other, but for storage or

transportation they are packed tightly together. Fish such as salmon is

washed, thoroughly cleansed, and frozen on trays. Butter should be

cooled as rapidly as possible to about 10 deg. F.; its composition as

regards proportion of volatile fatty-acids, &c., remains absolutely

unaltered for years. Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe

and should not be frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each one

being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases holding about

three hundred, which are taken first to a room in which they are slowly

cooled to about 33 deg. F., and are then kept in store just below

freezing-point. Particular attention must be paid to the relative

humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit should be quite fresh; grapes

may be chilled to 26 deg. F., while lemons cannot safely be kept at a

lower temperature than 36 deg. The time during which soft fruit can be

kept even in cold-store is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks.

In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable prejudice

existed against stored meat. While in many cases the flavour of fresh

meat is rather superior, the food value is in no way altered by

cold-storage.[1]

_Preservation by Pickling other than Salt._--For the preservation of

vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to a

limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute solution of

sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage of eggs the more

aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a portion of its water to the

more concentrated yolk, which thereby expands and renders its thin

containing-membrane liable to rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats

and salmon, is preserved by packing in olive or other oil.

The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely, milk,

deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that alkaline

liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat than acid

materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour which milk

undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact that milk forms

perhaps the best medium for the growth and propagation of bacterial

organisms, there is exceptional difficulty in its sterilization. As

secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly sterile fluid, and, as shown

by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under aseptic conditions and kept under

such, it remains definitely fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other

pollution at the time of milking arises from the animal, the stable, the

milker and the vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other

bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder. Milk as

it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000 bacteria and

often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh country cream 100

millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual. These bacteria are of

many kinds, some of them spore-bearing. The spores are more difficult to

kill than the adult organism. The first step towards preservation is the

removal of the dirt unavoidably present, to the particles of which a

considerable proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through

cloths or, better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects

that removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a

breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet of the

milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate, a process

known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the cream separates slowly,

and does not form the coherent layer thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating

is then effected either after bottling or by passing the milk

continuously through pipes in which it is heated to from 160 deg. to 170

deg. F. By a repetition of the heating process on two or more succeeding

days, complete sterilization may be effected, although a single

treatment is sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many

forms of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general

introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark for the

feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals has

practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use of

sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found little

favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board ship.

Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a most extensive

sale. The first efforts to condense and thus preserve milk date from

1835, when an English patent was granted to Newton. In 1849 C.N.

Horsford prepared condensed milk with the addition of lactose.

Commercially successful milk condensation began in 1856. The milk is

heated to about 180 deg. F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans,

after having been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts

of milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122 deg. F., and

is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration that

100 parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar, contain the solids

of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed milk, although rarely quite

sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is invariably brought into commerce in

tin canisters. The preparation of sweetened condensed milk forms one of

the most important branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is

steadily increasing in England. Although milk can quite well be

preserved in the form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically

possesses immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the

balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very unfavourable, such

unsweetened milk has found little or no favour. Milk powder is

manufactured under various patents, the most successful of which depends

upon the addition of sodium bicarbonate and the subsequent rapid

evaporation of the milk on steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk

powder made from skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but

full-cream milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of

the finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the preparation

of so-called milk chocolates. (O. H.*)