Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have
dominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.
Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of the
remainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted in
northern economic, political, and social domination of largely
non-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in
1972 but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-related
effects resulted in more than four million people displaced and,
according to rebel estimates, more than two million deaths over a
period of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 with
the signing of several accords. The final North/South Comprehensive
Peace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005, granted the southern
rebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum for
independence is scheduled to be held. A separate conflict, which
broke out in the western region of Darfur in 2003, has displaced
nearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000
deaths. The UN took command of the Darfur peacekeeping operation
from the African Union on 31 December 2007. As of early 2009,
peacekeeping troops were struggling to stabilize the situation,
which has become increasingly regional in scope, and has brought
instability to eastern Chad, and Sudanese incursions into the
Central African Republic. Sudan also has faced large refugee
influxes from neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad.
Armed conflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack of
government support have chronically obstructed the provision of
humanitarian assistance to affected populations.
Suriname
First explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century and
then settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname became
a Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,
workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from the
Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian
government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a
socialist republic. It continued to exert control through a
succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when
international pressure finally forced a democratic election. In
1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but a
democratically elected government - a four-party New Front coalition
- returned to power in 1991 and has ruled since; the coalition
expanded to eight parties in 2005.
Svalbard
First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, the
islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and
18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; five
years later it officially took over the territory.
Swaziland
Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed
by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in
1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured King
MSWATI III, the world's last absolute monarch, to grudgingly allow
political reform and greater democracy, although he has backslid on
these promises in recent years. A constitution came into effect in
2006, but political parties remain banned. The African United
Democratic Party tried unsuccessfully to register as an official
political party in mid 2006. Talks over the constitution broke down
between the government and progressive groups in 2007. Swaziland
recently surpassed Botswana as the country with the world's highest
known HIV/AIDS prevalence rate.
Sweden
A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not
participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality
was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economic
formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare
elements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment and in
2000-02 by the global economic downturn, but fiscal discipline over
the past several years has allowed the country to weather economic
vagaries. Sweden joined the EU in 1995, but the public rejected the
introduction of the euro in a 2003 referendum.
Switzerland
The Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as a
defensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, other
localities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederation
secured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. A
constitution of 1848, subsequently modified in 1874, replaced the
confederation with a centralized federal government. Switzerland's
sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored by the major
European powers, and the country was not involved in either of the
two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe
over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN
and international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's ties
with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a
UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and
international organizations but retains a strong commitment to
neutrality.
Syria
Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the
northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The
French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence
in 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, and
experienced a series of military coups during its first decades.
Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab
Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the
Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz
al-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority
Alawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political
stability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost
the Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held
occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of
President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as
president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops -
stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -
were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict
between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on
alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah.
Taiwan
In 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan to
Japan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.
Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 million
Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the
1946 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next five
decades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized and
incorporated the local population within the governing structure. In
2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from the
Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout this
period, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic
"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be the
relationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question of
Taiwan's eventual status - as well as domestic political and
economic reform.
Tajikistan
The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and
1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following the
Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercely
contested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Much of
present-day Sughd province was transferred from the Uzbek SSR to the
newly formed Tajik SSR in 1929. Ethnic Uzbeks form a substantial
minority in Sughd province. Tajikistan became independent in 1991
following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and experienced a civil
war between regional factions from 1992-97. There have been no major
security incidents in recent years, although the country remains the
poorest in the former Soviet sphere. Attention by the international
community since the beginning of the NATO intervention in
Afghanistan has brought increased economic development and security
assistance, which could create jobs and strengthen stability in the
long term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World Trade
Organization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for Peace.
Tanzania
Shortly after achieving independence from Britain in the
early 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of
Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with the
first democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.
Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led to
two contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party won
despite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.
Thailand
A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th
century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast
Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A
bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In
alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US treaty
ally following the conflict. A military coup in September 2006
ousted then Prime Minister THAKSIN Chinnawat. The interim government
held elections in December 2007 that saw the former pro-THAKSIN
People's Power Party (PPP) emerge at the head of a coalition
government. The anti-THAKSIN People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD)
in May 2008 began street demonstrations against the new government,
eventually occupying the prime minister's office in August. Clashes
in October 2008 between PAD protesters blocking parliament and
police resulted in the death of at least two people. The PAD
occupied Bangkok's international airports briefly, ending their
protests in early December 2008 following a court ruling that
dissolved the ruling PPP and two other coalition parties for
election violations. The Democrat Party then formed a new coalition
government with the support of some of THAKSIN's former political
allies, and ABHISIT Wetchachiwa became prime minister. Since January
2004, thousands have been killed as separatists in Thailand's
southern ethnic Malay-Muslim provinces increased the violence
associated with their cause.
Timor-Leste
The Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor
in the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century.
Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an
1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the
island. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945,
but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in
World War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal
on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian
forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July
1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessful
campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during
which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.
On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, an
overwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted for
independence from Indonesia. Between the referendum and the arrival
of a multinational peacekeeping force in late September 1999,
anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by the
Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earth
campaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400
Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into western Timor as
refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including
homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and
nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20
September 1999, the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of the
International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) deployed to the
country and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002,
Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state.
In late April 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's
security when a military strike led to violence and a near breakdown
of law and order in Dili. At the request of the Government of
Timor-Leste, an Australian-led International Stabilization Force
(ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste in late May. In August, the UN
Security Council established the UN Integrated Mission in
Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized police presence of
over 1,600 personnel. The ISF and UNMIT restored stability, allowing
the Government of Timor-Leste to hold presidential and parliamentary
elections in April and June 2007 in a largely peaceful atmosphere.
In February 2008, a rebel group staged an unsuccessful attack
against the president and prime minister. The ringleader was killed
in the attack and the majority of the rebels surrendered to the
government in April 2008.
Togo
French Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,
installed as military ruler in 1967, ruled Togo with a heavy hand
for almost four decades. Despite the facade of multiparty elections
instituted in the early 1990s, the government was largely dominated
by President EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) party
has maintained power almost continually since 1967 and maintains a
majority of seats in today's legislature. Upon EYADEMA's death in
February 2005, the military installed the president's son, Faure
GNASSINGBE, and then engineered his formal election two months
later. Democratic gains since then allowed Togo to hold its first
relatively free and fair legislative elections in October 2007.
After years of political unrest and fire from international
organizations for human rights abuses, Togo is finally being
re-welcomed into the international community.
Tokelau
Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding
island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate
in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in
1925. Referenda held in 2006 and 2007 to change the status of the
islands from that of a New Zealand territory to one of free
association with New Zealand did not meet the needed threshold for
approval.
Tonga
Tonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lost
its indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The Friendly
Islands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga became
a constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in
1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealth
of Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and Tobago
First colonized by the Spanish, the islands came
under British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugar
industry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.
Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers from
India between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as well
as the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910
added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.
The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thanks
largely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.
Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
The government is coping with a rise in violent crime.
Tunisia
Rivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisia
culminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of a
protectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades following
World War I was finally successful in getting the French to
recognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country's
first president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-party
state. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic
fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any
other Arab nation. In November 1987, BOURGUIBA was removed from
office and replaced by Zine el Abidine BEN ALI in a bloodless coup.
BEN ALI is currently serving his fourth consecutive five-year term
as president; the next elections are scheduled for October 2009.
Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in its foreign
relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising pressure for
a more open political society.
Turkey
Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants
of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who
was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks."
Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging
social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party
rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950
election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful
transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have
multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of
instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),
which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political
power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the
ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then
Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus
in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since
acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"
which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984
by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People's
Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the
Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.
After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents
largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGK
announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK
increased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a
member of NATO; it holds a non-permanent seat on the UN Security
Council from 2009-10. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of
the European Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken many
reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accession
membership talks with the European Union in 2005.
Turkmenistan
Eastern Turkmenistan for centuries formed part of the
Persian province of Khurasan; in medieval times Merv (today known as
Mary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an
important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia between 1865 and
1885, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic in 1924. It achieved
independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Extensive
hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to this
underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects were to
be expanded. The Turkmenistan Government is actively seeking to
develop alternative petroleum transportation routes to break
Russia's pipeline monopoly. President for Life Saparmurat NYYAZOW
died in December 2006, and Turkmenistan held its first
multi-candidate presidential electoral process in February 2007.
Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a vice premier under NYYAZOW, emerged as
the country's new president.
Turks and Caicos Islands
The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican
colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown
colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas
oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the
islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence
was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands
remain a British overseas territory.
Tuvalu
In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice
Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert
Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate
British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,
Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"
for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.
Uganda
The colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Uganda
grouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with different
political systems and cultures. These differences prevented the
establishment of a working political community after independence
was achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79)
was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla
war and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at
least another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986
has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. During
the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential and
legislative elections. In January 2009, Uganda assumed a
nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2009-10 term.
Ukraine
Ukraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state,
Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest
and most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels
and Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. The cultural and religious legacy of Kyivan Rus laid
the foundation for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent
centuries. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was
established during the mid-17th century after an uprising against
the Poles. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate
managed to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During the
latter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic
territory was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Following the collapse
of czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine was able to bring about a
short-lived period of independence (1917-20), but was reconquered
and forced to endure a brutal Soviet rule that engineered two
artificial famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 million
died. In World War II, German and Soviet armies were responsible for
some 7 to 8 million more deaths. Although final independence for
Ukraine was achieved in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR,
democracy remained elusive as the legacy of state control and
endemic corruption stalled efforts at economic reform,
privatization, and civil liberties. A peaceful mass protest "Orange
Revolution" in the closing months of 2004 forced the authorities to
overturn a rigged presidential election and to allow a new
internationally monitored vote that swept into power a reformist
slate under Viktor YUSHCHENKO. Subsequent internal squabbles in the
YUSHCHENKO camp allowed his rival Viktor YANUKOVYCH to stage a
comeback in parliamentary elections and become prime minister in
August of 2006. An early legislative election, brought on by a
political crisis in the spring of 2007, saw Yuliya TYMOSHENKO, as
head of an "Orange" coalition, installed as a new prime minister in
December 2007.
United Arab Emirates
The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coast
granted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19th
century treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,
Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged to
form the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 by
Ra's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is on par with those of
leading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues and
its moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play a
vital role in the affairs of the region.
United Kingdom
As the dominant industrial and maritime power of the
19th century, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland played
a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in
advancing literature and science. At its zenith, the British Empire
stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The first half of
the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously depleted in two
World Wars and the Irish republic withdraw from the union. The
second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK
rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. As
one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding
member of NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global
approach to foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of
its integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, it
chose to remain outside the Economic and Monetary Union for the time
being. Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK.
The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the
Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999, but the latter
was suspended until May 2007 due to wrangling over the peace process.