together, the right side of the material being inside, and fix them in
the clams. Slip the welt as previously described between the edges,
and pass the awl through the lot. Drive it perfectly straight, as upon
this chiefly depends a nice seam when turned. Draw out the awl, and by
following the point, pass up the bottom needle with the left hand.
This should be taken by the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and
the thread pulled through half its length, so forming a thread of
equal length on each side. Make another hole with the awl about
one-third of an inch from the first. This gives the length of stitch.
Pass up the bottom needle as before into the right hand, the top
needle descending to the bottom immediately after. Take hold of this
with the left hand and pull through the threads simultaneously top and
bottom, until the extremity on each side lies on and forms the stitch.
Be careful that in pulling in the latter part each thread closes at
the same time, thereby preventing a crooked seam. Repeat until the
seam is finished, then take the other gusset and place in position.
Sew this, then take the other side of bag and sew to the gussets. You
will then have something in the shape of a bag, minus the bottom. Take
this next, and fix each corner to one of the seams previously made,
and stitch it carefully round, placing a welt in as before. At the end
of each seam a stitch or two back should be taken or the thread tied
over to prevent it opening.
The outside of the bag being inward, it must now be turned previous to
stiffening and framing. The turning is done by placing the bag over
the left arm, and with the right hand commence pushing in one of the
corners, then the opposite one until that end is reversed. Then serve
the other end in a similar manner, and smooth each seam along.
We now take a piece of stout millboard (an old ledger book cover will
do if large enough), or, if purchased with the frame, ask for a two
pound board: this will cost about 4d., and be sufficient for several
bags. Cut it quarter of an inch less than the bottom all round, and
see that it fits before gluing it in. To do this, place one end within
the seams at one end of the bag, and by lifting it in the middle press
in the other, when the stiffening will lie within the four seams at
the bottom. Having fitted it satisfactorily, take it out again and
glue it well with some good hot glue. This must be neither too thick
nor too thin. The best way to prepare it is to lay some glue in cold
water for twelve hours. It will absorb sufficient water in that time,
and can be boiled up without any further preparation. The quicker it
is fixed after the glue is put on the better. A brush similar to a
paint brush will be the best to apply it with, and need not cost more
than 6d. After the gluing, lay it aside for a few hours to allow it to
thoroughly set, during which time the making of the handles can be
proceeded with. On some bought bags these are very common, and seldom
last more than a few months; the usual plan being to take a piece of
rope about the size of a clothes line and roll a piece of brown paper
round it, covering it afterward with a piece of basil leather.
Procure two pieces of brown harness leather--the shoulder of the hide
is most suitable--from a saddler, 11 inches long by 1-1/8 inches wide,
round the four ends, and make a compass mark 1/8 of an inch from the
edge all round for the stitching. Take a piece of line as above, and
place within the leather, which most likely will have to be damped to
make it draw round easier. Leave 1½ inches from each end for sewing to
the bag, the line also being so much less than the full length of the
handles. Having sewn them, flatten the ends and bend the handles into
a semicircular shape, and leave them to dry.
By this time the glue holding the stiffening to the bottom of the bag
will be set, so the next move will be to put in the studs or nails.
Take the largest size awl and make five punctures through the bottom,
about three-quarters of an inch from each corner and one in the
center, as in Fig 8; push the nails through and turn down each of the
two claws in an opposite direction, tap them with a hammer to make
them lie closer, and also to prevent them from becoming loose. This
done, we next take the frame and remove the key-plate from it.
Fold the sides of the bag well over the frame, so that the stitching
will get a good hold of the part that goes inside. Put a stitch
through at each corner to hold it, and see that it sets perfectly true
on the frame. A space is left between the two plates of iron forming
the frame, which allows of the bag being sewn through it. Fix the
key-plate by riveting inside. Sew the bag from one corner of frame to
the other corner on each side, leaving the gussets unstitched. It is
now ready for the lining. Let this be good, as it will greatly add to
the durability of the bag if strong. Coarse linen at 8d. to 10d. per
yard is the best material for this purpose. The sides and bottom may
be cut in one piece; the length of this will be twice the depth of one
side of carpet (less the part which folds over the frame) and the
width of the bottom. The width of this piece throughout to be a half
inch less than the outsides were cut. The gusset lining will want to
be the same width as the gusset, but an inch less in length will do.
The seams of the lining may be stitched with an ordinary household
sewing machine if good thread is used. When made, place the lining
inside the bag, see that it is well down at the bottom, turn in the
top edge all round to the required size, and fix in as follows: Take a
long carpet needle and a length of thread, pass the needle through the
lining at the folded ridge and bring it up again through the same at a
distance of an inch or so. This forms a stitch within the lining; pass
the needle through one of the stitches made in sewing in the frame and
repeat as before, carefully observing that the lining falls into its
proper place as it is being sewn in. Continue in this way until the
two sides are done, leaving only the gussets and gusset lining to be
united. This is done by folding the edges inward and sewing them
together, the frame joints moving freely between the gussets and
lining. We have now only the handles to put on and it is complete. Sew
these on with a five cord thread well waxed. To protect the lock
against being unduly strained when filled, a strap and buckle may be
put on between the handles and each end of the frame, as in Fig. 3.
Next in order is the cricket bat bag, which should always be comprised
in the outfit of the amateur cricketer, as well as of the
professional. In making this we follow the instructions given for the
carpet bag. It may be made either of carpet, tan-canvas, or leather,
the latter, of course, being the strongest and most expensive. Carpet
will not require to be described, but a brief description of
tan-canvas and leather may be of service to the amateur in assisting
him to choose something for himself.
Tan-canvas, as used for bags and portmanteaux, is a strong, coarse
material of a brown color; it wears well, and has one advantage over
carpet--it is thoroughly waterproof.
Leather is, of course, superior to carpet or canvas, but there are a
few tricks in its manufacture which it may not be out of place here to
mention as a caution to the amateur that the old saying, "There's
nothing _like_ leather," is a thing of the past where the general
appearance of an article is meant. The genius of the inventor has
produced machinery which gives to paper, linen, and other stuffs the
appearance of the genuine article, whereas it does not contain one
particle of it. At one time, when a hide of leather was required to be
of the same thickness all over it, the currier would work at the flesh
of the skin with a shaving knife, gradually scraping the thick parts
away until it was reduced to the required substance. Now it is done
in a few minutes. The hide is passed whole between the rollers of a
splitting machine against the sharp edge of a knife, which reaches
from one side of the machine to the other, a distance of 10 or 12
feet. This knife is so gauged that any thickness can be taken off at
one operation, the part taken off resembling the hide in size and
shape. The top or grain of the hide is then dressed and finished off
brown, if for brown hides; or, if to be used for enameled hides, they
are dyed and japanned. These are called either brown or enameled
cow-hides, according as they are finished off, and are used for all
the best class of Gladstone, brief, and other bags. The bottom or
fleshing of the hide is also dyed and japanned, and when finished,
exactly resembles in appearance the hide itself, and is very difficult
for the novice to tell when made up into bags or any other article.
These are called _splits_, and having had the best part of the skin
taken from them, do not wear one-fourth the time the grain will. The
black enamel soon chips off, which gives them a worn-out appearance.
To make a bag 36 inches by 12 inches by 8 inches requires a frame 36
inches long, the sides 36½ inches by 14 inches, gussets 14 inches by
8½ inches, bottom 36½ inches by 8 inches. The lining will be 36 inches
by 12 inches for the sides, gussets 13 inches by 8 inches, bottom 36
inches by 8 inches. For the handles two pieces of leather 12 inches by
2 inches. The straps and chapes are sewn on quite close to the frame,
straps 10 inches long by 1 inch, chapes 4½ inches by 1 inch. Cut a
slit in the middle of the chape for the buckle tongue to go through,
and pare the under side at the end so that it is not too lumpy when
sewn on to the bag. Cut two loops 3 inches long by ¾ inch wide for the
points of straps to go through.
The brief bag must be made of leather, and as there is the same amount
of work in making it, whether it be of split or hide, it will be sure
to give greater satisfaction if the latter is chosen. The manufacture
of this bag differs considerably from the others. The sides and
gussets in the carpet bag are cut straight from top to bottom, but in
the brief bag they must be shaped to fit the frame, and give it a more
comely appearance. The frame, as before described, is quite different.
The way to commence with this bag is to open the frame as in Fig. 7,
so that it will lie perfectly flat upon the bench. With the rule
measure it carefully between the corners, A, A, and again at A, B. The
distance between A and B being less when the frame is open than when
closed, an additional ½ inch must be added to allow the gusset to bend
freely round the hinge. Having correctly taken these measurements, get
a sheet of brown paper and fold it in the middle; the reason for this
is to allow of each side of the pattern taking the same curve at the
swelled part. Cut the pattern for the sides first by ascertaining half
the distance, A, A, and marking it on to the edge of the paper,
measuring from the folded edge toward the ends. Next mark on the
folded edge the depth you intend the bag to be, allowing in this, as
in the carpet bag, 1½ inches for covering the frame. The depths of
brief bags vary so much that I will give these only as a guide,
leaving my readers to add or reduce as their fancy guides them; but if
they should strictly adhere to these given below, I am certain they
will find them very useful sizes.
For a 12 inch frame cut the sides and gussets 10½ inches in depth;
when made up, these will be 9 inches from the frame to the bottom. For
a 14 inch frame add 1 inch, and for a 16 inch add 2 inches. This will
make these 10 inches and 11 inches in depth respectively when made up,
and either of these will be found a very useful bag for many purposes.
The width of the bottoms to be cut 5 inches, 5½ inches, and 6 inches,
the 5 inch, of course, for the 12 inch bag, the 5½ inch for the 14
inch, and the 6 inch for the 16 inch. The depth having been decided
upon, and marked on the folded edge of the paper, make another mark
the same distance from the edge at the first mark, H. The bottom of
the sides being 1 inch longer than the top, add ½ inch to the
measurement of the top of pattern when the bottom part is marked off
at J L. Draw a curved line between H L, as in Fig. 9, and cut through
the two thicknesses of paper at one time, keeping them well together
to insure them being alike. The gusset pattern may be cut in the same
way, D to D, Fig. 10, being half the distance of A B, Fig. 7, and the
½ inch added for going round the joint; E E, the swelled part, which
bends into the bag when the frame is closed, and also allows it to
open perfectly square; F F is half the width of the bottom of gusset.
A pattern for the bottom of the bag may be made by folding a piece of
paper each way to get the length and width; make a small hole through
the four thicknesses, open it and mark it from hole to hole, using the
rule as a guide. This will be found to be perfectly accurate.
To cut out the bag, lay the leather on the bench, enameled side
downward, and see that the patterns lie on it so the creases will run
from the top to bottom of the bag when made. The sides must be taken
first, and as they are more exposed than any other part, they should
be taken from the best part of the hide. Take the gussets next, then
the bottom. The welts are taken from the cuttings which are left. To
make the handle, glue a lot of odd pieces together about 6½ inches
long, ½ inch wide, and the same thickness, and when dry pare the edges
away until it is perfectly round and slightly tapering toward each
end. It is then divided and glued top and bottom to a strip of good
leather cut to shape, Fig. 12, which is passed through the rings at
each end, and turned back to form a shape. Put a few stitches through
close to the rings before the fittings are glued on, and cover with a
piece of cow-hide long enough to go through the two rings and along
the under side, then stitch it. Trim and dye the edges, rubbing them
afterward with a piece of cloth to produce a polish. Before making the
handle, the plates must be on the rings, or it will prove a difficult
job to get them on afterward.
The stiffening for the bottom will be cut as if for a carpet bag. Fig.
11 represents the stiffening for the gussets, and is cut from a board
half the thickness of that used for the bottom.
The linings may be cut from the outside patterns by reducing them the
1½ inches, allowed for covering the frame, and 1/8 inch for each welt.
A lining of scarlet or blue roan greatly adds to the appearance and
durability of a bag. A skin large enough for a 14 inch or 16 inch will
cost about 3s.
Cow-hide for the outside is sold at 1s. 8d. per square foot, but the
leather sellers frequently have pieces large enough for making a bag
which they will sell at a slight reduction, and which answers this
purpose as well as cutting a hide. In seaming the bag, take care not
to wrinkle it in the clams. The welts in this must reach only to the
frame, the same as in the carpet bag; the rest of the seam must be
neatly closed and rubbed down, so that it will not be lumpy on the
frame. Before turning the bag warm it before the fire, especially if
it is cold weather. Glue in the bottom stiffening first, and then the
gussets, rubbing them well down with the bone. When these are set,
prepare for the operation of framing. Fold one of the sides to get the
middle of it, cut a hole for the lock barrel about 1¼ inches from the
edge, and press it over. Be careful not to cut it too large or the
hole will show. Pierce a hole through the leather for the lock plate,
press this tightly on the frame, and clinch the clams underneath, to
hold it securely. Make holes for the handle plates and fasten them on
in a similar manner. Two slits must be cut near the middle of the
other side of bag, about ¾ inch from the edge, for the hasp to go
through. This bag must be sewn to the frame all round, and care must
be taken that a sufficient fullness is allowed in the middle of the
gusset to enable it to close easily round the joints of the frame. A
thumbpiece must be sewn on the bag at the hasp to open it by. The
lining of this bag is sewn through the frame all round in the same
manner as the side linings of the carpet bag.
I hope my readers will not think that I have gone too much into
details. It is in small things that so many failures take place. As it
is much easier to do anything when you are shown than when so much has
to be guessed, it is my desire to make the road for beginners as
smooth as possible, which must be my excuse if any is required. It is
as well that those who intend to turn their attention to working in
leather should begin by making a bag; the experience gained in
cutting, fitting, putting together, and finishing will be useful when
larger and more difficult pieces of work are undertaken.--_Amateur
Mechanics._
* * * * *
MOLASSES, HOW MADE.
The _New England Grocer_ says that the manufacture of molasses is
really the manufacture of sugar up to a certain stage, for molasses is
the uncrystallized sirup produced in the making of sugar. The methods
of manufacture in the West Indies vary very considerably. In the
interior and on the smaller plantations it is made by a very primitive
process, while on the larger plantations all the appliances of modern
science and ingenuity are brought to bear. Each planter makes his own
sugar. It is then carried to the sea coast and sold to the exporters,
by whom it is shipped to this country. The quality and grade of the
molasses varies with each plantation. Two plantations side by side may
produce entirely different grades. This is owing to the soil, which in
Porto Rico and other localities in the West Indies seems to change
with almost every acre. The cane from which the sugar and molasses is
made is planted by laying several pieces of it in holes or trenches.
The pieces are then covered with earth to the depth of two or three
inches. In about two weeks sprouts appear above the surface. Then more
earth is put in, and as the sprouts grow, earth is added until in
three or four months the holes are filled up. The planting is done
from August to November, and the cutting progresses throughout the
greater part of the year. The cane grows to a height of seven or eight
feet, in joints each about a foot long.
When the cane is in proper condition for cutting, as shown by its
appearance, an army of workmen take possession of the field. Each is
armed with a long, broad knife, like a butcher's cleaver. They move
down the lines of cane like an army, and while the cutting is going on
the fields present an interesting sight, the sword-like knives
flashing in the sun, the 300 or 400 laborers, the carpet of cut cane,
the long line of moving carts, and the sea of standing cane, sometimes
extending for miles and miles, stirred by the breeze into waves of
undulating green. The laborers employed on these plantations are
largely negroes and Chinese coolies. When the cane is ripe, they
proceed to the field, each armed with a _matchet_. Spreading over the
plantation, they commence the cutting of the cane, first by one cut at
the top, which takes off the long leaves and that part which is
worthless, except as fodder for the cattle. A second cut is then given
as near the root as possible, as the nearer the ground the richer the
cane is in juice. The cut cane is allowed to fall carelessly to the
ground.
Other workmen come with carts, pick it up, tie it in bundles and
carry it to the mill. The cutting of the cane is so adjusted as to
keep pace with the action of the mill, so that both are always at
work. Two gangs of men are frequently employed, and work goes on far
into the night during the season, which lasts the greater part of the
year.
As before stated, some of the methods of manufacture are very simple.
In the simplest form, the sugar cane is crushed in a mortar. The juice
thus extracted is boiled in common open pans. After boiling a certain
length of time, it becomes a dark colored, soft, viscid mass. The
uncrystallized sirup is expressed by putting the whole into cloth bags
and subjecting them to pressure. This is molasses in a crude state. It
is further purified by reboiling it with an addition of an alkaline
solution and a quantity of milk. When this has continued until scum no
longer arises, it is evaporated and then transferred to earthen jars.
After it has been left for a few days to granulate, holes in the
bottom of the jars are unstopped, and the molasses drains off into
vessels placed to receive it. Another process of extracting molasses
is as follows: By various processes of boiling and straining, the
juice is brought to a state where it is a soft mass of crystals,
embedded in a thick, but uncrystallized, fluid. The separation of this
fluid is the next process, and is perfected in the curing house, so
called. This is a large building, with a cellar which forms the
molasses reservoir. Over this reservoir is an open framework of
joists, upon which stands a number of empty potting casks. Each of
these has eight or ten holes bored through the bottom, and in each
hole is placed the stalk of a plantain leaf. The soft, concrete mass
of sugar is removed from the cooling pans in which it has been brought
from the boilers and placed in the casks. The molasses then gradually
drains from the crystallized portion into the reservoir below,
percolating through the spongy plantain stalks.
On the larger plantations, machinery of very elaborate description is
used, and the most advanced processes known to science are employed in
the manufacture. The principle is, however, the same as has been seen
in the account of the simpler processes. On these larger plantations
there are extensive buildings, quarters for workmen, steam engines,
and all the necessary adjuncts of advanced manufacturing science. In
the sugar mills the cut cane is carried in carts to the mill. It is
then thrown by hand upon an endless flexible conductor which carries
the cane between heavy crushers. The great jaws of the crushers press
the cane into pulp, when it is thrown aside automatically to be carted
away and used as a fertilizer. The juice runs off in the channels of
the conductor into huge pans. The juice is now of a dull gray color
and of a sweet, pleasant taste, and is known as _guarapo_. It must be
clarified at once, for it is of so fermentable a nature that in the
climate of Porto Rico it will run into fermentation inside of half an
hour if the process of clarifying is not commenced. The pans into
which the juice is conducted are pierced like a colander. The liquor
runs through, leaving the refuse matter behind. It is then forced into
tanks by a pump and run to the clarifiers, which are large kettles
heated by steam. Lime is used to assist the clarification. It is then
filtered into vats filled with bone black. The filtering is repeated
until the juice changes color, when it is conveyed to the vacuum pans.
It has now become a thick sirup. It is then pumped into the sirup
clarifiers, skimmed, and again run through bone black, and finally is
conducted into another kettle, where it is allowed to crystallize. The
sirup that fails to crystallize is molasses, and it is here that we
catch up with what we started after. To extract the molasses from the
crystallized mass of sugar, we must go to the purging house. This is
similar to the building spoken of in connection with the simpler
process. It is of two stories. The upper floor is merely a series of
strong frames with apertures for funnel-shaped cylinders. The sugar is
brought into the purging house in great pans, which are placed over
the funnels. The pans are pierced with holes through which the
molasses drains off into troughs which are underneath the floor, all
running to a main trough. From thence the molasses runs into vats,
called _bocoyes_, each of which holds from 1,200 to 1,500 gallons. The
hogsheads in which the molasses is brought to this country are
manufactured principally in Philadelphia and taken to the West Indies.
They are placed in the hold of the vessel and the molasses pumped into
them. The government standard for molasses is 56 degrees polarization.
When not above that test, the duty is four cents per gallon. Above it
the duty is eight cents. This tends to keep molasses pure, as the
addition of glucose increases the quantity of sugar and therefore of
the polarization, and would make necessary the payment of increased
duties. The adulteration of molasses is therefore largely if not
wholly done after it is out of bond and in the hands of the jobber.
* * * * *
PRIMITIVE IRON MANUFACTURE.
We are indebted for the illustrations and the particulars to Dr.
Percy's invaluable book on iron and steel (probably it is not saying
too much to describe it as the best work on the subject ever written).
[Illustration: SECTION OF INDIAN BLAST FURNACE AND BLOWING MACHINE.]
Fig. 1 shows a sectional elevation, and Fig. 2 shows a plan of furnace
and bellows and tuyeres, indeed, an entire ironworks plant used in
India, not only now, but, so far as we can gather, from time
immemorial. The two figures give a sufficiently clear idea of the form
of furnace used in Lower Bengal, in which portion of our Indian empire
there are entire villages exclusively inhabited by iron smelters, who,
sad to relate, are distinguished from the agricultural villages
surrounding them by their filth, poverty, and generally degraded
condition. There are whole tribes in India who have no other
occupation than iron smelting. They, of course, sink no shafts and
open no mines, and are not permanent in any place. They simply remain
in one place so long as plentiful supplies of ore and wood are
obtainable in the immediate vicinity. In many cases the villages
formerly inhabited by them have passed out of existence, but the
waste, or rather wasted products, of their operations remain.