Although sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and
claimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631
and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook the
island in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. The
Spanish finally relinquished St. Martin to the French and Dutch, who
divided it amongst themselves in 1648. The cultivation of sugar cane
introduced slavery to the island in the late 18th century; the
practice was not abolished until 1848. The island became a free port
in 1939; the tourism industry was dramatically expanded during the
1970s and 1980s. In 2003, the populace of St. Martin voted to secede
from Guadeloupe and in 2007, the northern portion of the island
became a French overseas collectivity.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
First settled by the French in the early
17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of
France's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Resistance by native Caribs
prevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed between
France and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, the
island was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of the
Federation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and
independence in 1979.
Samoa
New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa
at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer
the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,
when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish
independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"
from its name in 1997.
San Marino
The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See
and Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldest
republic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christian
stonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy is
aligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in the
republic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and Principe
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late
15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee
and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave
labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. While
independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not
instituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first free
elections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between the
various political party's precipitated repeated changes in
leadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent
discovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increased
attention to the small island nation.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to
Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's official
title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi
state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD
(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian
Peninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abd
al-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992
Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia
accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while
allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the
liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence of
foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became a
source of tension between the royal family and the public until all
operational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terrorist
attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaign
against domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH has
continued the cautious reform program begun when he was crown
prince. To promote increased political participation, the government
held elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for half
the members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, King
ABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining members
of the advisory municipal councils. The king instituted an
Inter-Faith Dialogue initiative in 2008 to encourage religious
tolerance on a global level; in February 2009, he reshuffled the
cabinet, which led to more moderates holding ministerial and
judicial positions, and appointed the first female to the cabinet.
The country remains a leading producer of oil and natural gas and
holds more than 20% of the world's proven oil reserves. The
government continues to pursue economic reform and diversification,
particularly since Saudi Arabia's accession to the WTO in December
2005, and promotes foreign investment in the kingdom. A burgeoning
population, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on
petroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
Senegal
The French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan were
merged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federation
in 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joined
with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in
1982, but the envisaged integration of the two countries was never
carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement of
Democratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-level
separatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, and
several peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.
Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in
Africa. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years until
current President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He was
reelected in February 2007, but complaints of fraud led opposition
parties to boycott June 2007 legislative polls. Senegal has a long
history of participating in international peacekeeping.
Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in
1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various
paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division
of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic
opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political
movement headed by Josip TITO (Partisans) took full control of
Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were defeated
in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his
successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between
the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half
decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the Serbian
Republic and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian domination led
to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. In 1991,
Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by
Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro
declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992
and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led various military
campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a
"Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from
the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its - ultimately unsuccessful -
campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC
kept tight control over Serbia and eventually became president of
the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic Albanian insurgency in the
formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian
counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive
expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC
government's rejection of a proposed international settlement led to
NATO's bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999 and to the eventual
withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June
1999. UNSC Resolution 1244 in June 1999 authorized the stationing of
a NATO-led force (KFOR) in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure
environment for the region's ethnic communities, created a UN
interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) to foster
self-governing institutions, and reserved the issue of Kosovo's
final status for an unspecified date in the future. In 2001, UNMIK
promulgated a constitutional framework that allowed Kosovo to
establish institutions of self-government and led to Kosovo's first
parliamentary election. FRY elections in September 2000 led to the
ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav KOSTUNICA as president. A
broad coalition of democratic reformist parties known as DOS (the
Democratic Opposition of Serbia) was subsequently elected to
parliament in December 2000 and took control of the government. DOS
arrested MILOSEVIC in 2001 and allowed for him to be tried in The
Hague for crimes against humanity. (MILOSEVIC died in March 2006
before the completion of his trial.) In 2001, the country's
suspension from the UN was lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia
and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a
federal level parliament. Widespread violence predominantly
targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo in March 2004 caused the
international community to open negotiations on the future status of
Kosovo in January 2006. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its right to
secede from the federation and - following a successful referendum -
it declared itself an independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days
later, Serbia declared that it was the successor state to the union
of Serbia and Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in
October 2006 and adopted the following month. After 15 months of
inconclusive negotiations mediated by the UN and four months of
further inconclusive negotiations mediated by the US, EU, and
Russia, on 17 February 2008, the UNMIK-administered province of
Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia.
Seychelles
A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for
the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.
Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close
with a new constitution and free elections in 1993. President
France-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in
2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL took
over the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-year
term.
Sierra Leone
Democracy is slowly being reestablished after the civil
war from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths
and the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-third
of the population). The military, which took over full
responsibility for security following the departure of UN
peacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as a
guarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained on
the sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still look
to the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilian
UN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The new
government's priorities include furthering development, creating
jobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.
Singapore
Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.
It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years
later and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one of
the world's most prosperous countries with strong international
trading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms of
tonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the
leading nations of Western Europe.
Slovakia
The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the close
of World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely related
Czechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,
Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominated
Eastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and
Czechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs
agreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004 and the euro area on 1
January 2009.
Slovenia
The Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
until the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,
the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a new
multinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After World
War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which
though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied
with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenes
succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short
10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and
a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a
modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the spring
of 2004.
Solomon Islands
The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon
Islands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of World War
II occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in
1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government
malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil
society. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA sought
the assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; the
following month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to
restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance
Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective
in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
Somalia
Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow
its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new
nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre
ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose a
degree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. After
the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil,
factional fighting, and anarchy. In May 1991, northern clans
declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the
administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag,
and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity has
maintained a stable existence and continues efforts to establish a
constitutional democracy, including holding municipal,
parliamentary, and presidential elections. The regions of Bari,
Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared
autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since
1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made strides
toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government but
has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border with
Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag.
Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in
the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN
withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, order
still had not been restored. A two-year peace process, led by the
Government of Kenya under the auspices of the Intergovernmental
Authority on Development (IGAD), concluded in October 2004 with the
election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of the Transitional
Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia and the formation of an interim
government, known as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions
(TFIs). The TFIs included a 275-member parliamentary body, known as
the Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA). President YUSUF resigned
late in 2008 while United Nations-sponsored talks between the TFG
and the opposition Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia (ARS)
were underway in Djibouti. In January 2009, following the creation
of a TFG-ARS unity government, Ethiopian military forces, which had
entered Somalia in December 2006 to support the TFG in the face of
advances by the opposition Council of Islamic Courts (CIC), withdrew
from the country. The TFA was increased to 550 seats with the
addition of 275 ARS members of parliament. The expanded parliament
elected Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed, the former CIC and ARS chairman
as president on 31 January 2009, in Djibouti. Subsequently,
President SHARIF appointed Omar Abdirashid ali SHARMARKE, son of a
former president of Somalia, as prime minister on 13 February 2009.
The TFIs are based on the Transitional Federal Charter (TFC), which
outlines a five-year mandate leading to the establishment of a new
Somali constitution and a transition to a representative government
following national elections. However, in January 2009 the TFA
amended the TFC to extend TFG's mandate until 2011. While its
institutions remain weak, the TFG continues to reach out to Somali
stakeholders and work with international donors to help build the
governance capacity of the TFIs and work toward national elections
in 2011.
South Africa
Dutch traders landed at the southern tip of modern day
South Africa in 1652 and established a stopover point on the spice
route between the Netherlands and the East, founding the city of
Cape Town. After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in
1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to found
their own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold
(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified the
subjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted British
encroachments but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902);
however, the British and the Afrikaners, as the Boers became known,
ruled together under the Union of South Africa. In 1948, the
National Party was voted into power and instituted a policy of
apartheid - the separate development of the races. The first
multi-racial elections in 1994 brought an end to apartheid and
ushered in black majority rule under the African National Congress
(ANC). ANC infighting, which has grown in recent years, came to a
head in September 2008 after President Thabo MBEKI resigned. Kgalema
MOTLANTHE, the party's General-Secretary, succeeded as interim
president until general elections scheduled for 2009.
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
The islands, which have
large bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east of
the Falkland Islands and have been under British administration
since 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentina
occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early
20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETON
stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to cross
Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a few
companions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for the
rest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in
1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,
the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.
Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks in
adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishing
zone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern Ocean
A large body of recent oceanographic research has
shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current
that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role
in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the
ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a
distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with
the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a
unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,
which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for a
greater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, the
International Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit the
waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the Southern
Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which
coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates the
extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is
now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic
Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does
not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary
oceans by the US Government.
Spain
Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries
ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent
failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused
the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic
and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II
but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peaceful
transition to democracy following the death of dictator Francisco
FRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined the
EU in 1986) gave Spain a dynamic and rapidly growing economy and
made it a global champion of freedom and human rights. The
government continues to battle the Basque Fatherland and Liberty
(ETA) terrorist organization, but its major focus for the immediate
future will be on measures to reverse the severe economic recession
that started in mid-2008.
Spratly Islands
The Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 small
islands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and
potentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in their
entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed
by Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied by
relatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established a
fishing zone that overlaps a southern reef but has not made any
formal claim.
Sri Lanka
The first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th
century B.C. probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced
in about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilization
developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C.
to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In
the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdom
in northern Sri Lanka. The coastal areas of the island were
controlled by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in
the 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796,
became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by
1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed
to Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and
Tamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands have
died in the ethnic conflict that continues to fester. After two
decades of fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE) formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norway
brokering peace negotiations. Violence between the LTTE and
government forces intensified in 2006 and the government regained
control of the Eastern Province in 2007. In May 2009, the government
announced that its military had finally defeated the remnants of the
LTTE and that its leader, Velupillai PRABHAKARAN, had been killed.