THE GEORGIAN MODE IN NEW ENGLAND
It is nearly always difficult and sometimes an ungracious task to
attempt to make sweeping distinctions and establish hard and fast
boundary lines. Fortunately for us, we meet with an exception to this
well-nigh invariable rule in the case of marking the division between
Colonial and Georgian architecture. The one point on which we may seize
to emphasise the distinction between these two modes of architectural
expression, each exceedingly vital in its own field, is the introduction
of the classic element in ornamental detail and the formal or balanced
element in plan, an element that implies both external symmetry in the
marshalling of mass and internal symmetry in determining arrangement.
The Colonial mode of expression as exemplified in the architecture of
early New England, New York, the Middle Colonies and the South, whatever
local differences it might exhibit, was traditional and, to a certain
extent, fortuitous. That is to say, it was informal and represented
forms which homely considerations of convenience and the process of
gradual cultural growth had dictated from time to time in the course of
centuries. It was also mediæval in its affinities and, for the most
part, unpretentious because it embodied only the essential features that
the great mass of the people, whether in England, Wales, Holland,
Sweden, or the German principalities had found requisite and desirable.
In short, it was a folk growth and was essentially domestic and simple.
Georgian architecture, on the other hand, echoed the spirit of the
Renaissance. Its whole fundamental principle afforded a direct
antithesis to the conceptions on which Colonial architecture was based.
It breathed the atmosphere of the well-ordered classicism that had
spread over the Continent and over England in the train of the New
Learning and had its outward concomitant in the stately creations
inspired by the masterpieces of Greek and Roman antiquity. However
modified by the successive media of its transference from the original
springs of inspiration, it still voiced the measured formality and easy
restraint inherent in the ancient models. It was essentially the
architecture of a well-to-do, polished and, if you will, somewhat
artificial state of society that demanded a medium of courtliness and
[Illustration: HOUSE OF HON. JOHN BLAIR, WILLIAMSBURG, VA.]
[Illustration: CAREY HOUSE, WILLIAMSBURG, VA.
Of true Colonial Southern type.]
[Illustration: ROYALL HOUSE, MEDFORD, MASS. 1734.
New England Georgian, first phase.]
[Illustration: LEE HOUSE, MARBLEHEAD, MASS. 1768.
New England Georgian, second phase.]
[Illustration: ROYALL HOUSE. WEST DOORWAY.]
[Illustration: ROYALL HOUSE. DOORWAY IN WEST PARLOUR.]
[Illustration: LEE HOUSE. BANQUET ROOM.]
[Illustration: LEE HOUSE. STAIRWAY.]
circumstance of surroundings for its proper existence. The formal note
of classicism had come into English architecture in the reign of Henry
VIII, had flourished apace under Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren,
and blossomed richly in domestic forms during the reigns of William and
Mary and Queen Anne. With the Queen Anne developments, however, we have
little direct concern in America. It was not until after the first
George had been some years on the throne that a marked change became
evident in the domestic architecture of the American Colonies.
By the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century there had been
a marked increase in the wealth of the country. A reasonable security
from the wild alarums of Indian warfare and an orderly and uninterrupted
course of civil life left the well-to-do more time to pay to the
amenities of existence, and the general growth of material prosperity
provided the means to indulge the taste for larger, better and, in a
word, more pretentious domestic environment that accorded with the
affluence and important social position of the prominent citizens. When
the worthies of the early eighteenth century were thus minded and
encouraged to build anew for themselves and erect substantial and more
commodious homes for their own use and the enrichment of their
posterity, nothing was more natural than that they should turn to the
mother country for a suitable style and pattern to direct them in their
new undertaking. They were always most punctilious to follow the styles
of London in their clothing and prided themselves upon the accuracy with
which they kept pace with all the changing fashions in apparel on the
other side of the sea. In like manner, also, they looked to the current
architectural fashions in England for inspiration to guide them in so
momentous a matter as the establishment of a dwelling suited to their
estate and fit to be the domicile of succeeding generations of their
name.
It is quite true that certain peculiarities characteristic of the
English architecture of Queen Anne’s time had occasionally made their
appearance in New England before this general efflorescence of the
earliest phase of the Georgian mode and even considerably afterwards
they were not wholly wanting--specific reference will be made to them in
a subsequent paragraph--but the prevailing architectural tone from 1720
or 1725 onward was unmistakably Georgian. Certain modifications were
made, to be sure, as expediency suggested or necessity demanded, but
despite all local adaptations, which will be pointed out as they occur
in the examination of sundry examples, the strong family resemblance to
the contemporary domestic structures of England could not be overlooked.
The most notable piece of local adaptation, to which not even the
uninterested or superficial observer can be blind, was the wholesale
grafting of the New England wooden or clapboard tradition, which by this
time had become ineradicably established, upon a mode of architectural
expression that had been hitherto almost invariably--and always in
England--interpreted in brick or stone, as it was elsewhere in the
American Colonies. Even when the fabric was virtually built of brick, as
in the case of the Royall house at Medford or the Lee house at
Marblehead, it was encased in an outer shell of wood, sometimes grooved,
bevelled, painted and sanded to present the appearance of cut stone.
Another marked peculiarity of the New England Georgian work, a
peculiarity perhaps invited and intensified by this almost universal
predilection for a wood casing, at least so far as domestic structures
were concerned, is the comparative plainness and absence of
architectural embellishment from a great many exteriors in strong
contrast with the wealth of elaborate carved and moulded detail to be
found within. In a way, they seem to have assimilated or, perhaps, it
would be truer and more accurate to say that they reflect the outward
reserve and restraint of New England character, a reserve, however, that
often melts into cordial geniality under the favouring auspices of a
closer acquaintance. Indeed, judging from the exterior of many a house,
one is wholly unprepared to find the exquisite and rich panelled and
carved adornments that confront the visitor, once the threshold is
passed. This shearing off or repression of outward architectural graces
makes it exceedingly difficult sometimes to tell at first glance whether
a house belongs in the Georgian category or not, especially when there
is nothing peculiarly distinctive about the contour of the mass to serve
as an indication. In this connexion, too, it must be explicitly stated
that not a few of these square, roomy old clapboarded houses, of a
general farmhouse type gradually evolved from the earlier and truly
Colonial mode, discussed in a previous chapter, assumed occasional
Georgian features in the way of a door or the setting of a window whose
promise was not borne out by any further evidence of architectural
pretension either inside or out.
In studying architectural history and examining the architectural
characteristics of a certain given territory, the mind is constantly
impelled to seek analogies and points of resemblance and relationship
with the contemporary
[Illustration: LEE HOUSE. FIREPLACE.]
[Illustration: LEE HOUSE. WALL PAPER.]
[Illustration: MACPHAEDRIS-WARNER HOUSE, PORTSMOUTH, N. H.
1723
New England Georgian, first phase]
[Illustration: DUMMER MANSION, BYFIELD, MASS. _C._ 1715.
New England Georgian in first phase.]
architectural phenomena observable in other places. By systematically
scrutinising and comparing the Georgian work throughout the Colonies,
always keeping the historical background in view, one cannot escape the
conviction that there were three phases of Georgian manifestation and,
furthermore, that whatever minor local differences may have arisen,
there was a fairly close chronological correspondence between them and
the several phases that marked the evolution in England. Speaking
approximately, we may say that the first phase included the houses
erected prior to 1740 or 1745; the second phase endured from 1745 till
about 1775 or 1780, while the third phase, profoundly influenced by Adam
inspiration, lasted until the Greek or Classic Revival completely held
the field. In this last phase, be it remembered, must be reckoned some
of the best work performed by Charles Bulfinch and Samuel McIntire, work
that really marked the transition stage between the Georgian style and
the rejuvenated and direct importation of classicism that dominated
public taste in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. In order to
make this threefold division quite clear and trace the process of
evolution through its successive stages, it will be necessary to refer
to specific features found in well known examples typical of each
phase.
While the earliest Georgian type in Pennsylvania showed a tendency
toward extreme simplicity and, at the same time, some heaviness, the
first phase of New England Georgian often displayed a close resemblance
to the heavy but ornate treatment of Queen Anne’s day. The heaviness and
boldness of detail belonged to and were characteristic of the epoch and
were to be expected in any event. The restraint and simplicity in
Pennsylvania, in the cases of Stenton and Hope Lodge, were probably to
be attributed somewhat to Quaker predilection on the part of the owners.
In the case of Graeme Park, built for Sir William Keith, the lack of
more elaborate detail may have been due to the limitations of the
workmen’s skill. For the sake of concrete example, we may point to the
severely plain, rectangular doorways with straight transoms of small
lights at Stenton, Graeme Park and Hope Lodge, all of them thoroughly
representative of the Pennsylvania phase of Georgian at this date. In
New England, by way of sharp contrast, we find segmental pediments over
doorways and a wealth of elaborate adornment in the shape of pilasters,
intricately carved capitals and nicely hand wrought mouldings to dignify
them, all designed and executed in a manner strongly reminiscent of what
one may see in Queen Anne’s Gate or Grosvenor Road in Westminster. The
heaviness of proportion and boldness of line belonged to the period, as
just noted, and were common to both the New England and Pennsylvania
forms of expression. In New England, however, there were no Quaker
scruples and preferences to impose a restraining influence and, in
consequence, traces of Queen Anne elaboration lingered till about 1740.
Our first Georgian type in both New England and Pennsylvania shows the
straight transom of small square lights.
Excellent examples of the elaboration with Queen Anne affinities to be
found in the first Georgian type in New England, may be seen in the door
of the Dummer house at Byfield, Massachusetts, built in 1715; the door
of the Macphaedris-Warner house in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, finished
in 1723; the door of the Royall house at Medford, Massachusetts,
finished in its present form in 1737; the door of a house in Hatfield,
Massachusetts, built about 1735 or 1740; the door of a house in Hadley,
Massachusetts, dating from 1714 and, last of all, the door of the
“Parson Williams” house at Deerfield, Massachusetts, built in 1707. This
last, of course, is altogether within the Queen Anne period and is
thoroughly characteristic of the date but it is desirable to refer to it
here for purposes of comparison to show certain points of similarity
between it and the others enumerated before it. In every instance save
one there is some elaborate form of pediment, segmental or swan’s neck.
The mouldings are heavy and bold and the torus or cushion mould
frequently occurs as a frieze. There are flanking pilasters with
intricate capitals and sometimes imposts bearing up the entablature or
else there are vigorously carved panels in place of the pilasters and,
above them, richly wrought acanthus modillion brackets supporting the
entablature.
In nearly all of this early work we find large, bevel flush panels and
the cornice mouldings in panelled rooms are strongly defined and robust
in contour. The overmantel panelling is made an important feature but
the mantel shelf itself is usually insignificant and, at times, hardly
more than rudimentary. In several of the houses just referred to,
especially the Dummer house and the Macphaedris-Warner house, we find
windows topped with a flattened arch or segmental lintel instead of
having a straight top and in some cases there is a slightly countersunk
tympanum between the bottom of this flat arch and the top of the wooden
window casing. In the Warner house, several of the windows are tall and
narrow in proportion to their height, the sashes being only two panes
wide. Both these window forms are typically early and disappear entirely
at a later date.
In the interiors of some of these houses are
[Illustration: DOORWAY, DUMMER HOUSE.]
[Illustration: THE LINDENS, STAIR AND HALL, _C._ 1770.
New England Georgian of second phase.]
[Illustration: WENTWORTH HOUSE, HALL AND STAIR.
New England true Colonial type.]
to be found round-headed arched doorways with double doors and the arch,
either round or flattened, appears in various forms from time to time
while the fluted or carved or turned key block, in sundry curious
varieties, appears at the centre of arches and also in other places. The
key block practically disappears in the second phase of Georgian. The
arch also loses its prominence and we find more straight lines. Indeed,
during the second or more distinctly Palladian phase of Georgian we
scarcely find the arch at all in domestic architecture except in the
middle member of the Palladian window or in the lights over house doors.
One might go on almost indefinitely tabulating characteristic details
that belong essentially to the first Georgian phase but enough has been
said to direct attention to the general aspect and to enable an
observant person to differentiate it from the others.
Of the second Georgian phase in New England we could not desire a better
or more thoroughly typical example than the Lee house in Marblehead,
erected in 1768. It is the embodiment of robust and yet agreeably
proportioned classicality. The mouldings and cornices have lost the
ponderosity of proportion that was observable in many of the houses of
earlier type. The placing of ornamental detail is far more carefully
considered and governed with a reasonable restraint. Interesting as
some of the earlier examples of door treatment were for their very
exuberance of fancy and their vigour, they were, nevertheless, a trifle
awkward when compared with a well designed and better balanced doorway
of a subsequent date. When acanthus leaves, rosettes or other decorative
_motifs_ are introduced, it is in a thoroughly well mannered way that
leaves nothing to be desired regarding proportion or propriety of
placing. The spiral baluster spindles on the staircase of the Lee house
are exceptionally fine and worthily represent the style of baluster
turning and carving that belongs especially to this middle period.
In the banquet hall the overmantel presents an unusually fine specimen
of the wood-carver’s art. The great panel, with dog-ear corners and
Flemish scroll supports, is flanked by two pendants of fruit, flowers
and leaves carved with all the delicacy and intricate finish of the
school of Grinling Gibbon. It is more elaborate, of course, than most of
the interior carving found in the second Georgian phase but it is
typical in that it is better disciplined than the earlier efforts in the
same direction which were often inclined to be crude. The interior
cornices are more refined in detail and not so bold in contour as
formerly. The egg and dart _motif_ becomes common and other ornamental
details are used in an understanding way and in their conventional
forms, whereas at an earlier period they were not always historically
correct, though often ingenious, nor were they invariably well placed.
The last phase of New England Georgian architecture was distinctly a
period of Adam inspiration as it was in other parts of the country, with
this difference, however. Elsewhere the third Georgian phase was
forsaken all too soon for the newer glamour of the Classic Revival for
which, in a manner, it prepared the way. In New England, under the
influence of such men as Charles Bulfinch and Samuel McIntire, the
delicate proportions and fascinatingly refined details brought into
English architecture by the Brothers Adam remained in favour until well
into the nineteenth century and exercised a beneficial effect that has
not yet lost its force. With excellent taste both Bulfinch and McIntire
employed the Adam heritage of urns, pendent husks, anthemia, ovals,
spandril fans and all the rest of the Pompeian refinements, and McIntire
unhesitatingly lengthened out the proportions of pillars and pilasters
until he had removed all suggestion of grossness from his design and
imparted a slender grace to all his work. Though he made various
innovations, McIntire really prolonged the Adam period in New England
and saved domestic architecture, wherever his influence was strong
enough, from the deplorable banality into which the more unconsidered
forms of the Classic Revival degenerated.
In the felicity of its local adaptations, in the dignity it imparted to
the visible side of public life, in its virile development manifested in
the churches and other public buildings, the Georgian architecture of
New England has given us numerous patterns worthy of emulation _in toto_
or in part and has left an indelible and beneficial impress upon the
nation’s artistic consciousness.
[Illustration: PARSON WILLIAMS HOUSE, DEERFIELD, MASS. 1707.]
[Illustration: VAN CORTLANDT HOUSE, VAN CORTLANDT PARK, N. Y.
New York Georgian of second phase.]