Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae (Fiesole), which
lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name indicates, it was built
only in Roman times and probably in connexion with the construction by
C. Flaminius in 187 B.C. of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later
on formed part of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed
the river Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears
to have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla, and in
A.D. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already a colony) it
successfully opposed the project of diverting part of the waters of the
Clanis into the Arno (see CHIANA). Tacitus mentions it, and Florus
describes it as one of the _municipia splendidissima_. A bishop of
Florence is mentioned in A.D. 313. A group of Italic cremation tombs _a
pozzo_ of the Villanova period were found under the pavement of the
medieval Vicolo del Campidoglio. This took its name from the
_Capitolium_ of Roman times, the remains of which were found under the
Piazza Luna; the three _cellae_ were clearly traceable. The capitals of
the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it became
clear that this temple had supplied building materials for S. Giovanni
and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal altar, probably belonging
to the temple, were found. Remains of baths have been found close by,
while the ancient amphitheatre has been found near S. Croce outside the
Roman town, which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four
gates, the _Decumanus_ being represented by the Via Strozzi and Via del
Corso, and the _Cardo_ by the Via Calcinara, while the Mercato Vecchio
occupied the site of the Forum.
See L.A. Milani, "Reliquie di Firenze antica," in _Monumenti dei
Lincei_, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. As.)
The countess Matilda.
Guelphs and Ghibellines.
Beginnings of the commune.
War with the nobles.
The potestas.
The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city by the
Goths, A.D. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general Stilicho.
Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by the imperial
garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied by the Goths. We find
the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and mention is made of one
_Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum_, which suggests that Florence
was the capital of a duchy (one of the regular divisions of the
Longobard empire). Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and conferred many
favours on the city, which continued to grow in importance owing to its
situation on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the
agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the head of
the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, of the monastery of
San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro Mezzabarba as bishop of
Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances and a long controversy with
Rome, which ended in the triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk
Petrus Igneus, champion of the popular reform movement; this event
indicates the beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines.
Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or margraviate, and
the marquises became so powerful as to be even a danger to the Empire.
Under the emperor Otto I. one Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor
Conrad II. (elected in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of
Tuscany, a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the
Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year the
margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous countess Matilda, who
ruled for forty years and played a prominent part in the history of
Italy in that period. In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever
on the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor and the
faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and she herself often led armies
to battle. It is at this time that the people of Florence first began to
acquire influence, and while the countess presided at the courts of
justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group of great
feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as elsewhere in
Tuscany, the _boni homines_ or _sapientes_. As the countess was
frequently absent these _boni homines_ gave judgment without her, thus
paving the way for a free commune. The citizens found themselves in
opposition to the nobility of the hills around the city, Teutonic
feudatories of Ghibelline sympathies, who interfered with their
commerce. Florence frequently waged war with these nobles and with other
cities on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and the
citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations which
were the germs of the _arti_ or gilds. After the death of Countess
Matilda in 1115 the _grandi_ or _boni homines_ continued to rule and
administer justice, but in the name of the people--a change hardly
noticed at first, but which marks the foundation of the commune. After
1138 the _boni homines_ began to be called _consules_, while the
population was divided into the _grandi_ or _delle torri_, i.e. the
noble families who had towers, and the _arti_ or trade and merchant
gilds. At first the _consules_, of whom there seem to have been twelve,
two for each _sestiere_ or ward, were chosen by the men of the towers,
and assisted by a council of 100 _boni homines_, in which the _arti_
were predominant; the government thus came to be in the hands of a few
powerful families. The republic now proceeded to extend its power. In
1125 Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the
_contado_ (surrounding country), protected by the imperial margraves,
were still powerful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines
to wage war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed.
The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit to his
authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their former
state and the Florentines fought successfully against the powerful
counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected emperor in 1152,
made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed one Welf of Bavaria as
margrave. Florence and other cities were forced to supply troops to the
emperor for his Lombard campaigns, and he began to establish a
centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a _potestas_,
who resided at San Miniato (whence the name of "San Miniato al
Tedesco"), to represent him and exercise authority in the _contado_;
this double authority of the _consoli_ in the town and the _potestas_ or
_podesta_ outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines were
masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of Florence and
Fiesole; but civil commotion within the city broke out between the
_consoli_ and the greater nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened
by the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their castles
and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti, though not
victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted to the
consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief cities of
Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the Alberti whose castle
of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later we find a _potestas_ within the
city, elected for a year and assisted by seven councillors and seven
_rectores super capitibus artium_. This represented the triumph of the
feudal party, which had gained the support of the _arti minori_ or
minor gilds. The _potestates_ subsequently were foreigners, and in 1207
the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto of Milan; a new council was
formed, the _consiglio del comune_, while the older senate still
survived. The Florentines now undertook to open the highways of commerce
towards Rome, for their city was already an important industrial and
banking centre.
Comune and popolo.
Battle of Montaperti (1260).
Discord among the great families broke out again, and the attempt to put
an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti and a
daughter of the Amidei, only led to further strife (1215), although the
causes of these broils were deeper and wider, being derived from the
general division between Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the
work of crushing the nobles of the _contado_ and of asserting the city's
position among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war
successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next few years
against the Sienese with varying results; although the emperor supported
the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure for Germany in 1235 they
were forced to accept peace on onerous terms. During the interregnum
(1241-1243) following on the death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline
cause revived in Tuscany and imperial authority was re-established. The
tumults against the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many
Ghibelline nobles favoured by the _podesta_ Pace di Pesamigola, indicate
a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II., having defeated his
enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two Sicilies, appointed his natural
son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil
war broke out, entered the city with 1600 German knights. The
Ghibellines now triumphed completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders
were driven into exile--the first of many instances in Florentine
history of exile _en masse_ of a defeated party. The attempt to seize
Montevarchi and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated
failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six _caporali di
popolo_, who formed the basis of the _primo popolo_ or body of citizens
independent of the nobles, headed by the _capitano del popolo_. The
Ghibellines being unable to maintain their supremacy, the city came to
be divided into two almost autonomous republics, the _comune_ headed by
the _podesta_, and the _popolo_ headed by the _capitano_ and militarily
organized into twenty companies; the central power was represented by
twelve _anziani_ or elders. The _podesta_, who was always a foreigner,
usually commanded the army, represented the city before foreign powers,
and signed treaties. He was assisted by the _consiglio speciale_ of 90
and the _consiglio generale e speciale_ of 300, composed of nobles,
while the _capitano del popolo_ had also two councils composed of
burghers, heads of the gilds, _gonfalonieri_ of the companies, &c. The
_anziani_ had a council of 36 burghers, and then there was the
_parlamento_ or general assembly of the people, which met only on great
occasions. At this time the _podesta's_ palace (the Bargello) was built,
and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be accepted as the
standard gold piece throughout Europe. But, although greatly
strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be called the democrats as
opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats, were by no means wholly
victorious, and in 1251 they had to defend themselves against a league
of Ghibelline cities (Siena, Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine
Ghibellines; the Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after
their plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in its
hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession of
Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines declared
war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs of other towns was
cunningly induced to believe that Siena would surrender at the first
summons; but it was met by a Sienese army reinforced by Florentine
exiles, including Farinata degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by
the cavalry of Manfred (q.v.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the
count of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were totally routed
at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. Count Giordano entered
Florence, appointed Count Guido Novello _podesta_, and began a series of
persecutions against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze
the walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the
idea, saying that "he had fought to regain and not to ruin his
fatherland."
New constitution.
During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the old liberties
were abolished, and the _popolo_ was deprived of all share in the
administration. But when Charles I. (q.v.) of Anjou descended into Italy
as champion of the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed (1266),
the _popolo_, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry, was ready
to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and the Ghibellines were
expelled, but it was not the _popolo_ who triumphed; the pope and
Charles were the real masters of the situation, and the Florentines
found they had exchanged a foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who
was foreign and Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored;
the _podesta_ who represented King Charles was assisted by 12 _buoni
uomini_, and by the council of the 100 _buoni uomini del popolo_,
"without the deliberation of whom," says Villani, "no great matter nor
expenditure could be undertaken." Other bodies and magistrates were
maintained, and the _capitano del popolo_, now called _capitano della
massa di parte Guelfa_, tended to become a very important person. The
property of the Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six
_capitani di parte Guelfa_ appointed to administer it and in general to
expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole constitution
of the republic, although of very democratic tendencies, seemed designed
to promote civil strife and weaken the central power.
Florentine trade and the gilds.
While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed to argue
small political ability and no stability in the Florentines, the people
had built up a wonderful commercial organization. Each of the seven
_arti maggiori_ or greater gilds was organized like a small state with
its councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and in times of
trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine cloth especially was
known and sold all over Europe, and the Florentines were regarded as the
first merchants of the age. If the life of the city went on
uninterruptedly even during the many changes of government and the
almost endemic civil war, it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who
could carry on the administration without a government.
Cardinal Latino.
After Charles's victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines defeated
the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan territory. As
Charles perpetually interfered in their affairs, always favouring the
_grandi_ or Guelph nobles, some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a
counterpoise, which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph
of Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come to terms
with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278 to give up his
title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had held during the
interregnum following on the death of Frederick II. In 1279 Pope
Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher Latino Frangipani
Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal bishop of Ostia the same year,
to reconcile the parties in Florence once more. Cardinal Latino to some
extent succeeded, and was granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He
raised the 12 _buoni uomini_ to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be
changed every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100. A
force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the _podesta_ and
_capitano_ (now both elected by the people) to keep order and oblige the
_grandi_ to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.) by weakening
Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed at complete independence
of emperors, kings and popes. After 1282 the _signoria_ was composed of
the 3 (afterwards 6) _priori_ of the gilds, who ended by ousting the
_buoni uomini_, while a _defensor artificum et artium_ takes the place
of the _capitano_; thus the republic became an essentially trading
community, governed by the _popolani grassi_ or rich merchants.
Battle of Campaldino (1289).
Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293).
The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power of the
Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini were
completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a battle made
famous by the fact that Dante took part in it. War against the Pisans,
who had been defeated by the Genoese in the naval battle of La Meloria
in 1284, was carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was
made. But the _grandi_, who had largely contributed to the victory of
Campaldino, especially men like Corso Donati and Vieri de' Cerchi, were
becoming more powerful, and Charles had increased their number by
creating a great many knights; but their attempts to interfere with the
administration of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were
passed to reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the
abolition of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in
the number of _arti_, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 _maggiori_ and 14
_minori_) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for the
Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing power and
arrogance of the _grandi_, who in spite of their exclusion from many
offices were still influential and constituted independent clans within
the state. The law obliged each member of the clan (_consorteria_) to
_sodare_ for all the other members, i.e. to give a pecuniary guarantee
to ensure payment of fines for offences committed by any one of their
number, a provision made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted
collectively. But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe
ones were enacted. These were the famous _Ordinamenti della Giustizia_
of 1293, by which all who were not of the _arti_ were definitely
excluded from the signory. The _priori_ were to remain in office two
months and elected the _gonfaloniere_, also for two months; there were
the _capitudini_ or councils of the gilds, and two _savi_ for each
_sestiere_, with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the
_grandi_ families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters
concerning the _Ordinamenti_ was delivered in a summary fashion without
appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano della Bella, a noble
who by engaging in trade had become a _popolano_; the _grandi_ now tried
to make him unpopular with the _popolani grassi_, hoping that without
him the _Ordinamenti_ would not be executed, and opened negotiations
with Pope Boniface VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his
authority in Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he
was driven into exile in 1295. The _grandi_ regained some of their power
by corrupting the _podesta_ and by the favour of the _popolo minuto_ or
unorganized populace; but their quarrels among themselves prevented them
from completely succeeding, while the _arti_ were solid.
The Bianchi and the Neri.
In 1295 a signory favourable to the _grandi_ enacted a law attenuating
the _Ordinamenti_, but now the _grandi_ split into two factions, one
headed by the Donati, which hoped to abolish the _Ordinamenti_, and the
other by the Cerchi, which had given up all hope of their abolition;
afterwards these parties came to be called _Neri_ (Blacks) and _Bianchi_
(Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their influence over
Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having been discovered (May
1300), serious riots broke out between the Neri and the Bianchi. The
pope's attempt to unite the _grandi_ having failed, he summoned Charles
of Valois to come to his assistance, promising him the imperial crown;
in 1301 Charles entered Italy, and was created by the pope _paciaro_ or
peacemaker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and the
_popolo_ and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles reached
Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted Corso Donati
and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new _podesta_, Cante dei
Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles, punished many of that
faction; among those whom he exiled was the poet Dante (1302). Corso
Donati, who for some time was the most powerful man in Florence, made
himself many enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the
_popolo grasso_, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in
which he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg was
elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he came to Italy
in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines of Italy regarded
him as a saviour and regenerator of the country, while the Guelphs of
Florence on the contrary opposed both him and the pope as dangerous to
their own liberties and accepted the protection of King Robert of
Naples, disregarding Henry's summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was
crowned emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal
ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances
into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate free Italian
communes. He besieged Florence without success, and died of disease in
1313.
Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani.
The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that Henry was
dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della Fagginola, imperial
vicar in Genoa. A brave general and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca
and defeated the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini
in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa and Lucca and had to
fly from Tuscany. A new danger now threatened Florence in the person of
Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli (q.v.), who made himself lord
of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of Milan, and other
Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and 1323 he harried the
Florentines and defeated them several times, captured Pistoia,
devastated their territory up to the walls of the city in spite of
assistance from Naples under Raymundo de Cardona and the duke of
Calabria (King Robert's son); never before had Florence been so
humiliated, but while Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he
died in 1328. Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been
appointed protector of the city in 1325, died, and further
constitutional reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by
the _consiglio del popolo_, consisting of 300 _popolani_ and presided
over by the _capitano_, and the _consiglio del comune_ of 250 members,
half of them nobles and half _popolani_, presided over by the _podesta_.
The _priori_ and other officers were drawn by lot from among the Guelphs
over thirty years old who were declared fit for public office by a
special board of 98 citizens (1329). The system worked well at first,
but abuses soon crept in, and many persons were unjustly excluded from
office; trouble being expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was
created. But the first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio,
used his dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of
office no successor was chosen.
Attempt to capture Lucca.
The duke of Athens (1342-43).
The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they might have
acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's death for 80,000
florins, but failed to do so owing to differences of opinion in the
signory; Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in
1335, but broke his word, and although their finances were not then very
flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make war on him. They
were successful at first, but Venice made a truce with the Scala
independently of the Florentines, and by the peace of 1339 they only
obtained a part of Lucchese territory. At the same time they purchased
from the Tarlati the protectorate over Arezzo for ten years. But
misfortunes fell on the city: Edward III. of England repudiated the
heavy debts contracted for his wars in France with the Florentine
banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to
their failure and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine
credit all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums from
the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions by accusing them
of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought terrible havoc in Florence,
and riots again broke out between the _grandi_ and the _popolo_, partly
on account of the late unsuccessful wars and the unsatisfactory state of
the finances. To put an end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke
of Athens, was elected "conservator" and captain of the guard in 1342.
An astute, dissolute and ambitious man, half French and half Levantine,
he began his government by a policy of conciliation and impartial
justice which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought the
ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed by the
populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of September was
carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. The _podesta_ and the
_capitano_ assenting to this treachery, he dismissed the
_gonfaloniere_, reduced the _priori_ to a position of impotence,
disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted the lordship of
Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and Pistoia. He increased his
bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen, who behaved with the greatest
licence and brutality; by his oppressive taxes, and his ferocious
cruelty towards all who opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he
concluded with Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The
_grandi_ were disappointed because he had not crushed the _popolo_, and
the latter because he had destroyed their liberties and interfered with
the organization of the _arti_. Many unsuccessful plots against him were
hatched, and having discovered one that was conducted by Antonio degli
Adimari, the duke summoned the latter to the palace and detained him a
prisoner. He also summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of
wishing to consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On
the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the duke's
abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came to the Florentines
from neighbouring cities, the _podesta_ was expelled, and a _balia_ or
provisional government of 14 was elected. The duke was forced to set
Adimari and his other prisoners free, and several of his men-at-arms
were killed by the populace; three of his chief henchmen, whom he was
obliged to surrender, were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the
1st of August he had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence
under a strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all
his enactments.
New constitution.
The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several measures to
humble the _grandi_ still further, while the _popolo minuto_ or artisans
began to show signs of discontent at the rule of the merchants, and the
populace destroyed the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was
restored a _balia_ was appointed to reform the government, in which task
it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian ambassadors and by Simone da
Battifolle. The _priori_ were reduced to 8 (2 _popolani grassi_, 3
_mediani_ and 3 _artifici minuti_), while the _gonfaloniere_ was to be
chosen in turn from each of those classes; the _grandi_ were excluded
from the administration, but they were still admitted to the _consiglio
del comune_, the _cinque di mercanzia_, and other offices pertaining to
the commune; the _Ordinamenti_ were maintained but in a somewhat
attenuated form, and certain _grandi_ as a favour were declared to be of
the _popolo_. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial
republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by commercial
considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an ambition to gain
secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism was the outcome of its
determination to secure the bank-business of the papacy; and its desire
to extend its territory in Tuscany to the necessity for keeping open the
land trade routes. Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the
walls of the city, for no one of the _contado_ nor any citizen of the
subject towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the
inhabitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.
Statistics.
Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000 inhabitants, of
whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110 churches, 39 religious
houses; the shops of the _arte della lana_ numbered over 200, producing
cloth worth 1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were
found all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the
service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic, derived
chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000 florins, whereas
its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military matters and public
buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already a centre of art and
letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and libraries. But now that
the _grandi_ were suppressed politically, the lowest classes came into
prominence, "adventurers without sense or virtue and of no authority for
the most part, who had usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest
practices" (Matteo Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.
The Great Plague (1348).
War with Milan (1351).
In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed the next year
by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced, which carried off
three-fifths of the population (according to Villani). Yet in spite of
these disasters the republic was by no means crushed; it soon regained
the suzerainty of many cities which had broken off all connexion with it
after the expulsion of the duke of Athens, and purchased the
overlordship of Prato from Queen Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it
from the duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and
archbishop of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with
sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to dominating Florence,
the city made war on him, and in violation of its Guelph traditions
placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for
his lifetime. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled the
_grandi_, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still dominated
the _parte Guelfa_, to reassert themselves. They had in 1347 succeeded
in enacting a very stringent law against all who were in any way tainted
with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves being above suspicion in that
connexion, enabled them to drive from office many members of the _popolo
minuto_. In 1358 the _parte Guelfa_ made these enactments still more
stringent, punishing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines
held office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming
condemnations might be passed for this offence without hearing the
accused; even a non-proved charge or an _ammonizione_ (warning not to
accept office) might entail disfranchisement. Thus the _parte_,
represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains, came to exercise a
veritable reign of terror, and no one knew when an accusation might fall
on him. The leader of the _parte_ was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief
rivals were the Ricci family.
The condottieri.
Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers of fortune.
The first of these bands with whom Florence came into contact was the
Great Company, commanded by the count of Lando, which twice entered
Tuscany but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops
(1358-1359).
In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of commercial
differences, and because the former had acquired the lordship of
Volterra. The Florentines were successful until Pisa enlisted Sir John
Hawkwood's English company; the latter won several battles, but were at
last defeated at Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side
having gained much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in
1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban V., Queen
Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots to humble the
Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should join the league. This
they refused to do and armed themselves for defence, but eventually
satisfied the emperor with a money payment.
The parte Guelfa.
The tyranny of the _parte Guelfa_ still continued unabated, and the
_capitani_ carried an enactment by which no measure affecting the
_parte_ should be even discussed by the signory unless previously
approved of by them. This infamous law, however, aroused so much
opposition that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in
secret to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and
the Ricci having weakened the _parte_, a _balia_ of 56 was agreed upon.
Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from office for five
years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was created to defend the
laws and protect the weak against the strong. The _parte Guelfa_ and the
Albizzi still remained very influential and the attempts to abolish
admonitions failed.
War with the church (1375-78).
In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed how the old party
divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The papal legate at Bologna,
Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet (d. 1394), although the church was then
allied to Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to the
Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines for grain from
Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate their territory. Although
a large part of the people disliked the idea of a conflict with the
church, an alliance with Florence's old enemy Bernabo Visconti was made,
war declared, and a _balia_ of 8, the _Otto della guerra_ (afterwards
called the "Eight Saints" on account of their good management) was
created to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo and
Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns, including
Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory XI. placed Florence
under an interdict, ordered the expulsion of all Florentines from
foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious company of Bretons to invade
the republic's territory. The Eight levied heavy toll on church property
and ordered the priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the
tables on the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by
order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope Clement
VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna, their captains were
bribed by the republic not to molest its territory. By 1378 peace was
made, partly through the mediation of St Catherine of Siena, and the
interdict was removed in consideration of the republic's paying a fine
of 200,000 florins to the pope.
Salvestro de' Medici.
The riot of the ciompi (1378).
During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the city, but
now the _parte Guelfa_, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio and Piero degli
Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself by illicit interference in the
elections and by a liberal use of "admonitions" (_ammonizioni_).
Salvestro de' Medici, who had always opposed the _parte_, having been
elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for the
abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed (June 18,
1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired to break the power
of the _parte_ for good. Rioting occurred on the 21st of June, and the
houses of the Albizzi and other nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile
created a _balia_ of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the
_parte_, and partly enfranchised the _ammoniti_. The people were still
unsatisfied, the _arti minori_ demanded further privileges, and the
workmen insisted that their grievances against the _arti maggiori_,
especially the wool trade by whom they were employed, be redressed. A
large body of _ciompi_ (wool carders) gathered outside the city and
conspired to subvert the signory and establish a popular government.
Although the plot, in which Salvestro does not seem to have played a
part, was revealed, a good deal of mob violence occurred, and on the
21st of July the populace seized the _podesta's_ palace, which they made
their headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for the
_popolo minuto_, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso Strozzi, as
spokesman of the _ciompi_, obliged the signory to resign their powers to
the Eight. Once the people were in possession of the palace, a _ciompo_
named Michele di Lando took the lead and put a stop to disorder and
pillage. He remained master of Florence for one day, during which he
reformed the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de'
Medici. Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three
from the _arti maggiori_, three from the _minori_, and three from the
new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose the
_gonfaloniere_ of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele di
Lando. This did not satisfy the _ciompi_, and the disorders provoked by
them resulted in a new government which reformed the two councils so as
to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy the people several of the
_grandi_, including Piero degli Albizzi, were put to death, on charges
of conspiracy, and many others were exiled. There was perpetual rioting
and anarchy, and interference in the affairs of the government by the
working men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased
owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last in
1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild companies.
Again a new constitution was decreed by which the _gonfaloniere_ and
half the _priori_ were to be chosen from the _arti maggiori_ and the
other half from the _minori_; on several other boards the former were to
be in the majority, and the three new gilds were abolished. The
demagogues were executed or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with
great ingratitude was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the
_ciompi_, largely of an economic character, were put down, and the
Guelph families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which
they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive the odious
system of _ammonizioni_.
Attempts to acquire Pisa (1402-6).
Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its position, and
in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the lieutenant of Charles of
Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, having made himself master of a
large part of northern Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and
Siena. Florence, alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an
army of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord of
Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic strengthened
by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian states. In 1393 Maso
degli Albizzi was made _gonfaloniere_, and for many years remained
almost master of Florence owing to his influential position in the _Arte
della Lana_. A severe persecution was initiated against the Alberti and
other families, who were disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and
conspiracies against the merchant oligarchy continued, and although they
were unsuccessful party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles
caused the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign
states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany, acquired the
lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood being dead, Florence
purchased aid from the emperor Rupert. The Imperialists were beaten; but
just as the Milanese were about to march on Florence, Visconti died. His
territories were then divided between his sons and his _condottieri_,
and Florence, ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria
Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished to regain
Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and the allies were
successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his ends he made peace,
leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In 1404 their attempt to capture
Pisa single-handed failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the
protection of the French king. The Florentines then made overtures to
France, who had supported the anti-popes all through the great schism,
and suggested that they too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict
XIII., in exchange for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405
the city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi,[1]
the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel, but a few
days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured it from the
mercenaries. There was great consternation in Florence at the news, and
every man in the city "determined that he would go naked rather than not
conquer Pisa" (G. Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by
Giovanni Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the
mouth of the Arno. After a six months' siege Pisa surrendered on terms
(9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked, many of the
citizens were exiled and others forced to live in Florence, a
depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence now acquired a
great seaport and was at last able to develop a direct maritime trade.
The council of Pisa (1408).
Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic had taken no
definite side in the great schism which had divided the church since
1378, but in 1408 she appealed both to Pope Gregory XII. and the
anti-pope Benedict XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in
favour of a settlement, and suggested a council within her own
territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee of
theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council promoted by
Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates met at Pisa. This nearly
led to war with King Ladislas of Naples, because he had seized Rome,
which he could only hold so long as the church was divided. The council
deposed both popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of
June). But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence,
alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with Siena,
Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Neapolitan throne, to
drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvieto, Viterbo and other cities
were recovered for Alexander, and in January 1410 Rome itself was
captured by the Florentines under Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander
having died in May before entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was
elected as John XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with
Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased Cortona of the
pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal states once more, driving John
from Rome, and threatened Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, and other enemies of the republic, he too died most
opportunely (6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after
leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put an end to
the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V. The new pope came to
Florence in 1419 as he had not yet regained Rome, which was held by
Francesco Sforza for Queen Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there
until the following year.
No important changes in the constitution took place during this period
except the appointment of two new councils in 1411 to decide on
questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction headed by Maso
degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had remained predominant,
and at Maso's death in 1417 he was succeeded in the leadership of the
party by Niccolo da Uzzano. In 1421 Giovanni de' Medici was elected
_gonfaloniere_ of justice, an event which marks the beginning of that
wealthy family's power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn
from the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of "Consuls
of the Sea" to superintend maritime trade. Although 11,000,000 florins
had been spent on recent wars Florence continued prosperous and its
trade increased.
New war with the Visconti (1421-27).
In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquering most
of Lombardy, seized Forli; this induced the Florentines to declare war
on him, as they regarded his approach as a menace to their territory in
spite of the opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de' Medici.
The campaign was anything but successful, and the Florentines were
defeated several times, with the result that their credit was shaken and
several important firms failed. The pope too was against them, but when
they induced the Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and
Visconti was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous
terms (1427).
Fiscal reforms (1427).
The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded to the needs
of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various loans made to the
state were consolidated into one national debt (_monte_). Subsequently
all extraordinary expenditure was met by forced loans (_prestanze_), but
the method of distribution aroused discontent among the lower classes,
and in 1427 a general _catasto_ or assessment of all the wealth of the
citizens was formed, and measures were devised to distribute the
obligations according to each man's capacity, so as to avoid pressing
too hardly on the poor. The _catasto_ was largely the work of Giovanni
de' Medici, who greatly increased his popularity thereby. He died in
1429.
Exile and return of Cosimo de' Medici (1433-34).
An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with Venice, into
another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The mismanagement of the
campaign brought about a quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by
Rinaldo degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni de'
Medici's son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both had agreed to the war
before it began. Rinaldo was determined to break the Medici party, and
succeeded in getting Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen
their position by conferring exceptional powers on the _capitano del
popolo_ and by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had
a great hold on the populace. Rinaldo's proposal for a _coup d'etat_ met
with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent the
election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders of the
party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of plotting against
the state, to which he replied by collecting 800 armed followers. A
revolution was only averted through the intervention of Pope Eugenius
IV., who was then in Florence. A _parlamento_ was summoned, and the
_balia_ appointed decreed the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo
degli Albizzi, Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolo Barbadori, and others, in spite
of the feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of October
1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next three centuries the
history of the city is identified with that of the house of Medici.[2]
Cosimo's rule.
Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining nominally a
private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him, and governed by means
of the _balie_, which, re-elected every five years, appointed all the
magistrates and acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and
Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain, Niccolo
Piccinino (q.v.), on entering Tuscany with many Florentine exiles in his
train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the Florentines under
Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the following year. The system
of the _catasto_, which led to abuses, was abolished, and a progressive
income-tax (_decima scalata_) was introduced with the object of
lightening the burdens of the poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the
expense of the rich; but as it was frequently increased the whole
community came to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his
own authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza to
become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the war against
Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 the emperor Frederick III. passed through
Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome, and was received as a friend.
During the last years of Cosimo's life, affairs were less under his
control, and the _gonfaloniere_ Luca Pitti, a vain and ambitious man,
introduced many changes, such as the abasement of the authority of the
_podesta_ and of the _capitano_, which Cosimo desired but was glad to
attribute to others.
Piero de' Medici (the Gouty).
Lorenzo the Magnificent.
In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some opposition, by
his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty. Various plots against him
were hatched, the anti-Medicean faction being called the Del Poggio
party because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill, while
the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party because Piero's house was
in the town below; the other opposition leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni
and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes
of his enemies. The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of
Milan, and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded
Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements, in 1468,
through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died in 1469, leaving
two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at
once assumed the reins of government and became ruler of Florence in a
way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted; he established his
domination by means of _balie_ consisting of the signory, the
_accoppiatori_, and 240 other members, all Mediceans, to be renewed
every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having arisen with Volterra
on account of a dispute concerning the alum mines, Lorenzo sent an
expedition against the city, which was sacked and many of the
inhabitants massacred. Owing to a variety of causes an enmity arose
between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an
accomplice, at all events had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against
the Medici (1478). The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano
was murdered, Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or
exiled numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, who,
together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against him; no great
successes were registered on either side at first, but eventually the
Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale (near Poggibonsi) and the
city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's position was critical, but by his
boldness in going to Naples he succeeded in concluding a peace with the
king, which led to a reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was
received with enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute
master of the situation. In April 1480 a _balia_ was formed, and its
most important act was the creation at Lorenzo's instance of the Council
of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it became permanent,
and all its members were Lorenzo's friends. From that time until his
death the city was free from party strife under a _de facto_ despotism,
but after the Rinuccini conspiracy of that year the Council of Seventy
passed a law declaring attempts on Lorenzo's life to be high treason.
Owing to his political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business
interests of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he
seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy, which was
magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced loans necessary, and
he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti, an insurance institution to
provide dowries for girls.
Savonarola.
An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general Italian
war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile to Venice, and
when peace was made in 1484 the republic gained some advantages. The
following year a revolt of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand
broke out, actively supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained
neutral at first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of
power and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended by
giving him assistance in spite of the king's unpopularity in Florence.
Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms in 1486, and in
1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa had taken from Florence nine
years previously. The general disorders and ceaseless intrigues all over
Italy required Lorenzo's constant attention, and he succeeded in making
Florence "the needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this time the
Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.) was in Florence and aroused the
whole city by his denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of
that of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government as the source
of the immorality of the people, and to some extent influenced public
opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on Lorenzo, and Savonarola,
whom he had summoned to his bedside, refused to give absolution to the
destroyer of Florentine liberties. Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence
had become one of the greatest centres of art and literature in Europe,
died in 1492.
Piero de' Medici.
Expulsion of the Medici (1494).
Charles VIII. in Florence.
Piero Capponi.
He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's capacity
and made a number of political blunders. When Charles VIII. of France
came to Italy to conquer Naples Piero decided to assist the latter
kingdom, although the traditional sympathies of the people were for the
French king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured
Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing him. The
king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and other towns, which Piero
granted, but on returning to Florence on the 8th of November 1494 he
found the opposition greatly strengthened and his popularity forfeited,
especially when the news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became
known. He was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to
shout "Popolo e liberta!" in opposition to the Medicean cry of "Palle,
Palle!" (from the Medici arms). With a small escort he fled from the
city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni. That same day Pisa
rose in revolt against the Florentines, and was occupied by Charles. The
expulsion of the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi (q.v.)
and other prominent citizens succeeded in keeping the peace.
Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola, were sent to treat with the
French king, but no agreement was arrived at until Charles entered
Florence on the 17th of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of
their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at the seizure of
Sarzana, and while they gave the king a splendid welcome, they did not
like his attitude of conqueror. Charles was impressed with the wealth
and refinement of the citizens, and above all with the solid
fortress-like appearance of their palaces. The signory appointed Piero
Capponi, a man of great ability and patriotism, and experienced in
diplomacy, the _gonfaloniere_ Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio
Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi, syndics
to conduct the negotiations with the French king. Charles's demands by
no means pleased the citizens, and the arrogance and violence of his
soldiers led to riots in which they were assailed with stones in the
narrow streets. When the king began to hint at the recall of Piero de'
Medici, whose envoys had gained his ear, the signory ordered the
citizens to be ready to fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but
Charles demanded an immense sum of money before he would leave the city;
long discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent
ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in a
threatening tone, "Then we shall sound our trumpets," whereupon Capponi
tore up the document in his face and replied, "And we shall ring our
bells." The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean,
at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000 florins,
agreeing to assume the title of "Protector and Restorer of the liberty
of Florence," and to give up the fortresses he had taken within two
years, unless his expedition to Naples should be concluded sooner; the
Medici were to remain banished, but the price on their heads was
withdrawn. But Charles would not depart, a fact which caused perpetual
disturbance in the city, and it was not until the 28th of November,
after an exhortation by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he
left Florence.
The revived republic.
Savonarola as a statesman.
It was now intended to re-establish the government on the basis of the
old republican institutions, but it was found that sixty years of Medici
rule had reduced them to mere shadows, and the condition of the
government, largely controlled by a _balia_ of 20 _accoppiatori_ and
frequently disturbed by the summoning of the _parlamento_, was utterly
chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of changing the
constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer an upper class
accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class was thoroughly
demoralized. Many proposals were made, none of them of practical value,
until Savonarola, who had already made a reputation as a moral reformer,
began his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing confusion
the people turned to him as their only hope, and gradually a new
government was evolved, each law being enacted as the result of his
exhortations. A Greater Council empowered to appoint magistrates and pass
laws was formed, to which all citizens _netti di specchio_ (who had paid
their taxes) and _beneficiati_ (i.e. who had sat in one of the higher
magistracies or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had
done so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200 such
citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months. The Greater
Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens over forty years old,
also to be changed every six months; this body, which the signory must
consult once a week, together with the colleges and the signory itself,
was to appoint ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other
confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished and a 10%
tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a law of amnesty for
political offenders enacted. Savonarola also proposed a court of appeal
for criminal and political crimes tried by the _Otto di guardia e balia_;
this too was agreed to, but the right of appeal was to be, not to a court
as Savonarola suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to
grave abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions. The
_parlamenti_ were abolished and a _monte di pieta_ to advance money at
reasonable interest was created. But in spite of Savonarola's popularity
there was a party called the _Bigi_ (greys) who intrigued secretly in
favour of the return of the Medici, while the men of wealth, called the
_Arrabbiati_, although they hated the Medici, were even more openly
opposed to the actual regime and desired to set up an aristocratic
oligarchy. The adherents of Savonarola were called the _Piagnoni_, or
snivellers, while the _Neutrali_ changed sides frequently.
League against Charles VIII.
Alexander VI. against Florence.
Trial and execution of Savonarola (1498).
A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain having been
made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced to return to France.
On his way back he passed through Florence, and; although the republic
had refused to join the league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero
de' Medici was in the king's train. Savonarola was again sent to the
French camp, and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have
had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time Charles violated his
promise by giving aid to the Pisans in their revolt against Florence,
and did not restore the other fortresses. After the French had abandoned
Italy, Piero de' Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a number of
mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the citizens, fired by
Savonarola's enthusiasm, flew to arms and prepared for an energetic
resistance; owing to Piero's incapacity and the exhaustion of his funds
the expedition came to nothing. At the same time the conditions of the
city were not prosperous; its resources were strained by the sums paid
to Charles and by the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed,
famine and plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was
proceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of one of
its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi. The league
now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI. hated Savonarola and was
determined to destroy the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici
temporarily and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians and
Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was great misery in Florence.
All this decreased Savonarola's popularity to some extent, but the enemy
having been beaten at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the
point of breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party
was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were held,
Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed to have
temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival of 1497 remained
famous for the burning of the "vanities" (i.e. indecent books and
pictures and carnival masks and costumes). The friar's sermons against
ecclesiastical corruption, and especially against the pope, resulted in
his excommunication by the latter, in consequence of which he lost much
of his influence and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero
made another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots having
been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent citizens were
tried and put to death; but the party hostile to Savonarola gained
ground and had the support of the Franciscans, who were hostile to the
Dominican order. Pulpit warfare was waged between Savonarola and his
opponents, and the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in
a proposed ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope
again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him, but
without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against the
city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of Arrabbiati having
been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola's opponents attacked the
convent of St Mark where he resided, and he himself was arrested and
imprisoned. The commission appointed to try him on charges of heresy and
treason was composed of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had
previously attempted to murder him; many irregularities were committed
during the three trials, and the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The
outgoing signory secured the election of another which was of their way
of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola was condemned to
death and executed the following day.
Piero Soderini.
The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence was less
critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was renewed, and in 1499
the city might have been taken but for the dilatory tactics of the
Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli, who was consequently arrested on a
charge of treason and put to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent
an army into Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the
Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in Romagna,
suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici in Florence, and the
danger was only warded off by appointing him captain-general of the
Florentine forces at a large salary (1501). The weakness of the
government becoming every day more apparent, several constitutional
changes were made, and many old institutions, such as that of the
_podesta_ and _capitano del popolo_, were abolished; finally in 1502, in
order to give more stability to the government, the office of
_gonfaloniere_, with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was
made a life appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini
(1448-1522), an honest public-spirited man of no particular party, but
lacking in strength of character. One useful measure which he took was
the institution of a national militia at the suggestion of Niccolo
Machiavelli (1505). In the meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without
much headway being made. In 1503 both Piero de' Medici and Alexander VI.
had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who was at war
with France over the partition of Naples, helped the Pisans as the
enemies of Florence, France's ally (1501-1504), but when the war was
over the Florentines were able to lay siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509
the city was driven by famine to surrender and became a dependency of
Florence once more.
Schismatic council of Pisa (1510).
Return of the Medici (1512).
Second expulsion of the Medici (1527).
The siege of Florence.
Surrender of Florence (1530).
Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai with France
and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510, and raised the cry of
"Fuori i Barbari" (out with the barbarians), with a view to expelling
the French from Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical
council so as to create a schism in the Church, and demanded that it be
held in Florentine territory. After some hesitation the republic agreed
to the demand, and the council was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope
immediately placed Florence under an interdict. At the request of the
Florentines the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them
from the pope's wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona and
accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici and his brother Giuliano
entered the republic's territory and demanded 100,000 florins, the
dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the Medici. Soderini
offered to resign, but the Greater Council supported him and
preparations for defence were made. In August the Spaniards took Prato
by storm and committed hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence
was in a panic, a group of the _Ottimati_, or nobles, forced Soderini to
resign and leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz.
the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an
alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 1512 Giuliano and Giovanni
de' Medici, and their nephew Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish
troops; a _parlamento_ was summoned, and a packed _balia_ formed which
abolished the Greater Council and created a constitution similar to that
of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano became _de facto_ head of the
government, but he did not pursue the usual vindictive policy of his
house, although he resorted to the Laurentian method of amusing the
citizens with splendid festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II.,
Giovanni de' Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly
enhanced the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano died, and
was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke of Urbino. At his
death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (son of the Giuliano murdered
in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge of the government; he met with some
opposition and had to play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he
did not rule badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of
freedom. In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his
relatives Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence
under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was styled
the _Magnifico_ and destined to be ruler of the republic, but Cardinal
Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the city was soon
seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and Passerini showed himself
quite unequal to coping with the situation. The Ottimati were mostly
anti-Medicean, and by 1527 the position was untenable. When Filippo
Strozzi, and above all his wife, threw their influence in the scales
against the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their expulsion
from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro left Florence (17th of
May 1527). A _Consiglio degli Scelti_ was summoned, and a constitution
similar to that of Savonarola's time was established. The Greater
Council was revived and Niccolo Capponi created _gonfaloniere_ for a
year. But Florence was torn by factions--the Ottimati who desired an
oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who generally supported them, the
Adirati who opposed Capponi for his moderation, the Arrabbiati who were
strongly anti-Medicean, and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. "It
is almost impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as
Florence then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by
chance any such should arise they would be hated and persecuted, their
dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they would be hunted
from their country or die of grief" (Benedette Varchi). Capponi did his
best to reform the city and save the situation, and while adopting
Savonarola's tone in internal affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign
situation, realizing that a reconciliation between the pope and the
emperor Charles V. would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement
would certainly seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power.
Having been re-elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of much opposition in
1528, Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence
with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high treason,
and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave the city for
six months. Francesco Carducci was elected _gonfaloniere_ in his place,
and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and the emperor concluded a treaty
by which the latter agreed to re-establish the Medici in Florence.
Carducci made preparations for a siege, but a large part of the people
were against him, either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the
Frateschi, as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported
him strongly. A body called the _Nove della Milizia_, of whom
Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the defence of
the city, and Michelangelo (q.v.) himself superintended the
strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate choice for the
chief command of the army was the appointment of Malatesta Baglioni. In
August an imperial army under Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on
the city. In September Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities
fell before the Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the
pope were unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. Although
alone against papacy and empire, the citizens showed the greatest spirit
and devotion, and were successful in many sorties. The finest figure
produced by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (q.v.); by his
defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and was
appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid marches and
counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the enemy unexpectedly,
and harassing them continually. But Malatesta was a traitor at heart and
hindered the defence of the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had
recaptured Volterra, marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the
Imperialists in the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of
August, but in spite of Ferruccio's heroism he was defeated and killed;
the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement. Malatesta
contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous attack by the
besieged. The sufferings from famine within the city were now very
great, and an increasingly large part of the people favoured surrender.
The signory, at last realizing that Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed
him; but it was too late, and he now behaved as though he were governor
of Florence; when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he
turned his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that all
hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Ferrante Gonzaga,
the new imperial commander. On the 12th the capitulation was signed:
Florence was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici were to
be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new government, "it being
understood that liberty is to be preserved." Baccio Valori, a Medicean
who had been in the imperialist camp, now took charge, and the city was
occupied by foreign troops. A _parlamento_ was summoned, the usual
packed _balia_ created, and all opposition silenced. The city was given
over to Pope Clement, who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation,
had Carducci and Girolami (the last _gonfaloniere_) hanged, and
established Alessandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of
Urbino, as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year
the signory was abolished, Alessandro created _gonfaloniere_ for life,
and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial patent. Thus
Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital of the duchy
(afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see TUSCANY).
The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany.
The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian Gastone in
1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis, duke of Lorraine.
But it was governed by a regency until 1753, when it was conferred by
the empress Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the
Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine was
driven from the throne, and Tuscany was annexed to the French empire in
1808. In 1809 Florence was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but
after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in
1833, and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal
revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a constitution.
But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke returned under
an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the Franco-Italian victories over the
Austrians in Lombardy, by a bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was
expelled and Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.
In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy, but after
the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war, the
capital was transferred to the Eternal City (1871).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best complete history of Florence is Gino Capponi's
_Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_ (2 vols., Florence, 1875), which
although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard work
based on original authorities; also F.T. Perrens, _Histoire de
Florence_ (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see
Pasquale Villari's _I Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze_ (Eng.
ed., London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn's _Geschichte der Stadt Florenz_
(Berlin, 1896); P. Villari's _Savonarola_ (English ed., London, 1896)
is invaluable for the period during which the friar's personality
dominated Florence, and his _Machiavelli_ (English ed., London, 1892)
must be also consulted, especially for the development of political
theories. Among the English histories of Florence, Napier's
_Florentine History_ (6 vols., London, 1846-1847) and A. Trollope's
_History of the Commonwealth of Florence_ (4 vols., London, 1865) are
not without value although out of date. Francis Hyett's _Florence_
(London, 1903) is more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat
Medicean in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later
history, A. von Reumont's _Geschichte von Toscana_ (Gotha, 1876-1877)
is one of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises
and compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See
also the bibliographies in MEDICI, MACHIAVELLI, SAVONAROLA, TUSCANY,
&c. (L. V.*)