empire was falling into a danger, by which it had been threatened from
the outset, and which it had been ever trying to avoid. We may say that
there were two dangers which constantly impended over the Roman Empire
from its inauguration by Augustus to its redintegration by Diocletian--a
Scylla and Charybdis, between which it had to steer. The one was a
cabinet of imperial freedmen, the other was a military despotism. The
former danger called forth, and was counteracted by, the creation of a
civil service system, to which Hadrian perhaps made the most important
contributions, and which was finally elaborated by Diocletian, who at
the same time averted the other danger by separating the military and
civil administrations. But both dangers revived in a new form. The
danger from the army became danger from the Germans, who preponderated
in it; and the institution of court ceremonial tended to create a
cabinet of chamberlains and imperial dependents.
This oriental ceremonial, so marked a feature of late "Byzantinism,"
involved, as one of its principles, difficulty of access to the Emperor,
who, living in the retirement of his palace, was tempted to trust less
to his eyes than his ears, and saw too little of public affairs.
Diocletian appreciated this disadvantage himself, and remarked that the
sovereign, shut up in his palace, cannot know the truth, but must rely
on what his attendants and officers tell him. We may also remark that
absolute monarchy, by its very nature, tends in this direction; for
absolute monarchy naturally tends to a dynasty, and a dynasty implies
that there must sooner or later come to the throne weak men,
inexperienced in public affairs, reared up in an atmosphere of flattery
and illusion, easily guided by intriguing chamberlains and eunuchs.
Under such conditions, then, aulic cabals and chamber cabinets are sure
to become dominant sometimes. Diocletian, whose political insight and
ingenuity were remarkable, tried to avoid the dangers of a dynasty by
his artificial system, but artifice could not contend with success
against nature.
The greatest blot on the ministry of Eutropius--for, as he was the most
trusted adviser of the Emperor, we may use the word ministry--was the
sale of offices, of which Claudian gives a vivid and exaggerated
account. This was a blot, however, that stained other men of those days
as well as Eutropius, and we must view it rather as a feature of the
times than as a personal enormity. Of course, the eunuch's spies were
ubiquitous; of course, informers of all sorts were encouraged and
rewarded. All the usual stratagems for grasping and plundering were put
into practice.
The strong measures that a determined minister was ready to take for the
mere sake of vengeance may be exemplified by a treatment which the whole
Lycian province received at the hands of Rufinus. On account of a single
individual, Tatian, who had offended that minister, all the provincials
were excluded from public offices. After the death of Rufinus, the
Lycians were relieved from these disabilities; but the fact that the
edict of emancipation expressly enjoins "that no one henceforward
venture to wound a Lycian citizen with a name of scorn" shows what a
serious misfortune their degradation was.
The eunuch won considerable odium in the first year of his power (396)
by bringing about the fall of two men of distinction--Abundantius, to
whose patronage he owed his rise in the world, and Timasius, who had
been the commander-general in the East. An account of the manner in
which the ruin of the latter was wrought will illustrate the sort of
intrigues that were spun at the Byzantine court.
Timasius had brought with him from Sardis a Syrian sausage-seller, named
Bargus, who, with native address, had insinuated himself into his good
graces and obtained a subordinate command in the army. The prying
omniscience of Eutropius discovered that, years before, this same Bargus
had been forbidden to enter Constantinople for some misdemeanor, and by
means of this knowledge he gained an ascendency over the Syrian, and
compelled him to accuse his benefactor, Timasius, of a treasonable
conspiracy, supporting the charge by forgeries. The accused was tried,
condemned, and banished to the Lybian oasis, a punishment equivalent to
death; he was never heard of more. Eutropius, foreseeing that the
continued existence of Bargus might at some time compromise himself,
suborned his wife to lodge very serious charges against her husband, in
consequence of which he was put to death. Whether Eutropius then got rid
of the wife we are not informed.
Among the adherents of Eutropius, who were equally numerous and
insincere, two were of especial importance--Osius, who had risen from
the post of a cook to be count of the sacred largesses, and finally
master of the offices, and Leo, a soldier, corpulent and good-humored,
who was known by the sobriquet of Ajax, a man of great body and little
mind, fond of boasting, fond of eating, fond of drinking, and fond of
women.
On the other hand, Eutropius had many enemies, and enemies in two
different quarters. Romans of the stamp of Timasius and Aurelian were
naturally opposed to the supremacy of an emasculated chamberlain; while,
as we shall see subsequently, the German element in the empire,
represented by Gainas, was also inimical. It seems certain that a
serious confederacy was formed in the year 397, aiming at the overthrow
of Eutropius. Though this is not stated by any writer, it seems an
inevitable conclusion from the law which was passed in the autumn of
that year, assessing the penalty of death to anyone who had conspired
"with soldiers or private persons, including barbarians," against the
lives "of _illustres_ who belong to our consistory or assist at our
counsels," or other senators, such a conspiracy being considered
equivalent to treason. Intent was to be regarded as equivalent to crime,
and not only did the individual concerned incur capital punishment, but
his descendants were visited with disfranchisement.
It is generally recognized that this law was an express palladium for
chamberlains; but surely it must have been suggested by some actually
formed conspiracy, of which Eutropius discovered the threads before it
was carried out. The particular mention of soldiers and barbarians
points to a particular danger, and we may suspect that Gainas, who
afterward brought about the fall of Eutropius, had some connection with
it.
While the eunuch was sailing in the full current of success at
Byzantium, the Vandal Stilicho was enjoying an uninterrupted course of
prosperity in the somewhat less stifling air of Italy. The poet
Claudian, who acted as a sort of poet-laureate to Honorius, was really
an apologist for Stilicho, who patronized and paid him. Almost every
public poem he produced is an extravagant panegyric on that general, and
we cannot but suspect that many of his utterances were direct
manifestoes suggested by his patron. In the panegyric in honor of the
third consulate of Honorius (396), which, composed soon after the death
of Rufinus, breathes a spirit of concord between East and West, the
writer calls upon Stilicho "to protect with his right hand the two
brothers" (_geminos dextra tu protege fratres_).
Such lines as this are written to put a certain significance on
Stilicho's policy. In the panegyric in honor of the fourth consulate of
Honorius (398) he gives an absolutely false and misleading account of
Stilicho's expedition to Greece two years before, an account which no
allowance for poetical exaggeration can defend. At the same time he
extols Honorius with the most absurd eulogiums, and overwhelms him with
the most extravagant adulations, making out the boy of fourteen to be
greater than his father and grandfather. If Claudian were not a poet, we
should say that he was a most outrageous liar. We are therefore unable
to accord him the smallest credit when he boasts that the subjects in
the western provinces are not oppressed by heavy taxes and that the
treasury is not replenished by extortion.
Stilicho and Eutropius had shaken hands over the death of Rufinus, but
the good understanding was not destined to last longer than the song of
triumph. We cannot justly blame Eutropius for this. No minister of
Arcadius could regard with good-will or indifference the desire of
Stilicho to interfere in the affairs of New Rome; for this desire cannot
be denied, even if one do not accept the theory that the scheme of
detaching Illyricum from Arcadius' dominion was entertained by him at as
early a date as 396. His position as master of soldier in Italy gave him
no power in other parts of the empire; and the attitude which he assumed
as an elderly relative, solicitously concerned for the welfare of his
wife's young cousin, in obedience to the wishes of that cousin's father,
was untenable, when it led him to exceed the acts of a strictly private
friendship.
We can then well understand the indignation felt at New Rome, not only
by Eutropius, but probably also by men of a quite different faction,
when the news arrived that Stilicho purposed to visit Constantinople to
set things in order and arrange matters for Arcadius. Such officiousness
was intolerable, and it was plain that the strongest protest must be
made against it. The senate accordingly passed a resolution declaring
Stilicho a public enemy. This action of the senate is very remarkable,
and its signification is not generally perceived. If the act had been
altogether due to Eutropius, it would surely have taken the form of an
imperial decree. Eutropius would not have resorted to the troublesome
method of bribing or threatening the whole senate even if he had been
able to do so. We must conclude then that the general feeling against
Stilicho was strong, and we must confess naturally strong.
The situation was now complicated by a revolt in Africa, which
eventually proved highly fortunate for the glory and influence of
Stilicho.
Eighteen years before, the Moor Firmus had made an attempt to create a
kingdom for himself in the African provinces (A.D. 379), and had been
quelled by the arms of Theodosius, who received important assistance
from Gildo, the brother and enemy of Firmus. Gildo was duly rewarded. He
was finally military commander, or Count, of Africa, and his daughter
Salvina was united in marriage to a nephew of the empress Ælia
Flaccilla. But the faith of the Moors was as the faith of Carthaginians.
Gildo refused to send aid to Theodosius in his expedition against
Eugenius.
After Theodosius' death he prepared to take a more positive attitude,
and he engaged numerous African nomad tribes to support him in his
revolt. The strained relations between Old and New Rome, which did not
escape his notice, suggested to him that his rebellion might assume the
form of a transition from the sovereignty of Honorius to the sovereignty
of Arcadius. He knew that if he were dependent only on New Rome he would
be practically independent. He entered accordingly into communication
with the government of Arcadius, but the negotiations came to nothing.
It appears that Gildo demanded that Lybia should be consigned to his
rule, and he certainly took possession of it. It also appears that
embassies on the subject passed between Italy and Constantinople, and
that Symmachus the orator was one of the ambassadors. But it is certain
that Arcadius did not in any way assist Gildo, and the comparatively
slight and moderate references which the hostile Claudius makes to the
hesitating attitude of New Rome indicate that the government of
Alexandrius did not behave very badly after all.
We need not go into the details of the Gildonic war, through which
Stilicho won well-deserved laurels, although he did not take the field
himself. What made the revolt of the Count of Africa of such great
moment was the fact that the African provinces were the granary of Old
Rome, as Egypt was the granary of New Rome. By stopping the supplies of
corn, Gildo might hope to starve out Italy. The prompt action and
efficient management of Stilicho, however, prevented any catastrophe;
for ships from Gaul and from Spain, laden with corn, appeared in the
Tiber, and Rome was supplied during the winter months. Early in 398 a
fleet sailed against the tyrant, whose hideous cruelties and oppressions
were worthy of his Moorish blood; and it is a curious fact that this
fleet was under the command of Mascezel, Gildo's brother, who was now
playing the same part toward Gildo that Gildo had played toward his
brother Firmus. The undisciplined nomadic army of the rebel was
scattered without labor at Ardalio, and Africa was delivered from the
Moor's reign of ruin and terror, to which Roman rule, with all its
fiscal sternness, was peace and prosperity.
This subjugation of the man whom the senate of Old Rome had pronounced a
public enemy redounded far and wide to the glory of the man whom the
senate of New Rome had proclaimed a public enemy. And in the mean time
Stilicho's position had become still more splendid and secure by the
marriage of his daughter Maria with the emperor Honorius (398), for
which an epithalamium was written by Claudian, who, as we might expect,
celebrates the father-in-law as expressly as the bridal pair. The
Gildonic war also supplied, we need hardly remark, a grateful material
for his favorite theme; and the year 400, to which Stilicho gave his
name of consul, inspired an enthusiastic effusion.
It may seem strange that now, almost at the zenith of his fame, the
father-in-law of the Emperor and the hero of the Gildonic war did not
make some attempt to carry out his favorite project of interfering with
the government of the eastern provinces. But there are two
considerations which may help to explain this.
In the first place Stilicho himself was not the man of indomitable will
who forms a project and carries it through; he was a man rather of that
ambitious but hesitating character which Mommsen attributes to Pompey.
He was half a Roman and half a barbarian; he was half strong and half
weak; he was half patriotic and half selfish. His intentions were
unscrupulous, but he was almost afraid of them. Besides this, his wife,
Serena, probably endeavored to check his policy of discord and maintain
unity in the Theodosian house. In the second place, it is sufficiently
probable that he was in constant communication with Gainas, the German
general of the eastern armies and chief representative of the German
interests in the realm of Arcadius, and that Gainas was awaiting his
time for an outbreak, by which Stilicho hoped to profit and execute his
designs. He had no excuse for interference, and he was willing to wait.
His inactive policy of the next two years must not be taken to indicate
that he cherished no ambitious projects.
The Germans looked up to Stilicho as the most important German in the
empire; their natural protector and friend, while there was a large
Roman faction opposed to him as a foreigner. But as yet this faction was
not strong enough to overpower him. It is remarkable that his fall was
finally brought about by the influence of a palace official (A.D. 408),
while the fall of his rival Eutropius, which occurred far sooner (A.D.
399), was brought about by the compulsion of a German general. These
facts indicate that the two dangers to which I have already called
attention--the preponderating influence of chamberlains and
eunuchs--were mutually checks on each other.
CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
A.D. 13-409
JOHN RUDD, LL. D.
CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
A.D. 13-409
JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
Events treated at length are here indicated in large type; the numerals
following give volume and page.
Separate chronologies of the various nations, and of the careers of
famous persons, will be found in the INDEX VOLUME, with volume and page
references showing where the several events are fully treated.
* Denotes date uncertain.
A.D.
13. A fifth ten-year term of imperial rule is voted to Augustus at Rome.
Roman invasion of Germany under Germanicus. See "GERMANICUS IN GERMANY,"
iii, 1.
14. Death of Augustus; succeeded by his adopted son, Tiberius, as
emperor of Rome.
16. Germanicus successful in his campaign against Arminius. He is
recalled to Rome by Tiberius. See "GERMANICUS IN GERMANY," iii, 1.
17. Ephesus, Magnesia, and other cities in Asia destroyed by an
earthquake.
Germanicus fêted in Rome.
18. Herod the Tetrarch builds the city of Tiberias in Galilee.
Wealthy women of Jerusalem provide wine medicated with opiates for
crucified malefactors. See "THE CRUCIFIXION," iii, 23.
19. Death of Germanicus.
Jews and Egyptians expelled from Rome; four thousand of them colonize in
Sardinia.
21. The theatre of Pompey, at Rome, destroyed by fire.
23. Birth of Pliny the Elder.
26. Tiberius leaves Rome to the government of Sejanus.
27. The Roman Pantheon completed.
30 (29-33). Death of Jesus. See "THE CRUCIFIXION," iii, 23.
31. Downfall and execution of Sejanus.
33. Great impetus of Christianity. See "THE RISE AND SPREAD OF
CHRISTIANITY," iii, 40.
37. Caius, called Caligula, succeeds Tiberius as emperor of Rome.
41. Emperor Caligula murdered; Claudius elevated to the throne.
The Herodian kingdom of Judea restored under Herod Agrippa.
43. Beginning of the Roman conquest of Britain under Aulus Plautius and
Claudius.
44. Plautius is appointed the first Roman governor of Britain.
Death of Herod Agrippa; end of the kingdom of Judea.
51. Caractacus, King of the Trinobantes in Britain, captured by Ostorius
and sent in chains to Rome.
52. Aqueducts of the Aqua Claudia in Rome, begun in A.D. 38, completed.
54. Agrippina poisons Claudius; Nero, her son, becomes emperor.
55.* Birth of Tacitus.
59. Agrippina murdered at Nero's order.
61. Boadicea in Britain revolts against the Romans; the uprising quelled
by Suetonius Paulinus.
62.* Birth of Pliny the Younger.
64. The burning of Rome. See "BURNING OF ROME UNDER NERO," iii, 108.
First persecution of Christians. See "PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS
UNDER NERO," iii, 134.
65. The conspiracy of Piso against Nero. Execution of Lucan and Seneca
by command of Nero.
66. Revolt of the Jews against the Roman government.
67. Victorious campaigns of Vespasian against the rebellious Jews.
68. Rise of the Roman commanders against Nero. Galba's march upon Rome.
Suicide of Emperor Nero; accession of Galba.
69. Galba murdered. Otho becomes emperor; vanquished by Vitellius, who
ascends the throne. Vespasian overthrows Vitellius and succeeds him.
Uprising of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis.
70. The Roman Capitol rebuilt by Vespasian.
Jerusalem besieged and destroyed by Titus. See "THE GREAT JEWISH
REVOLT," iii, 150.
76. Birth of the emperor Hadrian.
78. Agricola succeeds Julius Frontinus in Britain; extends the Roman
dominion to the Tyne and introduces the useful arts.
79. Death of Vespasian; Titus on the throne.
Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by an eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny
the Elder, writer of the _Studiosus_, loses his life. See "DESTRUCTION
OF POMPEII," iii, 207.
80. The Roman Empire swept by pestilence.
The Colosseum, the work of Vespasian, dedicated by Titus.
81. Death of Titus; Domitian, his brother, becomes emperor.
Agricola extends Roman dominion in Britain.
84. Successful campaigns of Agricola against the Caledonians under
Galgacus. Agricola builds a wall of defence between the Clyde and the
Forth, and sails around the north of Scotland for the first time.
85. Agricola recalled to Rome through jealousy of Domitian, who appoints
Sallustius in his stead.
86. Successful onslaught of the Dacians, under the Decebalus, against
the Romans.
Capitoline games instituted by Domitian at Rome.
87. Dacian wars led Rome to agree to pay tribute and provoked the
cruelties of Domitian.
88. Celebration of the secular games at Rome.
Tacitus appointed prætor.
91. Domitian concludes a peace with the Dacians.
94. Domitian's wholesale slaughter of his subjects appalls Rome.
95. Jews and Christians refusing to pay taxes to rebuild the temple of
Jupiter at Rome are severely punished. These cruelties are sometimes
called the "second persecution."
96. The tyrannies of Domitian finally provoke a conspiracy which
accomplishes his death. Nerva succeeds him as emperor. Exiles recalled
and the unjustly imprisoned freed.
97. Tacitus, the historian, becomes consul at Rome. Nerva adopts Trajan.
98. Nerva dies and is succeeded by Trajan; Pliny and Plutarch are highly
distinguished by him.
99. Julius Servius becomes governor of Britain.
101. Trajan discontinues the annual payment to the Dacians; they invade
the Roman provinces; Trajan attacks and drives them over the Danube.
102. Rome continues the war in Dacia. Trajan's Empress, Plotina Pompeia,
and his sister, Marciana, by their example reform the manners and
character of the Roman women.
103. Trajan dictates a treaty of peace to Decebalus, the Dacian leader.
104. Rome renews the Dacian war; Trajan again in command; Hadrian serves
under him.
Pliny writes his famous letter to the Roman Emperor in regard to the
Christians.
105. Trajan's bridge over the Danube constructed.
Plutarch is governor of Illyricum.
106. Decebalus falling in battle, the Dacian war ends; Dacia becomes a
Roman province beyond the Danube.
107. Trajan drains the Pontine marshes and constructs a road through
them; he erects a school for poor children and performs other
meritorious works.
Great discontent is aroused by the progress of Christianity among the
numerous classes of those whose livelihood is derived from the services
and ceremonies of the heathen temples. The third persecution of
Christians begins.
114. Trajan's Column erected; it was made of twenty-four huge blocks of
marble so closely united that they seem like one piece; it is still in
existence, although Trajan's statue, surmounting it, was replaced by one
of St. Peter.
115. War of Rome with Parthia; Trajan adds Armenia and Mesopotamia to
the Roman domains. Rome attains its greatest extension.
Great earthquake at Antioch.
116. Great revolt of the Jews in Cyrene, Cyprus, and Egypt; they
slaughter many thousands of Greeks and Romans.
117. Death of Trajan, who is succeeded by Hadrian; the Asiatic conquests
are relinquished by him.
118. Hadrian, who was with Trajan at the time of his death, returns to
Rome; a plot against him is discovered and four conspiring senators are
put to death. Hadrian conciliates the people with large gifts. He enters
upon his campaign in Moecia.
119. Hadrian begins a personal survey of his dominions; he visits
Campania, Gaul, and Britain.
121. Birth of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
131. Birth of Galen, long the supreme authority in medical science.
132. Insurrection of the Jews under Bar Cocheba; their final dispersion
follows. See "THE JEWS' LAST STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM: THEIR FINAL
DISPERSION," iii, 222.
138. Death of Hadrian and succession of Antoninus Pius.
155.* About this time Polycarp and Justin suffer martyrdom. See
"MARTYRDOM OF POLYCARP AND JUSTIN MARTYR," iii, 231.
161. Death of Antoninus Pius; Marcus Aurelius Antoninus succeeds to the
Roman throne and makes Lucius Verus his associate in the Empire.
Roman war with Parthia begins.
162. Volagases, with a Parthian army, invades Syria and defeats the
Romans.
163. Verus, the Roman Emperor, enjoys himself at Antioch and Daphne
while his generals reap successes in Armenia and Media.
165. Seleucia and Ctesiphon are captured by the Romans; end of the
Parthian war; Rome acquires Mesopotamia.
166.* Great plague throughout the Roman Empire.
War begins between Rome and the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni and
Quadi, which had invaded Roman territories.
168. The Marcomanni retire into their own country, but M. Aurelius
pursues his preparations against them, in order to safeguard Italy.
169. Sudden death of Verus, while in his chariot, on his journey to
Rome.
174. Aurelius makes a short visit to Rome; when he rejoins the army the
German tribes are signally defeated; this gives rise to the fable of the
"Thundering Legion."
177. Persecution of the Christians in Gaul begins; Pothinus, Bishop of
Lyons, suffers martyrdom. See "PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS IN GAUL,"
iii, 246.
180. Death of Marcus Aurelius; his son, Commodus, succeeds him on the
Roman throne. See "BEGINNING OF ROME'S DECLINE: COMMODUS," iii, 263.
183. Lucilla, the sister of Commodus, having conspired against her
brother, is exiled from Rome; Commodus vents his rage on the senators.
184. The Caledonians break through the wall on the northern borders of
Britain; they are driven back by Ulpius Marcellus.
185. Marcia, the favorite of Commodus, protects the Christians.