county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon, a descendant of Count
Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398, Matthew's lands were seized by
Archambault, count of Grailly and captal de Buch, the husband of his
sister Isabella (d. 1426), who became count of Foix in 1401.
Archambault's eldest son, John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his
father's lands and titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter
of Charles III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in
Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the royal
representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between Foix and
Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle between the Burgundians
and the Armagnacs, he intrigued with both parties, and consequently was
distrusted by the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the
cause of France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but
when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former
allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc and
Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding bands which were
devastating France; fought for Aragon against Castile; and aided his
brother, the cardinal of Foix, to crush some insurgents in Aragon.
Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of
Grailly, and was made archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent
part in the struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed
the College de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's son, Gaston
IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of John, king of Aragon
and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty of Narbonne, and having
assisted King Charles VII. in Guienne, he was made a peer of France in
1458. In 1455 his father-in-law designated him as his successor in
Navarre, and Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and
Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and Guienne; but
these marks of favour did not prevent him from joining a league against
Louis in 1471. His eldest son, Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a
daughter of Charles VII. of France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV.
died two years later, his lands descended to his grandson, Francis
Phoebus (d. 1483), who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded
by his sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516).
Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret and
subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of Navarre became king
of France in 1589 the lands of the counts of Foix-Grailly became part of
the French royal domain. A younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d.
1500), who received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and
married Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good
terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death of his nephew
Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom of Navarre against Jean
d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted
until 1497, when John renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix
(1489-1512), the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine,
who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain. In 1507
Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with King Louis XII. for the
duchy of Nemours, and as duke of Nemours he took command of the French
troops in Italy. Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston
encountered the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and
after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit. From
the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also sprung the
viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of Benanges and Candale,
and of Gurson and Fleix.
See D.J. Vaissete, _Histoire generale de Languedoc_, tome iv. (Paris,
1876); L. Flourac, _Jean I^er, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de
Bearn_ (Paris, 1884); Le Pere Anselme, _Histoire genealogique_, tome
iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, _Histoire du comte de Foix_
(Toulouse, 1852); Madaune, _Gaston Phoebus, comte de Foix et souverain
de Bearn_ (Pau, 1865); and Froissart's _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce
and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).
FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, CHEVALIER DE (1669-1752), French soldier and
military author, was born at Avignon on the 13th of February 1669. His
military ardour was first awakened by reading Caesar's _Commentaries_,
and he ran away from home and joined the army. He soon saw active
service, and, young as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the
manuscript of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal
Belleisle on the author's death. In 1702 he became a captain, and
aide-de-camp to the duke of Vendome, then in command of the French
forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendome's brother, the
Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant feat of
arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at the battle of
Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was during his tedious
recovery from his wounds that he conceived the tactical theories to the
elucidation of which he devoted most of his life. In 1706 he again
rendered good service in Italy, and in 1708 distinguished himself
greatly in the operations attempted by Vendome and the duke of Burgundy
for the relief of Lille, the failure of which was due in part to the
disagreement of the French commanders; and it is no small testimony to
the ability and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both.
Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his services were
rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg. He saw further active
service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles XII. of Sweden in the north, and
under the duke of Berwick in the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII.
he regarded as the first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm
that Folard began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on
Polybius. On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his
papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh, and in
1724 appeared his _Nouvelles Decouvertes sur la guerre dans une
dissertation de Polybe_, followed (1727-1730) by _Histoire de Polybe
traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ... de M. de Folard,
Chevalier de l'Ordre de St Louis_. Folard spent the remainder of his
life in answering the criticisms provoked by the novelty of his
theories. He died friendless and in obscurity at Avignon in 1752.
An analysis of Folard's military writings brings to light not a
connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of independent
ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far more often
extravagant. The central point of his tactics was his proposed column
formation for infantry. Struck by the apparent weakness of the thin line
of battle of the time, and arguing from the [Greek: embolon] or _cuneus_
of ancient warfare, he desired to substitute the shock of a deep mass of
troops for former methods of attack, and further considered that in
defence a solid column gave an unshakable stability to the line of
battle. Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst some
famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido Starhemberg, approved
it and put it in practice, the weight of military opinion throughout
Europe was opposed to it, and eventually history justified this
opposition. Amongst the most discriminating of his critics was Frederick
the Great, who is said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian
king certainly caused a _precis_ to be made by Colonel von Seers, and
wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like others by
Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its publication (Paris,
1760) under the title _Esprit du Chev. Folard_, created a great
impression. "Thus kept within bounds," said the prince de Ligne,
"Folard was the best author of the time." Frederick himself said tersely
that "Folard had buried diamonds in a rubbish-heap." Thus began the
controversy between line and column formations, which long continued and
influenced the development of tactics up to the most modern times.
Folard's principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy
and Menil Durand.
See _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard_
(Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's
works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jahns, _Geschichte
der Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig,
1890).
FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any surface,
whence its particular application in geology with which this article
deals. The verb "to fold" (O. Eng. _fealdan_) meant originally to double
back a piece of cloth or other material so as to form a pleat, whence
has evolved its various senses of to roll up, to enclose, enfold or
embrace as with the arms, to clasp the hands or arms together, &c. The
word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _falten_, Dutch _vouwen_
(for _vouden_), &c., and the ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr.
[Greek: plekein], Lat. _plicare_, _plectere_, to plait, pleat, weave,
and in the suffixes of such words as [Greek: diplasios], _duplex_,
double, _simplex_, &c. Similarly the termination "-fold" is added to
numbers implying "so many," e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. "manifold."
The similar word for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for
sheep, and hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of
worshippers, or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's
flock, must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is _falaed_, and cognate
forms are found in Dutch _vaalt_, &c. It apparently meant a planked or
boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. _fjael_, Swed. _fjol_, plank.
In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified rocks of the
earth's crust, whereby they have been made to take up less horizontal
space. The French equivalents are _pli_, _plissement_, _ridement_; in
Germany, _Falte_, _Faltung_, _Sattelung_ are the terms usually employed.
It is comparatively rarely that bedded rocks are observed in the
position in which they were first deposited, a certain amount of
buckling up or sagging down of the crust being continually in progress
in one region or another. In every instance therefore where, in walking
over the surface, we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and
without dislocations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part
of a great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust.
Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on some
cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or
mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his researches in
the field without discovering that the rocks of the earth's crust have
been almost everywhere thrown into curves, usually so broad and gentle
as to escape observation except when specially looked for. The outcrop
of beds at the surface is commonly the truncation of these curves. The
strata must once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases
may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip, the
intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of the Isle of Wight--a Monoclinal
Curve, a, Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d,
Bagshot series; e, Headon series; f, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.]
The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or gently
inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and then an
immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping character. The
strata are thus bent up and continue on the other side of the tilt at a
higher level. Such bends are called _monoclines_, _monoclinal folds_ or
_flexures_, because they present only one fold, or one half of a fold,
instead of the two which we see in an arch or trough. The most notable
instance of this structure in Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of
which a section is given in fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south
side of the island rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly
vertical. The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip,
but rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable cases
of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W. Powell in his
survey of the Colorado region.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.]
It much more frequently happens that the strata have been bent into
arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping under the surface
on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up again on the other
side. Where they dip away from the axis of movement the structure is
termed an _anticline_ or _anticlinal fold_; where they dip towards the
axis, it is a _syncline_ or _synclinal fold_. The diagram in fig. 2 may
be taken to represent a series of strata (1-17) thrown into an anticline
(AA') and syncline (BB'). A section drawn across these folds in the line
CD would show the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the
part of the anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4
forms the crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it.
On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular
succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under the
next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the centre of a
trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on the east side the same
beds rise to the surface which passed beneath it on the west side. The
particular bed marked EF has been entirely removed by denudation from
the top of the anticline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the
syncline.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the
line CD (fig. 2).]
Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are abruptly
terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig. 2, both the arch
and trough are represented as diminishing, the former towards the north,
the latter towards the south. The observer in passing northwards along
the axis of that anticline finds himself getting into progressively
higher strata as the fold sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing
southwards along the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and
gets into lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this
way it is said to "nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general
inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward dip from
the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline. Hence the anticline
noses out to the north and the syncline to the south.
_Simple Folds._--In describing rock-folds special terms have been
assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping sides of an
anticline or syncline are known as the "limbs," "slopes," "flanks" or
"members" of the fold; in an anticline, the part X, fig. 3, the angle of
the bend, is the "crest" or "crown" (Ger. _Gewolbebiegung_, Fr.
_charniere anticlinale_), the corresponding part of a syncline being the
"trough-core" or "base," Y, fig. 3 (Ger. _Muldenbiegung_, Fr. _charniere
synclinale_). The portion of an anticline which has been removed by
denudation is the "aerial arch," dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata
in a fold constitute the "core," arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-core B,
in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending of the strata
has taken place about an "axial plane" (often called the "axis"), which
in the examples illustrated in fig. 3 would pass through the points A and
B, perpendicularly to the horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded
regions the axial planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be
moderately inclined, producing an "inversion," "inverted fold" or
"overfold." When the inclination of the axial plane is great a "recumbent
overfold" is produced (Fr. _pli couche_, Ger, _liegende Falte_). In a
fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an "arch limb" (a), a middle limb (b)
and a floor or "trough limb" (c). X and Y are the upper and lower bends
respectively. One of the important functions of a fold is its direction;
this of course depends upon the orientation of the axial plane. The
crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of a syncline is rarely
horizontal for any great distance; its departure from horizontality is
designated the "pitch," and the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards
the north, &c. Most simple folds--with the exception of very shallow
curvatures of wide area,--when considered in their entirety, are seen to
be somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variations of the
simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs, (1) the limbs may
tend to diverge as they recede from the crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled
an "open anticline"; (2) the limbs may be parallel in "closed" folds
(commonly known as isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open
angle or widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a
fan-shaped fold (Fr. _pli en eventail_, Ger. _Facherfalte_); another
variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. _pli en champignon_).
The axial plane is not always extended: it may be so abbreviated that the
folding appears to have taken place about a point; anticlines of this
type are variously designated "short-anticlines," "_brachyanticlinaux_"
or "domes"; similarly, there are "short-synclines," "_brachysynclinaux_"
or "cuvettes." The dip in cases of this kind has been described as
"qua-qua versal" or "periclinal."
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
_Complex Folding._--Sometimes a simple fold has been itself subjected
to further folding repeated more than once, it is then termed a
"refolded fold" (Fr. _pli replie_); fine examples may be observed in the
Alps and in other mountain chains. A great regional major fold
containing within itself a number of minor "special" or subsidiary folds
is described as a "geanticline" (Fr. _structure en eventail compose_),
or as a "geosyncline" (Fr. _structure en eventail renverse_). Even folds
of lesser magnitude may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal
movement, and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or
higher order (Fr. _couches gaufrees_ [fig. 5]). In its smaller
manifestation, this class of folding passes into "crumpling" or
"puckering," where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a
single hand specimen. In "frilling" or "frilled structure" the folds
have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated rocks minute
folds are observable with the microscope that do not appear to the
unaided eye. When a series of adjacent isoclinal overfolds has passed
into a series of thrusts (see FAULT), the so-called "imbricated"
structure (Fr. _structure imbriquee_, Ger. _Schuppenstruktur_) is
generated. Occasionally crust-blocks resembling "graben" and "horsts"
are circumscribed by folds instead of faults; when this is so they have
been called respectively "infolded graben" or "overfolded horsts."
The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has always had a
marked influence on the nature of the folding; some beds have yielded
much more readily than others, certain beds will be found to be faulted,
while those above and below have folded without fracture. In many
examples of apparent plasticity it can be shown that this effect has
been produced by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock
substance.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of
Kinsale. (Du Noyer.)]
The larger rock folds have produced important economic results. For
example, in many coal regions the deposits have been conserved in some
districts in the synclines or "basins," while they have been removed by
denudation from the uplifted anticlines in others. Near the crest of
anticlines is commonly an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized
districts; and, in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata
determines the direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most
convenient site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or "dome,"
where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a subjacent
saturated layer under pressure.
For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement
of the great folded regions of the earth's crust, see E. Suess, _Das
Antlitz der Erde_, English translation. _The Face of the Earth_, vols.
i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim, _Les
Dislocations de l'ecorce terrestre_ (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,
_Geotektonische Probleme_ (Stuttgart, 1894).
FOLENGO, TEOFILO (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino Coccajo or
Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets, was born of noble
parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th of November 1491, From his
infancy he showed great vivacity of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in
making verses. At the age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte
Casino near Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a
professed member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a
monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to have
produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written, not
unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516 he forsook
the monastic life for the society of a well-born young woman named
Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about the country for several
years, often suffering great poverty, having no other means of support
than his talent for versification. His first publication was the
_Merlini Cocaii macaronicon_, which relates the adventures of a
fictitious hero named Baldus. The coarse buffoonery of this work is
often relieved by touches of genuine poetry, as well as by graphic
descriptions and acute criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic
style is rendered peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent
introduction of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though
frequently censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression,
it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very few years passed
through several editions. Folengo's next production was the _Orlandino_,
an Italian poem of eight cantos, written in rhymed octaves. It appeared
in 1526, and bore on the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco
(Merlin the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life of
dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience; and
shortly afterwards wrote his _Chaos del tri per uno_, in which, partly
in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes in Italian, and
sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account of the vicissitudes of
the life he had lived under his various names, We next find him about
the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves a life of Christ entitled
_L'Umanita del Figliuolo di Dio_; and he is known to have composed,
still later, another religious poem upon the creation, fall and
restoration of man, besides a few tragedies. These, however, have never
been published. Some of his later years were spent in Sicily under the
patronage of Don Fernando de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a
short time to have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired
to Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on the 9th
of December 1544.
Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by
Rabelais. The earlier editions of his _Opus macaronicum_ are now
extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the text
as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.
FOLEY, JOHN HENRY (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born at Dublin on the
24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to study drawing and modelling at
the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, where he took several
first-class prizes. In 1835 he was admitted a student in the schools of
the Royal Academy, London. He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839
with his "Death of Abel and Innocence." "Ino and Bacchus," exhibited in
1840, gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards
commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere. "Lear and
Cordelia" and "Death of Lear" were exhibited in 1841. "Venus rescuing
Aeneas" and "The Houseless Wanderer" in 1842, "Prospero and Miranda" in
1843. In 1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his
"Youth at a Stream," and was, with Calder Marshall and John Bell, chosen
by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for the decoration of the
Houses of Parliament. Statues of John Hampden and Selden were executed
for this purpose, and received liberal praise for the propriety, dignity
and proportion of their treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to
come rapidly. Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental
statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him with a
steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was made an associate
and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy. Among his numerous works the
following may be noticed, besides those mentioned above:--"The Mother";
"Egeria," for the Mansion House; "The Elder Brother in Comus," his
diploma work; "The Muse of Painting," the monument of James Ward, R.A.;
"Caractacus," for the Mansion House; "Helen Faucit"; "Goldsmith" and
"Burke," for Trinity College, Dublin; "Faraday"; "Reynolds"; "Barry,"
for Westminster Palace Yard; "John Stuart Mill," for the Thames
embankment; "O'Connell" and "Cough," for Dublin; "Clyde," for Glasgow;
"Clive," for Shrewsbury; "Hardinge," "Canning" and "Outram," for
Calcutta; "Hon. James Stewart," for Ceylon; the symbolical group "Asia,"
as well as the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in
Hyde Park; and "Stonewall Jackson," in Richmond, Va. The statue of Sir
James Outram is probably his masterpiece. Foley's early fanciful works
have some charming qualities; but he will probably always be best
remembered for the workmanlike and manly style of his monumental
portraits. He died at Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the
4th of September was buried in St Paul's cathedral. He left his models
to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part of his
property to the Artists' Benevolent Fund.
See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, _The Works of J.H. Foley_ (1875).
FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833), British admiral, entered the navy in
1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a good deal of active
service in the West Indies against American privateers. Promoted
lieutenant in 1778, he served under Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel
and Sir Charles Hardy in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron was
present at the defeat of De Langara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at
the relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, he went out to
the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which culminated in
the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the Revolutionary War he was
engaged from the first. As flag-captain to Admiral John Gell, and
afterwards to Sir Hyde Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon
in 1793, the action of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off
Toulon on the 13th of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he
was flag-captain to the second in command, and in the following year was
sent out in command of the "Goliath" (74), to reinforce Nelson's fleet
in the Mediterranean. The part played by the "Goliath" in the battle of
the Nile was brilliant. She led the squadron round the French van, and
this manoeuvre contributed not a little to the result of the day.
Whether this was done by Foley's own initiative, or intended by Nelson,
has been a matter of controversy (see _Journal of the Royal United
Service Institution_, 1885, p. 916). His next important service was with
Nelson in the Baltic. The "Elephant" carried Nelson's flag at the battle
of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health
obliged Foley to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the point of
starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain of the
Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs and at the peace was
made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be full admiral and G.C.B. He died
while commanding in chief at Portsmouth in 1833.
See J.B. Herbert, _Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley_ (Cardiff,
1884).
FOLI (FOLEY), ALLAN JAMES (1837-1899), Irish bass singer, was born at
Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837; originally a carpenter, he
studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and made his first appearance at
Catania in 1862. From the opera in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for
the season of 1865, and appeared with much success in various parts. He
sang in the first performance of _The Flying Dutchman_ (Daland) in
England in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod's _Redemption_
in 1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his
vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request at
ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899.
FOLIGNO (anc. _Fulginiae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, from which
it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town), 26,278 (commune). It
lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a tributary of the Tiber; it is
almost square in shape and is surrounded by walls. It is a picturesque
and interesting town; several of its churches contain paintings by
Umbrian masters, notably works by Niccolo di Liberatore (or Niccolo
Alunno, 1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece
(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolo. The cathedral
has a romanesque S. facade of 1133, restored in 1903; the interior was
modernized in the 18th century. To the left of the choir is an octagonal
chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1527). In the same piazza as
the S. facade is the Palazzo del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a
chapel with frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra
Portas is said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only
the columns of the portico remain. Raphael's "Madonna di Foligno," now
in the Vatican, was originally painted for the church of S. Anna. The
Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are two good Renaissance buildings.
Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the 8th century
A.D. It changed hands often during the wars of the 13th century, and was
destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From 1305 to 1439 it was governed by the
family of the Trinci as deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter
year one of its members went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a
force against Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and
the last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth Foligno
belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It suffered from a
severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station on the main line from
Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the junction for Perugia. Three miles
to the E. is the abbey of Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like
those of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns
supporting arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic ("Cosmatesque"
work). The church has been modernized.
FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. _folium_, leaf, but also
frequently an adaptation of the Ital. _foglio_), a term in bibliography
and printing, with reference either to the size of paper employed, or of
the book, or to the pagination. In the phrase "in folio" it means a
sheet of paper folded once, and thus a book bound up in sheets thus
folded is a book of the largest size and is known as a "folio" (see
BIBLIOGRAPHY). Similarly, "folio" is one of the sizes of paper adapted
to be thus folded (see PAPER). In book-keeping the word is used for a
page in a ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in
law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document, used for
measurement of the length and for the addition of costs. In Great
Britain, a "folio" is taken to contain 72 words, except in parliamentary
and chancery documents, when the number is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words
form a "folio."
FOLIUM, in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by Rene
Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x^3 + y^3 = 3axy. The curve is
symmetrical about the line x = y, and consists of two infinite branches
asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and a loop in the first quadrant.
It may be traced by giving m various values in the equations x = 3am/(1
+ m^3), y = 3am^2 (1 + m^3), since by eliminating m between these
relations the equation to the curve is obtained. Hence it is _unicursal_
(see CURVE). The area of the loop, which equals the area between the
curve and its asymptote, is 3a/2.
[Illustration.]
FOLKES, MARTIN (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born in London on the
29th of October 1690. He was educated at Saumur University and Clare
College, Cambridge, where he so distinguished himself in mathematics
that when only twenty-three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the
Royal Society. He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723
Sir Isaac Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the
vice-presidents. On the death of Newton he became a candidate for the
presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom, however, he
succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member of the French Academy;
in 1746 he received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733
he set out on a tour through Italy, in the course of which he composed
his _Dissertations on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins_. Before
the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to 1754,
he read in 1736 his _Observations on the Trajan and Antonine Pillars at
Rome_ and his _Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th Year of King
Edward III_. In 1745 he printed the latter with another on the history
of silver coinage. He also contributed both to the Society of
Antiquaries and to the Royal Society other papers, chiefly on Roman
antiquities. He married in 1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had
appeared at the Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols's Lit. _Anecdot._
ii. 578-598).
For Sir John Hill's attack on Folkes (_Review of the Works of the
Royal Soc._, 1751), see D'Israeli, _Calamities and Quarrels of
Authors_ (1860), pp. 364-366.
FOLKESTONE, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place of Kent,
England, within the parliamentary borough of Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of
London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905;
(1901) 30,650. This is one of the principal ports in cross-Channel
communications, the steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older
part of Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the
shore between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the hills
on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered by hills rising
sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of which, such as
Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks. Above the cliff west
of the old town is a broad promenade called the Lees, commanding a
notable view of the channel and connected by lifts with the shore below.
On this cliff also stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith,
a cruciform building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly
Early English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine
priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established by
Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The site of this
foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments of the sea. The
monastery was destroyed at the dissolution of religious houses by Henry
VIII. Folkestone inner harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep
water pier for use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not
only the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried
on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be mentioned the
grammar school, founded in 1674, the public library and museum, and a
number of hospitals and sanatoria. The discontinued Harveian Institution
for young men was named after William Harvey, discoverer of the
circulation of the blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also
commemorated by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a
member of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7
aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of
Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb of
Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).
Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl Godwine and was
called upon to supply him with ships when he was exiled from England; at
the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux.
From early times it was a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to
find one out of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the
royal service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose
liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone by
Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was prescriptive, was
entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Folkestone. The history of
Folkestone is a record of its struggle against the sea, which was
constantly encroaching upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants,
impoverished by their losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the
end of the 18th century the town had become prosperous by the increase
of its fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th
century one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.
FOLKLAND (_folcland_). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon
documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is contrasted with
bookland in a way which shows that these two kinds of tenure formed the
two main subdivisions of landownership: no one is to deny right to
another in respect of folkland or bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod.
Dipl. 281), King Aethelberht exchanges five hides of folkland for five
hides of bookland which had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the
latter for the newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal
exactions except the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd
and joining in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland
was not free from the payment of _gafal_ (land tax) and providing
quarters for the king's men. In ealdorman Alfred's will the testator
disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his sons and his
daughter, but to a son who is not considered as rightful offspring five
hides of folkland are left, provided the king consents. It is probable
that folkland is meant in two or three cases when Latin documents speak
of _terra rei publicae jure possessa_.
Two principal explanations have been given to this term. Allen thought
that folkland was similar to the Roman _ager publicus_: it was the
common property of the nation (_folc_), and the king had to dispose of
it by carving out dependent tenures for his followers more or less after
the fashion of continental _beneficia_. These estates remained subject
to the superior ownership of the folk and of the king: they could
eventually be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a
holder of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A
letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted to
apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer, H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and
others followed Allen's lead.
Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an article on
folkland in the _English Hist. Review_ for 1893. It considers folkland
as landownership by folkright--at common law, as might be said in modern
legal speech. In opposition to it bookland appears as landownership
derived from royal privilege. The incidents recorded in the charters
characterize folkland as subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to
limitations in respect of testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to
be relieved from fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from
folkland into bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred's son, not being
recognized as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession
or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and
limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to the
fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless "books."
These are exemptions from fiscal dues and freedom of disposition of the
owner. This view of the matter has been accepted by the chief modern
authorities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Allen, _Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of Royal
Prerogative in England_ (London, 1849); K. Maurer, _Kritische
Uberschau_ (1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and
Beyond_, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, "Folcland," in the
_Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, _Land Laws_
(London, 1896); H. Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_, Band i. (2nd
ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892). (P. Vi.)
FOLKLORE, a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a designation for
the traditional learning of the uncultured classes of civilized nations.
The word has been adopted in this sense into many foreign languages; it
is sometimes regarded as the equivalent of the Ger. _Volkskunde_. But
folklore is, properly speaking, the "lore _of_ the folk," while
_Volkskunde_ is lore or learning _about_ the folk, and includes not only
the mental life of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term
folklore is also used to designate the science which deals with
folklore; the study of survivals involves the investigation of the
similar customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture;
consequently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American
societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as with the
popular superstitions of the white races.
_History._--The scientific study of folklore dates back to the first
quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long before that
date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of recent growth. The
first Folklore Society was founded in London in 1878; similar bodies now
exist in the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and especially in
Germany and Austria. The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at
a very early period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the
28th century B.C. In Greece the Homeric poems contain many folk-tale
incidents; for India we have the _Jatakas_ and _Panchatantra_; and for
the Arabs the great collection of the _Thousand and One Nights_. Another
type of folk-narrative is represented by Aesop's _Fables_. Not
unnaturally beliefs and customs received less attention; our knowledge
of them among the ancients is as a rule pieced together. Among the
oldest professed collections are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703), _Traite des
superstitions_ (1679), Aubrey's _Miscellanies_ (1686) and H. Bourne's
(1696-1733) _Antiquitates vulgares_ (1725); but they belong to the
antiquarian, non-scientific period.
The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore were the
brothers Grimm, by the publication of their _Kinder-und Hausmarchen_
(1812-1815) and _Deutsche Mythologie_ (1835). They were the first to
present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated form. They differed
from their predecessors in regarding the myth, not as the result of
conscious speculation, but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however,
disposed to press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the
figures of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as
the folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was
exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and others. At
the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880), the forerunner of
the anthropological school of folklore, shared in this mistake. Breaking
away eventually from the philological schools, which interpreted myths
and their supposed descendants, the folk-tales, as relating to the
storm, the sun, the dawn, &c. (see MYTHOLOGY), Mannhardt made
folk-custom and belief his basis. To this end he set himself to collect
and compare the superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was
always feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt's
researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor abroad. In 1878 the
foundation of the Folklore Society marked a new era in England, where
the philological school had had few adherents; and the anthropological
school soon produced evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew
Lang, Dr J.G. Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.
With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom and belief on
the one hand, and of rites and religions of people in the lower stages
of culture on the other hand, it has become abundantly clear that there
is no line of demarcation between the two. Each throws light upon the
other, and the superstitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of
savage creeds which have their parallels all over the world in the
culture of primitive peoples.
_Subdivisions._--The folklore of civilized peoples may be conveniently
classified under three main heads: (1) belief and custom; (2) narratives
and sayings; (3) art. These again may be subdivided. The first division,
_Belief and Custom_, includes (A) Superstitious beliefs and practices,
including (a) those connected with natural phenomena or inanimate
nature, (b) tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d)
ghosts and goblins, (e) witchcraft, (f) leechcraft, (g) magic in general
and divination, (h) eschatology, and (i) miscellaneous superstitions and
practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including (a) festival customs
for which are set aside certain days and seasons, (b) ceremonial customs
on the occasion of events such as birth, death or marriage, (c) games,
(d) miscellaneous local customs, such as agricultural rites connected
with the corn-spirit (see DEMONOLOGY), and (e) dances. The second head
of _Narratives and Sayings_ may be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or
tales told as true, (b) Marchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d)
drolls, apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (e) myths (see MYTHOLOGY), and
(f) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as they do not
come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes, riddles, jingles,
proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The third head, _Art_, subdivides
into (a) folk music with ballads and songs, (b) folk drama. Any
classification, however, labours under the disadvantage of separating
items which properly belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form
in which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be aetiological
in their nature and form an elaborate record of a custom. Eschatological
beliefs naturally take the form of myths. Traditional narratives can
also be classified under art, and so on.
_Literature._--The literature of the subject falls into two sharply
defined classes--synthetic works and collections of folklore--of which
the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former class the most
important is Dr J.G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, which sets out from the
study of a survival in Roman religion and covers a wide field of savage
and civilized beliefs and customs. Especially important are the chapters
on agricultural rites, in which are set forth the results of Mannhardt's
researches. Other important lines of folklore research in the _Golden
Bough_ are those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view
of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms. Mr E.S.
Hartland's _Legend of Perseus_ is primarily concerned with the origin of
a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is dismissed as insoluble. A
large part of the book is taken up with a discussion of sympathetic
magic, and especially with the "life index," an object so bound up with
the life of a human being that it acts as an indication of his
well-being or otherwise. The importance of children's games in the study
of folklore has been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection
of the games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme. With the
more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem of the diffusion of
games has also come to the fore. In particular it is found that the
string-game called "cat's cradle" in various forms is of very wide
diffusion, being found even in Australia. The question of folk-music has
recently received much attention (see SONG).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Introductory works: M.R. Cox, _Introduction to
Folklore_; Kaindl, _Die Volkskunde_; Marillier in _Revue de l'histoire
des religions_, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.
General works: J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; E.S. Hartland, _The
Legend of Perseus_; A. Lang, _Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual and
Religion_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_.
British Isles. England: Burne, _Shropshire Folklore_; _Denham Tracts_
(F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folklore_; Henderson,
_Folklore of Northern Counties_; _County Folklore Series_ (Printed
Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, _Welsh Folklore_; Rhys,
_Celtic Folklore_. Scotland: Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions_; Gregor,
_Folklore of N.E. of Scotland_; the works of J.G. Campbell, &c.
Germany: Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, English translation by
Stallybrass; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_; Meyer, _Deutsche
Volkskunde_; Tetzner, _Die Slaven in Deutschland_; Mogk in Paul's
_Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, and the works cited by Kaindl
(see above).
France: Sebillot's works; Rolland, _Faune populaire_; Laisnel de la
Salle, _Croyances et legendes_.
On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for Bohemia,
Grohmann, _Aberglaube_; for Greece, Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_, and
Rennell Rodd, _Folklore of Greece_; for Italy, Pitre's bibliography;
for India, Crooke's works, and the _Indian Antiquary_. For
questionnaires see _Handbook of Folklore_ (Folklore Soc.); Sebillot,
_Essai de questionnaires_; _Journal of American Folklore_ (1890, &c.);
and Kaindl's _Volkskunde_. For a bibliography of folk-tales see
Hartland, _Mythology and Folk-tales_; to his list may be added
Petitot's _Legendes indiennes_; Rand, _Legends of the Micmacs_;
Lummis, _The Man who Married the Moon_; and the publications of the
American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies in
_Folklore_ and other periodicals. On special points may be mentioned
Miss Cox's _Cinderella_ (Folklore Society); Kohler's works, &c. (see
also bibliography to the article TALE). For games see Gomme, _English
Games_; Culin, _Korean Games_; Rochholz, _Alemannisches Kinderlied_;
Bohme, _Deutsches Kinderlied_; Handelmann, _Volks- und Kinderspiele_;
Jayne, _String Figures_, &c.; and the bibliography to DOLL. See also
Sonnenschein's _Best Books_.
The following is a list of the more important Societies and
publications:--
England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.
U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.
France: _Societe des traditions populaires_.
Germany: _Verein fur Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung fur
Volkskunde_; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other
provinces.
Austria: _Verein fur osterreichische Volkskunde_.
Switzerland: _Schweizerische Gesellschaft fur Volkskunde_.
Italy: _Societa per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari_.
In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or
less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies
mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for
the following among others: Belgium, _Wallonia_; Poland, _Wisla_;
France, _Melusine_ (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, _Cesky Lid_; Denmark,
_Dania_, &c.; Germany, _Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie_
(1859-1890); _Am Urguell_ (1890-1898). (N. W. T.)
FOLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself, ADOLF) LUDWIG
(1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen on the 21st of January
1794, the son of a district judge. He studied theology at Giessen and
law at Heidelberg, and after leaving the university edited the Elberfeld
_Allgemeine Zeitung_. Suspected of being connected with some radical
plots, he was imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821
he went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at Aarau,
farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in Thurgau, and then
retired to Bern, where he lived till his death on the 26th of December
1855. Besides a number of minor poems he wrote _Harfengrusse aus
Deutschland und der Schweiz_ (1823) and _Malegys und Vivian_ (1829), a
knightly romance after the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many
translations, mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration
with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1818) and
_Siegfrieds Tod_ from the _Nibelungenlied_ (1842); he also collected and
translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819). In 1846 he published a
brief collection of sonnets entitled _An die gottlosen Nichtswuteriche_.
This was aimed at the liberal philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the
occasion of a literary duel between the two authors. Follen's posthumous
poem _Tristans Eltern_ (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known
work is a collection of German poetry entitled _Bildersaal deutscher
Dichtung_ (1827).
FOLLEN, KARL (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother of A.L.
Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 5th of September
1795. He first studied theology at Giessen, but after the campaign of
1814, in which, like his brother August, he took part as a Hessian
volunteer, began the study of jurisprudence, and in 1818 established
himself as _Privatdocent_ of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being
suspected of political intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after
the assassination of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political
murder of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen
being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in
Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school at Coire
and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian authorities
imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in 1824 the hospitality
of the United States of America. Here he became an instructor in German
at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830 obtained an appointment as professor of
German language and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation
having given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835,
and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in
Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat which was
totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from New York to Boston, on
the night of the 13th-14th of January 1840. Follen was the author of
several celebrated patriotic songs written in the interests of liberty.
The best is perhaps _Horch auf, ihr Fursten! Du Volk, horch auf!_ of
which Johannes Wit, called von Dorring (1800-1863), was long, though
erroneously, considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen's
collection of patriotic songs, _Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend_.
His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some
reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with a
biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB (1798-1845), English lawyer, was born at
Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December 1798. He was the son of
Captain Benjamin Follett, who had retired from the army in 1790, and
engaged in business at Topsham. He received his education at Exeter
grammar school and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He
had entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a pleader
below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824, and joined the
western circuit in 1825. At the very outset his great qualifications
were universally recognized. He was thoroughly master of his profession,
and his rapid rise in it was due not only to his quick perception and
sound judgment, but to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of
temper. In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding
Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to parliament
for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished himself, and under the
first administration of Sir Robert Peel was appointed solicitor-general
(November 1834); but resigned with the ministry in April 1835. In the
course of this year he was knighted. On the return of Peel to power in
1841 Sir William was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April
1844 he succeeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his
health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been permanently
injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down, and he was
compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the south of Europe. He
returned to England in March 1845; but the disease, consumption,
reasserted itself, and he died in London on the 28th of June following.
A statue of Follett, executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in
Westminster Abbey.
FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872), English journalist, descended
from a noble French Huguenot family, the Greniers of Languedoc, was born
in London in 1793. John Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England
under the name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque
(1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the author of a standard
legal work, a _Treatise on Equity_, was the father of Albany Fonblanque;
he represented the borough of Camelford in parliament; and was one of
the Whig friends of George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young
Fonblanque was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His
health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be
suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a view to
being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812) he commenced
writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted notice both by the
boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by the superiority of his
style to what Macaulay, when speaking of him, justly called the "rant
and twaddle of the daily and weekly press" of the time. While he was
eagerly taking his share in all the political struggles of this eventful
period, he was also continuing his studies, devoting no less than six
hours a day to the study of classics and political philosophy. Under
this severe mental training his health once more broke down. His energy,
however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to the
newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his habits
were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary anxieties.
From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively employed upon the
staff of _The Times_ and the _Morning Chronicle_, whilst he contributed
to the _Examiner_, to the _London Magazine_ and to the _Westminster
Review_. In 1828 the _Examiner_ newspaper, which had been purchased by
the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the _Religion of the Universe_, &c., was
given over to Fonblanque's complete control; and for a period of
seventeen years (1830 to 1847) he not only sustained the high character
for political independence and literary ability which the _Examiner_ had
gained under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt, but
even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a certain delight
in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed against themselves.
When it was proposed that the admirers and supporters of the paper
should facilitate a reduction in its price by the payment of their
subscription ten years in advance, not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord
Lytton) volunteer his aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting
with radicalism. During his connexion with the _Examiner_, Fonblanque
had many advantageous offers of further literary employment; but he
devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to the service of
the paper he had resolved to make a standard of literary excellence in
the world of journalism. Fonblanque was offered the governorship of Nova
Scotia; but although he took great interest in colonial matters, and had
used every effort to advocate the more generous political system which
had colonial self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his
beloved _Examiner_ even for so sympathetic an employment. In 1847,
however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post of statistical
secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course compelled him to resign
the editorship of the _Examiner_, but he still continued to contribute
largely to the paper, which, under the control of John Forster,
continued to sustain its influential position. During the later years of
his life Fonblanque took no prominent part in public affairs; and when
he died at the age of seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew,
Edward Fonblanque, rightly observes, "a man who had lived and toiled in
an age gone by and in a cause long since established."
The character of Albany Fonblanque's political activity may be judged of
by a study of his _England under Seven Administrations_ (1837), in
comparison with the course of social and political events in England
from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must be regarded in the light of
a reformer. Journalism before his day was regarded as a somewhat
discreditable profession; men of true culture were shy of entering the
hot and dusty arena lest they should be confounded with the ruder
combatants who fought there before the public for hire. But the fact
that Fonblanque, a man not only of strong and earnest political
convictions but also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate
to choose this field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a
man of letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best
gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old
prejudice.
See the _Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque_, edited by his nephew,
Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a collection of his
articles with a brief biographical notice.
FOND DU LAC, a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the S. end of Lake
Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du Lac river, which is navigable
for only a short distance. Pop. (1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom
2952 were foreign-born; (1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of
some importance, and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western
railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat lines
connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great Lakes. At
North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits, are car-shops of the two
last-mentioned railways, and in the city are manufactories of machinery,
automobiles, wagons and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour,
refrigerators, agricultural implements, toys and furniture. The total
value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase
of 95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal cathedral, the
Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital and convent, and a
public library with about 25,000 volumes in 1908. The first settlers on
the site of Fond du Lac arrived about 1835. Subsequently a village was
laid out which was incorporated in 1847; a city charter was secured in
1852.
FONDI (anc. _Fundi_), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of
Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E. of Terracina by road.
Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above sea-level, at the N. end of a
plain surrounded by mountains, which extend to the sea. It occupies the
site of the ancient Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to _Latium
adjectum_, on the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road
which passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan,
and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly in
_opus incertum_, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no doubt, from
the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still exists, and bears the
inscription of three aediles who erected the gate, the towers and the
wall. A similar inscription of three different aediles from the N.W.
gate still exists, but not _in situ_. In the neighbourhood are the
remains of several ancient villas, and along the Via Appia still stands
an ancient wall of _opus reticulatum_, with an inscription, in large
letters, of one Varronianus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft.
The engineering of the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where
it passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.
The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The castle on
the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with beautiful tracery.
Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro (formerly S. Maria), which
was the cathedral until the see was suppressed in 1818 and united with
that of Gaeta; it contains a fine pulpit with "cosmatesque" work and the
fine tomb of Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century
triptychs and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of
the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery the cell
which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.
The ancient city of Fundi in 338 B.C. (or 332) received (with Formiae)
the _civitas sine suffragio_, because it had always secured the Romans
safe passage through its territory; the people as a whole did not join
Privernum in its war against Rome three years later, though Vitruvius
Vacca, the leader, was a native of Fundi. It acquired the full
citizenship in 188 B.C., and was partly under the control of a
_praefectus_. The inscription upon some waterpipes which have been
discovered shows that later it became a _municipium_. It was governed by
three aediles: Horace's jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due
to the exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xiii. p. 113). The
family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi. During the
Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily abandoned, but it seems
to have come under the rule of the papacy by A.D. 754 at any rate. Pope
John VIII. ceded it with its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but
its history is somewhat intricate after this period. Sometimes it
appears as an independent countship, though held by members of the
Caetani family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to
Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to carry off
Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city. After this Fondi
was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the Di Sangro family, in
which it still remains. Its position as a frontier town between the
papal states and the kingdom of Naples, just in the territory of the
latter--the Via Appia can easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual
frontier called Portella[1] or S.E. of it--affected it a good deal
during the French Revolution and the events which led up to the
unification of Italy.
The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and the
partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the ancient Via
Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a considerable detour. The
lake was also known in classical times ass, _lacus Amyclanu_ from the
town of Amyclae or Amunclae, which was founded, according to legend, by
Spartan colonists, and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th
century B.C. (E. Pais in _Rendiconti dei Lincei_, 1906, 611 seq.); the
bay was also known as _mare Amunclanum_.
The ancient Speluncae (mod. _Sperlonga_) on the coast also belonged to
the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa in which Sejanus
saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost crushed by a fall of rock.
Considerable remains of it, and of the caves from which it took its
name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the modern village. For modern
discoveries see P. di Tucci in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1880), 480; G.
Patroni, _ibid._ (1898), 493. The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient
writers, though the _ager Caecubus_, the coast plain round the Lago di
Fundi, was even more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine;
and though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost
entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even more
to the excavation works of Nero's projected canal from the lacus Avernus
to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is spoken of in the
inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of Hadrian, together with
Falernian and Setian wines (_Corpus inscript. Lat._ vi. Berlin, 1882,
9797). The plain of Fondi is the northernmost point in Italy where the
cultivation of oranges and lemons is regularly carried on in modern
times.
See G. Conte Colino, _Storia di Fondi_ (Naples, 1902); B. Amante and
R. Bianchi, _Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania_
(Rome, 1903); T. Ashby, in _English Historical Review_, xix. (1904)
557 seq. (T. As.)