and yet there appeared to be a vast multitude still remaining alive,
Cæsar gave orders that they should kill none but those that were in arms
and opposed them, but should take the rest alive. But, together with
those whom they had orders to slay, they slew the aged and the infirm;
but for those that were in their flourishing age and who might be
useful to them they drove them together into the Temple and shut them up
within the walls of the court of the women, over which Cæsar set one of
his freedmen, as also Fronto, one of his own friends, which last was to
determine everyone's fate, according to his merits.
So this Fronto slew all those that had been seditious and robbers, who
were impeached one by another; but of the young men he chose out the
tallest and most beautiful and reserved them for the triumph, and as for
the rest of the multitude that were above seventeen years old he put
them into bonds and sent them to the Egyptian mines. Titus also sent a
great number into the provinces as a present to them, that they might be
destroyed upon their theatres by the sword and by the wild beasts; but
those that were under seventeen years of age were sold for slaves. Now
during the days wherein Fronto was distinguishing these men there
perished, for want of food, eleven thousand, some of whom did not taste
any food, through the hatred their guards bore to them, and others would
not take in any when it was given them. The multitude also was so very
great that they were in want even of corn for their sustenance.
Now the number of those that were carried captive during this whole war
was collected to be ninety-seven thousand; as was the number of those
that perished during the whole siege eleven hundred thousand, the
greater part of whom was indeed of the same nation [with the citizens of
Jerusalem], but not belonging to the city itself. They were come up from
all the country to the feast of unleavened bread and were on a sudden
shut up by an army, which, at the very first, occasioned so great a
straitness among them that there came a pestilential destruction upon
them, and soon afterward such a famine as destroyed them more suddenly.
That this city could contain so many people in it is manifest by that
number of them which was taken under Cestius, who, being desirous of
informing Nero of the power of the city, who otherwise was disposed to
contemn that nation, entreated the high-priests, if the thing were
possible, to take the number of their whole multitude. So these
high-priests, upon the coming of that feast which is called the
Passover, when they slay their sacrifices, from the ninth hour till the
eleventh, but so that a company not less than ten belong to every
sacrifice (for it is not lawful for them to feast singly by themselves),
and many of them were twenty in a company, found the number of
sacrifices was two hundred and fifty-six thousand five hundred, which,
upon the allowance of no more than ten that feast together, amounts to
two millions seven hundred thousand and two hundred persons that were
pure and holy; for as to those that have the leprosy, or the
gonorrhoea, or women that have their monthly courses, or such as are
otherwise polluted, it is not lawful for them to be partakers of this
sacrifice; nor indeed for any foreigners neither, who come hither to
worship.
Now this vast multitude is indeed collected out of remote places, but
the entire nation was now shut up by fate as in prison, and the Roman
army encompassed the city when it was crowded with inhabitants.
Accordingly, the multitude of those that therein perished exceeded all
the destructions that either men or God ever brought upon the world;
for, to speak only of what was publicly known, the Romans slew some of
them, some they carried captives, and others they made a search for
underground, and when they found where they were they broke up the
ground and slew all they met with. There were also found slain there
above two thousand persons, partly by their own hands and partly by one
another, but chiefly destroyed by the famine; but then the ill-savor of
the dead bodies was most offensive to those that lighted upon them,
insomuch that some were obliged to get away immediately, while others
were so greedy of gain that they would go in among the dead bodies that
lay on heaps and tread upon them, for a great deal of treasure was found
in these caverns, and the hope of gain made every way of getting it to
be esteemed lawful.
Many also of those that had been put in prison by the tyrants were now
brought out, for they did not leave off their barbarous cruelty at the
very last; yet did God avenge himself upon upon them both in a manner
agreeable to justice. As for John, he wanted food, together with his
brethren, in these caverns, and begged that the Romans would now give
him their right hand for his security, which he had often proudly
rejected before; but for Simon, he struggled hard with the distress he
was in, till he was forced to surrender himself. So he was reserved for
the triumph, and to be then slain, as was John condemned to perpetual
imprisonment. And now the Romans set fire to the extreme parts of the
city, and burned them down, and entirely demolished its walls.
And thus was Jerusalem taken, in the second year of the reign of
Vespasian, on the eighth day of the month Gorpieus (Elul). It had been
taken five times before, though this was the second time of its
desolation, for Shishak, the king of Egypt, and after him Antiochus, and
after him Pompey, and after them Sosius and Herod, took the city, but
still preserved it; but before all these the king of Babylon conquered
it and made it desolate, one thousand four hundred and sixty-eight years
and six months after it was built.
But he who first built it was a potent man among the Canaanites, and is
in our own tongue called (Melchisedek), the righteous king, for such he
really was. On which account he was (there) the first priest of God, and
first built a temple (there), and called the city Jerusalem, which was
formerly called Salem. However, David, the king of the Jews, ejected the
Canaanites, and settled his own people therein.
It was demolished entirely by the Babylonians, four hundred and
seventy-seven years and six months after him. And from King David, who
was the first of the Jews who reigned therein, to this destruction under
Titus, were one thousand one hundred and seventy-nine years; but from
its first building till this last destruction were two thousand one
hundred and seventy-seven years; yet hath not its great antiquity, nor
its vast riches, nor the diffusion of its nation over all the habitable
earth, nor the greatness of the veneration paid to it on a religious
account, been sufficient to preserve it from being destroyed. And thus
ended the siege of Jerusalem.
FOOTNOTES:
[38] Not to be confounded with John of Gischala, leader of one of the
three factions.
[39] John of Gischala.
[40] Probably that of John Hyrcanus I, a Maccabæan, prince of Judea,
B.C. 135-105.
DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII
A.D. 79
PLINY LYTTON
Among the historic calamities of the world none has gathered about
itself more of human interest, whether in connection with the study
of ancient cities and customs or in the calling forth of sympathy
through the magical treatment of imaginative literature, than the
destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum by the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius, which occurred at the beginning of the reign of Titus.
The eruption was accompanied by an earthquake, and the combination
of natural commotions caused the complete ruin and burial of the
two cities.
One of the most vivid descriptions of the catastrophe is that given
in the account of Dion Cassius. Among those who perished in the
disaster was the elder Pliny, the celebrated naturalist; and the
most famous narrative of the eruption is that here given of Pliny
the Younger, nephew of the other, in the two letters which he wrote
to Tacitus in order to supply that historian with accurate details.
Lytton's well-known _Last Days of Pompeii_, although a work of
imagination, deals with this subject in a manner which almost
simulates the realistic tale of an actual observer; and his
account, linking the calamity itself with the revelations of the
earlier explorers of the buried city, after so many centuries had
passed, well deserves a place in connection with the story of the
older and more circumstantial writer.
One of the earliest important discoveries at Pompeii, made in 1771,
was that of the "Villa of Diomedes," named from the tomb of Marcus
Arrius Diomedes across the street. Since then every decade has seen
some progress in the work of excavation, and among other buildings
brought to light are the "House of Pansa," the "House of the Tragic
Poet," the "House of Sallustius," the "Castor and Pollux," a double
house, and the "House of the Vettii"--the last, a recent discovery,
being left with all its furnishings as found. Many interesting
objects have been discovered lately, and a complete picture can now
be presented of a small Italian city and its life in the first
century A.D. Valuable finds are wall paintings, illustrative of
decorative art; floor mosaics, etc., which may be seen in the Royal
Museum of Naples. Another of the most recent discoveries is that of
the temple of Venus Pompeiana in the southern corner of the city;
others are the remains of persons who, carrying valuables, perished
in a wayside inn where they had sought refuge. At the present time
about one-half of the city has been excavated, and the circuit of
the walls has been found to be about two miles. The uncovering of
the whole city will probably require many years. Excavations now
being made in the adjacent country promise results as interesting
as those already obtained within the city limits.
PLINY
Your request that I would send you an account of my uncle's death, in
order to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity, deserves my
acknowledgments; for, if this accident shall be celebrated by your pen,
the glory of it, I am well assured, will be rendered forever
illustrious. And notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune, which as
it involved at the same time a most beautiful country in ruins, and
destroyed so many populous cities, seems to promise him an everlasting
remembrance; notwithstanding he has himself composed many and lasting
works; yet I am persuaded, the mentioning of him in your immortal
writings will greatly contribute to render his name immortal.
Happy I esteem those to be to whom by provision of the gods has been
granted the ability either to do such actions as are worthy of being
related or to relate them in a manner worthy of being read; but
peculiarly happy are they who are blessed with both these uncommon
talents: in the number of which my uncle, as his own writings and your
history will evidently prove, may justly be ranked. It is with extreme
willingness, therefore, that I execute your commands; and should indeed
have claimed the task if you had not enjoined it. He was at that time
with the fleet under his command at Misenum.
On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him
to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. He
had just taken a turn in the sun,[41] and, after bathing himself in cold
water, and making a light luncheon, gone back to his books: he
immediately arose and went out upon a rising ground from whence he might
get a better sight of this very uncommon appearance. A cloud, from which
mountain was uncertain at this distance (but it was found afterward to
come from Mount Vesuvius[42]) was ascending, the appearance of which I
cannot give you a more exact description of than by likening it to that
of a pine tree, for it shot up to a great height in the form of a very
tall trunk, which spread itself out at the top into a sort of branches;
occasioned, I imagine, either by a sudden gust of air that impelled it,
the force of which decreased as it advanced upward, or the cloud itself,
being pressed back again by its own weight, expanded in the manner I
have mentioned; it appeared sometimes bright and sometimes dark and
spotted, according as it was either more or less impregnated with earth
and cinders.
This phenomenon seemed to a man of such learning and research as my
uncle extraordinary and worth further looking into. He ordered a light
vessel to be got ready, and gave me leave, if I liked, to accompany him.
I said I had rather go on with my work; and it so happened he had
himself given me something to write out. As he was coming out of the
house, he received a note from Rectina, the wife of Bassus, who was in
the utmost alarm at the imminent danger which threatened her; for her
villa lying at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, there was no way of escape
but by sea; she earnestly entreated him therefore to come to her
assistance.
He accordingly changed his first intention, and what he had begun from a
philosophical, he now carried out in a noble and generous, spirit. He
ordered the galleys to put to sea, and went himself on board with an
intention of assisting not only Rectina, but the several other towns
which lay thickly strewn along that beautiful coast. Hastening then to
the place from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered his
course direct to the point of danger, and with so much calmness and
presence of mind as to be able to make and dictate his observations upon
the motion and all the phenomena of that dreadful scene. He was now so
close to the mountain that the cinders, which grew thicker and hotter
the nearer he approached, fell into the ships, together with
pumice-stones and black pieces of burning rock: they were in danger too
not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of the sea, but also
from the vast fragments which rolled down from the mountain and
obstructed all the shore. Here he stopped to consider whether he should
turn back again; to which the pilot advising him, "Fortune," said he,
"favors the brave; steer to where Pomponianus is." Pomponianus was then
at Stabiæ, separated by a bay, which the sea, after several insensible
windings, forms with the shore. He had already sent his baggage on
board; for though he was not at that time in actual danger, yet being
within sight of it, and indeed extremely near, if it should in the least
increase, he was determined to put to sea as soon as the wind, which was
blowing dead in-shore, should go down. It was favorable, however, for
carrying my uncle to Pomponianus, whom he found in the greatest
consternation: he embraced him tenderly, encouraging and urging him to
keep up his spirits, and, the more effectually to soothe his fears by
seeming unconcerned himself, ordered a bath to be got ready, and then,
after having bathed, sat down to supper with great cheerfulness, or at
least--what is just as heroic--with every appearance of it.
Meanwhile broad flames shone out in several places from Mount Vesuvius,
which the darkness of the night contributed to render still brighter and
clearer. But my uncle, in order to soothe the apprehensions of his
friend, assured him it was only the burning of the villages, which the
country people had abandoned to the flames. After this he retired to
rest, and it is most certain he was so little disquieted as to fall into
a sound sleep, for his breathing, which, on account of his corpulence,
was rather heavy and sonorous, was heard by the attendants outside.
The court which led to his apartment being now almost filled with stones
and ashes, if he had continued there any time longer, it would have been
impossible for him to have made his way out. So he was awoke and got up,
and went to Pomponianus and the rest of his company, who were feeling
too anxious to think of going to bed. They consulted together whether it
would be most prudent to trust to the houses--which now rocked from side
to side with frequent and violent concussions as though shaken from
their very foundations--or fly to the open fields, where the calcined
stones and cinders, though light indeed, yet fell in large showers and
threatened destruction. In this choice of dangers they resolved for the
fields: a resolution which, while the rest of the company were hurried
into by their fears, my uncle embraced upon cool and deliberate
consideration. They went out then, having pillows tied upon their heads
with napkins; and this was their whole defence against the storm of
stones that fell round them.
It was now day everywhere else, but _there_ a deeper darkness prevailed
than in the thickest night; which, however, was in some degree
alleviated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They thought
proper to go farther down upon the shore to see if they might safely put
out to sea, but found the waves still running extremely high and
boisterous. There my uncle, laying himself down upon a sail-cloth, which
was spread for him, called twice for some cold water, which he drank,
when immediately the flames, preceded by a strong whiff of sulphur,
dispersed the rest of the party, and obliged him to rise. He raised
himself up with the assistance of two of his servants, and instantly
fell down dead; suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross and noxious
vapor, having always had a weak throat, which was often inflamed.
As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third day after
this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and without any
marks of violence upon it, in the dress in which he fell, and looking
more like a man asleep than dead. During all this time my mother and I,
who were at Misenum--but this has no connection with your history, and
you did not desire any particulars besides those of my uncle's death, so
I will end here, only adding that I have faithfully related to you what
I was either an eye-witness of myself or received immediately after the
accident happened, and before there was time to vary the truth. You will
pick out of this narrative whatever is most important: for a letter is
one thing, a history another; it is one thing writing to a friend,
another thing writing to the public. Farewell.
* * * * *
The letter which, in compliance with your request, I wrote to you
concerning the death of my uncle has raised, it seems, your curiosity
to know what terrors and dangers attended me while I continued at
Misenum; for there, I think, my account broke off:
"Though my shock'd soul recoils, my tongue shall tell."
My uncle having left us, I spent such time as was left on my studies--it
was on their account indeed that I had stopped behind--till it was time
for my bath. After which I went to supper, and then fell into a short
and uneasy sleep. There had been noticed for many days before, a
trembling of the earth, which did not alarm us much, as this is quite an
ordinary occurrence in Campania; but it was so particularly violent that
night that it not only shook but actually overturned, as it would seem,
everything about us.
My mother rushed into my chamber, where she found me rising in order to
awaken her. We sat down in the open court of the house, which occupied a
small space between the buildings and the sea. As I was at that time but
eighteen years of age, I know not whether I should call my behavior, in
this dangerous juncture, courage or folly; but I took up Livy, and
amused myself with turning over that author, and even making extracts
from him, as if I had been perfectly at my leisure. Just then, a friend
of my uncle's, who had lately come to him from Spain, joined us, and
observing me sitting by my mother with a book in my hand, reproved her
for her calmness, and me at the same time for my careless security:
nevertheless I went on with my author.
Though it was now morning, the light was still exceedingly faint and
doubtful; the buildings all around us tottered, and though we stood upon
open ground, yet, as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
remaining without imminent danger: we therefore resolved to quit the
town. A panic-stricken crowd followed us, and--as to a mind distracted
with terror every suggestion seems more prudent than its own--pressed on
us in dense array to drive us forward as we came out. Being at a
convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in the midst of a
most dangerous and dreadful scene.
The chariots, which we had ordered to be drawn out, were so agitated
backward and forward, though upon the most level ground, that we could
not keep them steady, even by supporting them with large stones. The sea
seemed to roll back upon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the
convulsive motion of the earth; it is certain at least the shore was
considerably enlarged, and several sea animals were left upon it. On the
other side, a black and dreadful cloud, broken with rapid, zig-zag
flashes, revealed behind it variously shaped masses of flame: these last
were like sheet lightning, but much larger. Upon this our Spanish
friend, whom I mentioned above, addressing himself to my mother and me
with great energy and urgency: "If your brother," he said, "if your
uncle be safe, he certainly wishes you may be so too; but if he
perished, it was his desire, no doubt, that you might both survive him:
why therefore do you delay your escape a moment?"
We could never think of our own safety, we said, while we were uncertain
of his. Upon this our friend left us, and withdrew from the danger with
the utmost precipitation. Soon afterward, the cloud began to descend and
cover the sea. It had already surrounded and concealed the island of
Capreæ[43] and the promontory of Misenum.
My mother now besought, urged, even commanded me to make my escape at
any rate, which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself, she
said, her age and corpulency rendered all attempts of that sort
impossible; however, she would willingly meet death if she could have
the satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But I
absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand, compelled
her to go with me. She complied with great reluctance, and not without
many reproaches to herself for retarding my flight. The ashes now began
to fall upon us, though in no great quantity. I looked back; a dense,
dark mist seemed to be following us, spreading itself over the country
like a cloud. "Let us turn out of the high-road," I said, "while we can
still see, for fear that, should we fall in the road, we should be
pressed to death in the dark by the crowds that are following us."
We had scarcely sat down when night came upon us, not such as we have
when the sky is cloudy, or when there is no moon, but that of a room
when it is shut up and all the lights put out. You might hear the
shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the shouts of men; some
calling for their children, others for their parents, others for their
husbands, and seeking to recognize each other by the voices that
replied; one lamenting his own fate, another that of his family; some
wishing to die, from the very fear of dying; some lifting their hands to
the gods; but the greater part convinced that there were now no gods at
all, and that the final endless night of which we have heard had come
upon the world.[44] Among these there were some who augmented the real
terrors by others imaginary or wilfully invented. I remember some who
declared that one part of Misenum had fallen, that another was on fire;
it was false, but they found people to believe them. It now grew rather
lighter, which we imagined to be rather the forerunner of an approaching
burst of flames--as in truth it was--than the return of day: however,
the fire fell at a distance from us: then again we were immersed in
thick darkness, and a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we
were obliged every now and then to stand up to shake off, otherwise we
should have been crushed and buried in the heap.