CYPRUS IN ANCIENT TIMES.
As we journeyed, in twilight and solitude around the mountain, and
darkness gradually approached, I could not forget that even, to the
highest peak of this very Olympus, at least 6000 feet above the level
of the sea, festive bands of worshippers had in bygone times ascended,
when visiting this sacred ground. Nothing, however, either of temple
or worship remained. The very remembrance of them was blotted out,
and even the name of the mountain is almost unknown to the present
population. The changing fortunes of the country next presented
themselves to my imagination. Already ten dynasties have ruled in
Cyprus—first the Phœnicians, then the Greeks, to these succeeded the
Persians, the Egyptian, the Roman and the Byzantine ages, next come the
Arabian, the Frankish, and the Venetian rulers, and lastly, for nearly
three hundred years, the whole country has been subject to the rule of
the Turk; the worst period of its history. The earliest condition of
Cyprus is involved in misty obscurity. On blowing away these clouds
a little, we see a large well-wooded country altogether covered with
waving trees. A large town next becomes apparent, situated upon the
southern coast, and out of its haven, numerous small long-prowed ships
are putting to sea, manned by a bold crew, who with oars and snowy
sails are gradually making their way across the distant sea. The
sailors are Phœnicians, the large town is called Kiti, and we descry,
moreover, the abodes of numerous settlers upon the island’s southern
shore. Kiti, according to the Bible, was founded by a grandson of
Japhet—such is the venerable antiquity which surrounded the first
history of the country.
The inhabitants of Syria next appeared upon the scene, coming over from
the opposite mainland, to cultivate these delightful plains, to cut
down their luxuriant woods, wherewith to build ships, and to obtain
from the earth the metallic treasures there hidden. The mines were
worked by the Korybantes and the Daktyles, between whom apparently a
trade partnership or family connexion existed.
The industry of the inhabitants of Cyprus, even at that early period,
attained such celebrity, that Semiramis obtained shipbuilders from Kiti
to be employed on the banks of the Euphrates. With the Phœnicians, the
worship of the Syrian goddess, Astarte, was introduced into Cyprus,
to whom altars were erected at Paphos, Amathus, and Idalion. How
beautiful must then have been the forests reflected in the waters, the
verdure of the plains, the rich colour of the blossoms, soon however
to be invaded by the scorching heat of summer, whereby the last leaf,
the last blade of grass would be dried up, not inaptly symbolising the
new divinity, the teeming but merciless goddess Astarte. Cyprus became
her most celebrated sanctuary, and the worship of Astarte, which was
imported from the banks of the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Nile,
into Phœnicia and Cyprus, there took root, and put forth new branches,
making its way towards the north-west, and at last reached the Greeks,
a lively, imaginative, and energetic people, who readily embraced the
new religion. After this came the Trojan War, the history of which
never will be obliterated from the memory of mankind. All the noble
warriors and chiefs who took part in the strife with their ancestry,
descendants, and personal prowess, are freshly remembered even in the
traditions of the present day, but the chief thing to be recollected
is, that this memorable strife was the commencement of the struggle
between the East and the West.
At length the princely city of Troy was overpowered. A long and bloody
strife was fought out before her walls, and upon her whitened plains
are still assembled the shades of her heroes, while their fame is
emblazoned in the most beautiful of heroic poems. Soon after the Trojan
War, the Greeks took possession of Cyprus under the leadership of
Teucer, Akamas, Demophon, Agapenor and Kephas, Praxander, and numerous
other petty chieftains, seized upon the quiet bays, wherever the
scenery of the coast had a tempting appearance, and speedily brought
their armed ships to land. They then plunged into the dense forests,
hewed down the trees, and building entrenchments, awaited armed with
shield and spear, to see whether the islanders who were assembled in
the distance, dared to attack them. All round the coast similar inroads
were continually repeated, until at length, they ventured up the rivers
and there established their domiciles; the nucleus of a petty state.
The Greeks occupied Cyprus for a considerable period, and mixed with
the Syrians of Phœnician or of Jewish extraction, until at length
becoming assimilated both in speech and manners, they formed but one
people. Certain inscriptions found in the country were at first quite
impossible to decipher, insomuch that they were thought to belong to
some very ancient people older even than the Phœnicians; these have
however been proved quite recently to be of Græco-Cyprian origin.
Under the magic touch of Grecian refinement, the goddess of luxury and
wantonness, Astarte, became the most beautiful of ideal creations, the
mother of the Graces, the charming Aphrodite. In the imagination of the
times, Cyprus appeared rising above the blue waves, and tinted with
roseate hues. There dwelt the glorious goddess in the midst of blooming
gardens, and shaded by the green foliage of the woods, under the
shadows of which, her worshippers were supposed to dwell in happiness,
ennobled by religious fervour.
This enervating period past, we find Cyprus divided into nine petty
kingdoms, whose capitals were the cities Kition, Salamis, Amathunt,
Kurion, New Paphos, Kerynia, Lapithos, Soli, and Chytros. Numerous
rivers and brooks, streaming down from the wood-crowned hills, and
enlarging as they descended, everywhere distributed life and fertility.
At the mouth of each river or stream was a town or cultivated district,
industry seemed to have reached its highest point, and out of thirty
havens, ships went forth to earn a reputation, which made the island
dreaded throughout the Eastern seas. Meanwhile in those continents,
between which Cyprus is situated, great empires had been established.
The Assyrian, Egyptian, and Persian, each cast covetous eyes upon the
Cyprian shores, and obstinate battles were fought for their possession
in the sixth century, B.C. Partly owing to the persistent attacks from
without, partly from internal dissensions, the inhabitants succumbed
and submitted voluntarily to the rule of the Egyptians.
When, however, in the course of years, the Egyptian yoke became too
oppressive, and the name of Cyrus outshone all others, the Cyprians
appealed to him for assistance. No fewer than a hundred and fifty large
Cyprian galleys assisted Xerxes in his passage over the Hellespont.
Not long afterwards Cyprus took part in the great national war against
Persia. The Greeks spared no money to defend the island on account of
its mineral wealth, and the rich supply of wood which it afforded,
wherewith to build their ships; also for its rich harvests of fruit
and its manufactured wares, but principally on account of its excellent
position, in case of war, with the nations inhabiting the Asiatic
shores.
Great battles were fought in Cyprian waters, by fleets under the
command of Kimon and Enagoras, the latter of whom had expelled the
Persians from all the cities of the coast, and assisted Cyprus in a ten
years’ war against the whole strength of Persia; a glorious example,
which did not fail to make a deep impression, throughout the whole of
Greece. At length, however, the Persians once more got the upper hand,
and a courtesan in Persepolis was enabled to squander in a single
night, the entire revenue derived from the tribute of nine Cyprian
kings.
Next the great Macedonian conqueror appeared upon the world’s stage.
Had it not been for his powerful and crafty father, Philip, the union
of the Greeks would never have been accomplished; they had negotiated
and fought, and fought and negotiated, but were never ready to act
in concert, but now the strength of Macedon had united their forces
under the conduct of Philip’s heroic son, and set out upon their great
campaign in Asia.
When Alexander laid siege to Tyre, the Cyprian kings, of their own
accord, sent to him their powerful fleets and warlike engines, and
strove, amongst themselves, who should most richly contribute to the
festive games with which they celebrated the news of his victories.
Some accompanied him even as far as the Indus, where the Cyprian
shipwrights had built the fleet, in which he intended to ascend that
mighty river. The great conqueror himself, was presented with a dagger,
made by the artisans of Kiti, that was regarded with admiration on
account of its keen edge and masterly workmanship. When the chief
officers of Alexander’s army, from being generals were exalted into
kings; bloody battles were again fought for the possession of Cyprus.
Whoever possessed this island, could command the shores of Asia!
whoever possessed the shores of Asia, but not the island, was always
open to attack! Ultimately, however, it became the property of the
Ptolemies, and remained for two hundred years under the dominion of
Egypt. Heavily was the hand of Egypt laid upon poor Cyprus; the taxes
imposed upon its cities and villages were grievous to be borne; its
nine kings dwindled into mere shadows, an Egyptian governor resided
at Salamis, and lorded it over the land like an independent monarch.
But now the Western continent for the third time prepared a great
expedition against the East.
Already in Italy the heavy tread of Roman cohorts resounded, and
wherever they were heard the wreaths that ornamented Greek or Asiatic
palaces trembled, or fell, withered to the ground. Not a word was
heard of right, or wrong, either towards the prince, or people; Egypt
was taken possession of, and Cyprus became the province of a Roman
proconsul, who established his residence in Paphos.
The Roman system of government in a subdued territory differed but
little from that of the Turks. Unlike the Turks, however, the Romans
recompensed their subjects with higher political culture, with
substantial rights as citizens, with domestic peace, with excellent
roads and harbours, with free trade throughout all their vast empire,
and—what the Turks do not vouchsafe, and in spite of all their promises
and experimental trials, only in a very limited degree can offer to
their subjects—every inhabitant of Cyprus under the dominion of Rome,
gifted with industry and genius, had the opportunity of raising himself
even to the highest offices in the State. Throughout all the earlier
periods of its history, this island was the place where important
business, both in connexion with its mines and agricultural produce,
was carried on. It was the abode of luxury and voluptuous enjoyment,
and deeply as the Romans helped themselves from the pockets of the
Cyprians, there was always much remaining.
At the end of the Roman epoch a remarkable change took place. It has
long been a recognised fact, though dismal enough, that the instincts
of sensuality, cruelty, and mystical superstition, are entwined
together as if they grew from the same root. In Cyprus this law of
nature seems to have asserted itself throughout the land. In presence
of the mysteries of Astarte, in which abominable lust, bloodshed, and
depravity reigned triumphant, we gladly shut our eyes. But, behold, at
the magic touch of Grecian art, the gloomy Astarte becomes transformed
into the fair goddess, that rising from the sea foam, assumes the
beauteous shape of Venus. The lovely Aphrodite, whose worship,
however, still retained enough and more than enough of the ancient
rites. And now she undergoes a third transformation. How at the present
day do the Cyprians name the Mother of God, simply “Aphroditissa.” She
is often represented in the oldest pictures, with her dark features
veiled and glittering with gold and silver; exactly as in ancient time,
the great black meteoric stone—the idol of Venus—Astarte, was solemnly
veiled by her priestesses.
From the very ground, upon which formerly stood the temple of the
Cyprian Venus, little images of the Madonna are frequently dug up, as,
for example, the five goddesses, sitting upon throne-like seats, each
with a child upon its bosom, obtained from the excavations at Idalion,
and now preserved in the Ambrose collection at Vienna. Here, indeed,
the figures are altogether of an antique character, nevertheless,
every one of the five has so completely the characters of a Christian
Madonna, that the observer involuntarily thinks them counterfeits. The
conversion of the Aphrodite into the “Aphroditissa” occurred during the
earliest days of Christianity, when the sensual culture of Venus gave
place to the pure worship of the Virgin Mother. The Jews meanwhile,
long groaning under the weight of Roman taxation in Cyprus, as in
Palestine, and overwhelmed with rage and despair, conspired together,
and collecting into a formidable army slew, as it is stated, 250,000
men, a number which indicates how densely populated the island must
have been. Since this fearful slaughter no Jew has ventured to reside
in Cyprus. Christianity now made such rapid progress, that the country
was divided into no less than thirty bishoprics. The island became a
land of saints; Barrabas, Lazarus, Heraclides, Hilarion, Spiridion,
Epiphanes, Johannes, Lampadista, Johannes the Almoner, Catherine,
Acona, Maura, and a long list of holy persons stand in the calender as
belonging to Cyprus.
After the Roman epoch ensued the long and tedious uniformity of
Byzantine rule. The management of the island of Cyprus, was for the
most part entrusted to the care of military and civil governors,
although, sometimes, both these functions were united in the hands of
a satrap, who bore the title of duke or kaimacan (one set above all).
The supreme governor next endeavoured to make the succession hereditary
in his own family, and for a time succeeded—a result which soon tempted
him to aim at complete independence; for, relying on his position,
and the extent of his internal resources, he deemed the island strong
enough to defend itself. His independence, however, only lasted until
the imperial forces could be got together.
A fleet from Constantinople soon arrived, which, putting on shore a
sufficient number of troops, overthrew all his schemes and punished
his temerity. In the fourth century, during which Cyprus was sinking
slowly, but surely, into political and domestic ruin, great misfortunes
fell upon her. Earthquakes destroyed her towns, and repeated droughts
almost completed her destruction; it is said that no rain fell during
thirty years, when, as the few surviving inhabitants were endeavouring
to escape from the death-stricken country, there appeared among them
the holy St. Helena, who carried with her wherever she went, refreshing
showers; after which the towns and cloisters were once more filled by
the returning inhabitants.
From the middle of the seventh to the middle of the tenth century, the
hand of man caused fearful devastation. Hordes of pirates appeared
upon the coast, who, landing at every available place, set fire to the
towns and villages, and when the inhabitants fled to save themselves,
laid hands on every thing within their reach. Money and fruit, men and
cattle, all were hurried on board their ships. Swiftly as they had come
they departed; in vain the fleet sent out by Government endeavoured to
follow them.
Among the islands and havens of the Grecian Archipelago, concealment
and shelter were easily obtained; the only resource was to place
watchmen upon commanding points of the coast, from whence they could
see to a distance; and to build towers and beacons, whence signals
could be made by means of fires and smoke, so soon as any suspicious
craft made its appearance. On seeing this signal, all the inhabitants
of the coast fled into the interior, taking their children and cattle
and their money and valuables, with them; and there they remained
concealed, until another signal from the watchman told them that the
coast was clear. Next came robbers of a still worse description; the
former only sought for what could be readily carried off in their
ships: these others were land robbers. The pirates only struck down
or burned whatever hindered them in their proceedings; the others
destroyed for destruction sake, and collecting men like sheep drove
them into slavery. These were Arabs; from their sandy and rocky deserts
they brought with them a savage hatred against all religious edifices,
which they levelled with the ground. It was now that the ancient
buildings of Cyprus suffered: the old temples were reduced to ruins,
the towns were destroyed, and everything Greek or Roman, perished. The
Arabs wished to establish their new Government in the island, and for
this purpose they only required bare ground.
In Constantinople every endeavour was made once more to seize upon and
maintain possession of the rich island. In despair a command was issued
by the Sultan, that all these fierce intruders should leave Cyprus. The
howl of the Arab was no longer heard in the country, and the population
began again to gather itself together, first in the plains and towns
upon the coast, and afterwards little by little, the hills became once
more peopled. To this Arab period, succeeded a respite, during which
the island was enabled in some degree to recover itself.
The rule of the Byzantine continued, however, for two hundred years.
Frequently did the Cyprians endeavour to free themselves from bonds
which pinioned the arms of industry, but all in vain; the island seemed
to have settled down into that slow decay, which was the fate of all
the Byzantine provinces. When we reflect what a system of robbery
was practised throughout the western Roman empire, and the absolute
poverty of the eastern states, and consider that the Grecian people for
thirteen centuries had to submit to such rulers; that, in that time
so many insurrections broke out among the German, Slav, Arabian, and
Turanian nations; we must perforce recognise the excellent material of
which they are composed. It is a wonder that after so many centuries of
oppression, spoliation, and misery, so many of them survive.
We have now arrived at the end of the twelfth century, and for the
fourth time the Western Continent is assembled to do battle against
the East. France and Germany take the lead in the crusade, Italy
and England assist. For nearly a century the coast of Asia opposite
to Cyprus, from Cilicia to Egypt, had again become Christian. The
centre of the group was the kingdom of Jerusalem. Its supporters were
the principalities of Tripoli, Edissa, and Antioch, the dominions
of Cæsarea, Beyrut, Sidon, and Tyre. Only Cyprus remained under the
Byzantine yoke. Then came Richard Cœur de Lion, and in one wild attack
he subdued the island and departed. Cyprus once more had her own king,
and by a single stroke order and peace were restored to the island.
Baronial castles, abbeys with stately halls, and beautiful Gothic
cathedrals, sprang up in all directions. The slopes of the hills were
covered with vineyards and orchard and the fields were sown with corn
and profitable vegetables. Rich works, and a trade that extended all
over the Mediterranean, gave life to the whole country. Famagusta and
Limasol at once took their places as large sea-ports.
After having been for fifteen hundred years a mere dependency on either
Memphis, Persepolis, Alexandria, Rome, or Constantinople, Cyprus now
for three, hundred years enjoyed the blessings of self-government, and
was prosperous and in high repute. She built a new capital city, and
when the Holy Land was abandoned became the rendezvous of the knights,
who brought with them their laws.
As in the days of Cymon and Enagoras, Cyprus became the arsenal where
the fleets and armies of Greece armed themselves to invade Persia. She
now shone across the blue waters of the Mediterranean as the centre of
knighthood and chivalry, from whence the unbelievers were incessantly
attacked, and for a long time victoriously fought against, whenever
they ventured to establish themselves, upon the coast from Smyrna to
Alexandria.
This glorious change in the condition of Cyprus was effected, not by
the inhabitants of the island, but by the knights, monks, and citizens
who came to her from foreign countries, bringing with them knowledge,
activity, and industry.
When the Venetians took possession of the country, it once more sank
into its former insignificance, it became merely the treasure chest
and the granary of a foreign nation. The entire population soon
lost its chivalrous character, and gradually sank into a sloth and
stupidity, from which it again never recovered; and to add to the
general misery, a fearful scourge now visited the unhappy land. In
the places left desert by diminished cultivation, locusts multiplied
to such an extent that vegetation disappeared from the face of the
ground. A still greater misfortune was the incessant destruction of the
trees and woods; the very mountains were left bare, and, as a natural
consequence, the rivers and brooks were dried up, so that the parched
land was no longer capable of cultivation. This state of things has
now existed for nearly three hundred years. Each successive season
appears worse than that which preceded it, the rulers more rapacious,
and the climate more unhealthy. In our day, the inhabitants seem to be
slightly roused from their apathetic slumber which is principally owing
to foreign interference. This amelioration exists particularly in the
vicinity of the sea coast, once so rich and beautiful, now so wretched
and unfortunate.