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A GUIDE TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
_BRITISH MUSEUM._
A GUIDE
TO THE
EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS
IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM.
_WITH 53 PLATES AND 180 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT._
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.
1909.
PRICE HALF-A-CROWN.
[_All Rights Reserved._]
HARRISON AND SONS, LTD.,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY,
ST. MARTIN’S LANE, LONDON, W.C. 2.
PRINTED IN ENGLAND.
PREFACE.
The Collection of Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum comprises
nearly fifty thousand objects, and many of its sections are unrivalled
in completeness. It illustrates, in a more or less comprehensive manner,
the history and civilization of the Egyptians from the time when their
country was passing out of the Predynastic Period under a settled form
of government, about B.C. 4500, to the time of the downfall of the power
of the Queens Candace at Meroë, in the Egyptian Sûdân, in the second or
third century after Christ. The monuments of Christian Egypt also form a
very important series, and illustrate Coptic funerary sculpture and art
between the sixth and eleventh centuries A.D.
The present Guide has been prepared with the view of providing the
visitor to the British Museum with information of a more general
character than can be conveniently given in the Guides to the several
Galleries and Rooms of the Department. An attempt has here been made to
present a sketch of the origin, the manners and customs, the language,
the writing, the literature, the religion, and the burial rites of
the peoples of Egypt, and of their history under the successive
dynasties; embodying references to the several objects of the Collection
which illustrate the different branches of the subject. The text is
supplemented by an abundant selection of cuts and plates of the most
important of the antiquities.
E. A. WALLIS BUDGE.
DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM,
_September 29, 1908_.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE v
LIST OF PLATES ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT xi
CHAPTER I.—THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT 1
” II.—ETHNOGRAPHY. LANGUAGE. FORMS OF WRITING. DECIPHERMENT
OF EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, ALPHABET, AND WRITING.
NATIONAL CHARACTER 20
” III.—EGYPTIAN LITERATURE, SACRED AND PROFANE 58
” IV.—MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. MARRIAGE. EDUCATION. DRESS.
FOOD. AMUSEMENTS. CATTLE BREEDING. TRADE.
HANDICRAFTS 76
” V.—ARCHITECTURE. PAINTING. SCULPTURE 103
” VI.—THE KING AND HIS SUBJECTS. MILITARY SERVICE 116
” VII.—EGYPTIAN RELIGION 122
” VIII.—EMBALMING. THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 158
” IX.—NUMBERS. DIVISIONS OF TIME. CHRONOLOGY 180
” X.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. ANCIENT EMPIRE 188
” XI.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. MIDDLE EMPIRE 213
” XII.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. NEW EMPIRE 228
” XIII.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. PTOLEMAÏC PERIOD 268
HISTORY OF EGYPT. ROMAN PERIOD 275
HISTORY OF EGYPT. ARAB PERIOD 282
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT 286
CARTOUCHES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT 290
INDEX 303
LIST OF PLATES.
SEE PAGE
PLATE I. Vignette from the papyrus of Queen Netchemet 61
” II. Text and vignettes from the sarcophagus of King
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt 66
” III. False door from the tomb of Sheshȧ 68
” IV. Sepulchral tablet of Thethȧ 68
” V. Sepulchral tablet of Sebek-ḥetep 68
” VI. Sepulchral tablet of Pai-neḥsi 68
” VII. Sepulchral tablet of Bak-en-Ȧmen 68
” VIII. Sepulchral tablet of Nes-Ḥeru 68
” IX. Painted relief from the tomb of Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ 81
” X. Painted sepulchral tablet of Kaḥu 81
” XI. Columns in the temple of Seti I 107
” XII. Head of a priestess 115
” XIII. Seated figures of Khā-em-Uast and his wife 115
” XIV. False door from the tomb of Ȧsȧ-ānkh 167
” XV. View of a painted chamber in the tomb of Nekht 175
” XVI. Wall painting from a tomb 175
” XVII. General view of the sarcophagus of Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt 177
” XVIII. General view of the sarcophagus of Nes-Qeṭiu 177
” XIX. Sepulchral tablet of Ban-āa 177
” XX. The Great Pyramid and Sphinx 196
” XXI. The “Shêkh al-Balad” 203
” XXII. Tablet of Ȧntef 210
” XXIII. Tablet of Sebek-āa 211
” XXIV. Tablet and figure of Sa-Hathor 215
” XXV. Statue of Usertsen III 217
” XXVI. Head of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt III 218
” XXVII. Statue of Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā 223
” XXVIII. Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Rā 223
” XXIX. Memorial cone of Sebek-ḥetep 223
” XXX. The Hall of Columns at Karnak 231
” XXXI. Head of a colossal statue of Thothmes III 231
” XXXII. Statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 234
” XXXIII. The Colossi of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 234
” XXXIV. Letter of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 236
” XXXV. Letter of Tushratta, king of Mitani, to Ȧmen-ḥetep III 236
” XXXVI. Lion of Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen 238
” XXXVII. Statues of a priest and his wife 239
” XXXVIII. The temple of Abû Simbel 242
” XXXIX. Head of a colossal statue of Rameses II 245
” XL. Sepulchral stele of Qaḥa 248
” XLI. Vignettes from the papyrus of Queen Netchemet 252
” XLII. Hathor-headed capital 254
” XLIII. Relief of Queen Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā 261
” XLIV. The goddess Nut 261
” XLV. Statue of Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā 261
” XLVI. Obelisk dedicated to Thoth, Twice-great 265
” XLVII. Vignettes and text from the sarcophagus of
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt 265
” XLVIII. Relief of Ptolemy II 269
” XLIX. The temple of Edfû 270
” L. Granite shrine from Philae 271
” LI. Tablet of Tiberius 277
” LII. Tablet of Tiberius 277
” LIII. Tablet of Apa Paḥomo 283
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
PAGE
Map of Egypt 2, 3
The Delta of Egypt 5
The Entrance to the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes 6
The Nile-gods and their cavern 8
The Nile-god in his cavern 8
The Nile-god bearing offerings 9
The Nile-gods of the South and North 9
The Nile from sea to source 11
Statue of Ḥāpi the Nile-god 12
Egyptian hunters of the Archaïc Period, Nos. 1-6 23
Ivory figure of a king 24
Bone figure of a dwarf 24
Bone figure of a woman carrying a child 25
Bone figure of a woman with inlaid eyes 25
Figure of Betchmes 26
Figure of Nefer-hi 26
Fox playing the double pipes 27
Mouse seated on a chair 28
Cat herding geese 29
Lion and unicorn playing draughts 30
The spearing of Āpep 31
A page of writing from the Great Harris Papyrus 36
Demotic writing 38
Coptic inscription 41
The Rosetta Stone 42, 43
Two wooden writing palettes 54
Slab of limestone inscribed in hieratic 56
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Ani 60
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Nu 60
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Ḥeru-em-ḥeb 61
Text from the Book “May my name flourish” 63
The ceremony of “Opening the mouth” 64
Marble sun-dial 72
Head of a priestess 80
Relief, with a hippopotamus 84
Green schist bear 86
Egyptian house 88
Egyptian hut 90
Ivory head-rest 91
The Bull Apis 93
The Bull Mnevis 94
Flint cow’s head 95
Jewellers drilling and polishing beads 99
Pylon and court of the temple of Edfû 104
Gateway to the temple of Rameses III 105
Gateway of Ptolemy IX at Karnak 106
Granite obelisks at Karnak 107
Pillars at Philae 108
Statue of Ȧn-kheft-ka 109
Figure of a priest 110
Head of a statue of Neb-ḥap-Rā 110
Statue of Sebek-nekht 111
Figure of a king 112
Queen Tetȧ-Kharṭ 113
Head of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 114
Statue of Isis 115
Figure of Qen-nefer 118
Statues of Māḥu and Sebta 119
The principal gods and goddesses of Egypt (57 figures) 123-126
Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter’s wheel 135
Osiris rising from the sarcophagus 138
Osiris in his shrine 140
Thoth weighing the heart 140
Maāt weighing the heart 140
Osiris on his Judgment Throne 141
Rā at sunrise 143
Rā at sunset 143
Flint amulets (4 figures) 148
The step pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah 166
A group of maṣṭaba tombs 167
Tablet for offerings 168
An Egyptian tomb 168
The soul visiting the body 168
Section of the Second Pyramid 171
Entrance to the tomb of Khnemu-ḥetep 172
Entrance to a royal tomb 173
Plan and section of the tomb of Seti I (2 cuts) 174
Wall painting from a tomb 175
Coffin of Ḥes-Peṭān-Ȧst 176
Figures of Ka-ṭep and Ḥetep-ḥeres 177
King Semti dancing before a god 190
Relief from the tomb of Sherȧ 192
Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu 194
King Khufu 196
Section of the Great Pyramid 197
King Khāf-Rā 199
King Menkau-Rā 200
Section of the Third Pyramid 202
King Usr-en-Rā Ȧn 204
Shrine of Pa-suten-sa 219
Stele of Tatiankef 220
Lion of Khian 225
Statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep I 229
The Temple of Luxor 233
Scarabs of Ȧmen-ḥetep III (2 cuts) 235
Kneeling statue of Rameses II 241
Façade of the Ramesseum 243
Statues of Rameses II (2 cuts) 244
Statue of Khā-em-Uast 246
Statue of Seti II 247
Statue of Ānkh-renp-nefer 254
Head of Psammetichus II 259
Stele of Ptolemy II 269
Head of a statue of a Ptolemy 271
Limestone window 273
“Pharaoh’s Bed” 276
Coptic sepulchral tablet 279
Tablet of Plêïnôs 281
Tablet of David 281
Tablet of Abraam 284
Tablet of Rachel 284
INTRODUCTION TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
CHAPTER I.
THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT AND ITS LIMITS. THE DELTA. OASES. LAKES. THE NILE.
INUNDATION. NILE FESTIVALS. FAMINES. ANCIENT AND MODERN DIVISIONS OF
EGYPT AND THE SÛDÂN.
The =Land of Egypt= is situated in the north-east shoulder of the
continent of Africa, and in the earliest times it consisted of that
portion of the Nile Valley which lay between the Mediterranean Sea
and the northern end of the First Cataract; the Island of Ābu, or
Elephantine, and the town of Sunnu, or Sunt, the Syene of classical
writers and the Sewênêh of the Bible (Ezekiel xxix, 10), forming the
southern boundary of the country. The northern limit of Egypt has, in
historic times, always been the Mediterranean Sea, but its southern
limit varied considerably at different periods. Under the Vth dynasty,
about B.C. 3600, it was marked by Elephantine and Syene. Under the XIIth
dynasty, about B.C. 2500, it was extended to Semnah and Kummah, about
250 miles to the south of Syene. Under the XVIIIth dynasty, about B.C.
1600, the southern frontier town was probably Napata, the modern Merawi,
about 600 miles, by river, from Syene. A century later the Egyptians took
possession of the Island of Meroë, and they appear to have built a town
at a place about 930 miles from Syene, by river, to mark their southern
frontier. Between B.C. 1200 and 600 the frontier was withdrawn to Syene,
where it remained practically for several centuries. Under the Arabs,
the southern frontier was fixed at Dongola (A.D. 1275), the old Nubian
capital, which lay about 570 miles from Syene. In 1873, Sir Samuel Baker
extended it to Gondókoro, about 2,823 miles, by river, from Cairo. In
1895, the frontier town of Egypt in the south was Wâdî Ḥalfah, and it
continued to be so until the capture of Umm Darmân (Omdurmân) in 1898.
At the present time, the southern limit of Egypt is marked by the 22nd
parallel of N. latitude, which crosses the Nile at Gebel Sahaba, about
eight miles north of the Camp at Wâdî Ḥalfah, and its northern limit is
the northernmost point of the Delta. The distance, by river, from the
Camp to the Mediterranean Sea, is about 960 miles. The boundary of Egypt
on the east is marked by a line drawn from Ar-Rafah, which lies a little
to the east of Al-Arîsh, the Rhinocolura of classical writers, to Tabah,
at the head of the Gulf of Akabah, by the eastern coast of the Peninsula
of Sinai,[1] and by the Red Sea. On the west, the boundary is marked by
a line drawn from the Gulf of Solum due south to a point a little to the
south-west of the Oasis of Sîwah, and then proceeding in a south-easterly
direction to the 22nd parallel of N. latitude, near Wâdî Ḥalfah.
[Illustration: MAP OF EGYPT.]
The =name “Egypt,”= which has come to us through the Latin “Aegyptus” and
the Greek “Aiguptos,” is derived from one of the ancient Egyptian names
of Memphis, viz., “Ḥet-ka-Ptaḥ,” meaning “Temple of the Ka, or Double,
of Ptaḥ” 𓉗𓏏𓉐𓂓𓏤𓊪𓏏𓎛𓀭 or 𓉘𓂓𓏤𓊪𓏏𓎛𓀭𓉜. The common name for Egypt among
the Egyptians was “Qem,” or “Qemt,” _i.e._, the “Black Land,” 𓆎𓏏𓊖, in
allusion to the brownish-black mud of which the soil chiefly consists.
Another name of frequent occurrence in the literature is “Ta-Merȧ,” the
“Land of the Inundation,” 𓇾𓏤𓈇𓌻𓇋𓆳𓊖.
The =soil= of Egypt is formed of a layer of sedimentary deposits, which
has been laid down by the Nile, and varies in depth from about 40 to 110
feet; the rate at which this layer is being added to at the present time
in the bed of the river is said to be about =four inches in a century=.
In prehistoric times the sea ran up as far as Esna, and deposited thick
layers of sand and gravel; upon these the rivers and streams flowing from
the south spread the mud and stony matter which they brought down with
them, and thus the soil of Egypt was gradually built up. Near Esna begins
the layer of sandstone, which extends southward, and covers nearly the
whole of Nubia, and rests ultimately on crystalline rock.
[Illustration: The Delta of Egypt.]
The part of Egypt which lies to the north of the point where the Nile
divides itself into two branches resembles in shape a lotus flower, or
a triangle standing on its apex, and because of its similarity to the
fourth letter of their alphabet, the Greeks called it =Delta=, Δ.
The Delta is formed of a deep layer of mud and sand, which rests upon the
yellow quartz sands, and gravels and stiff clay, which were laid down
by the sea in prehistoric times. The area of the Delta is about 14,500
square miles.
The =Oases= of Egypt are seven in number, and all are situated in the
Western Desert. Their names are: 1. Oasis of =Sîwah= or =Jupiter Ammon=;
2. Oasis of =Baḥarîyah=, _i.e._, the Northern Oasis; 3. The Oasis of
=Farâfrah=, the Ta-ȧḥet of the Egyptians; 4. The Oasis of =Dâkhlah=,
_i.e._, the “Inner” Oasis, the =Tchesti= of the Egyptians; 5. The Oasis
of =Khârgah=, _i.e._, the “Outer Oasis,” the Uaḥt-rest or “Southern
Oasis” of the Egyptians; 6. The Oasis of =Dailah=, to the west of
Farâfrah; 7. The Oasis of =Kûrkûr=, to the west of Aswân.
The principal =Lakes= of Egypt are: 1. =Birkat al-Ḳurûn=, a long, narrow
lake lying to the north-west of the Province of the Fayyûm, and formerly
believed to be a part of the Lake Moeris described by Herodotus; 2.
The =Natron Lakes=, which lie in the Natron Valley, to the north-west
of Cairo; from these the Egyptians obtained salt and various forms of
soda, which were used for making incense, and in embalming the dead; 3.
Lake =Menzâlah=, Lake =Bûrlûs=, Lake =Edkû=, Lake =Abukîr=, now almost
reclaimed, and Lake =Mareotis=; all these are in the Delta. Lake =Timsaḥ=
(_i.e._, Crocodile Lake) and the Bitter Lakes, which were originally mere
swamps, came into existence with the making of the Suez Canal.
The =Fayyûm= which was in ancient times regarded as one of the Oases,
is nothing more than a deep depression scooped out of the limestone,
on which are layers of loams and marls covered over by Nile mud. The
district was called by the Egyptians “Ta-she,” or “Land of the Lake”; at
the present time it has an area of about 850 square miles, and is watered
by a branch of the Nile called the “Baḥr Yûsuf,” which flows into it
through an opening in the mountains on the west bank of the Nile. The
Baḥr Yûsuf, or “River of Joseph,” is not called after the name of the
patriarch Joseph, but that of some Muḥammadan ruler. It is not a canal
as was once supposed, but an arm of the Nile, which, however, needs
clearing out periodically. In the Fayyûm lay the large body of water to
which Herodotus gave the name of =Lake Moeris=. He believed that this
Lake had been constructed artificially, but modern irrigation authorities
in Egypt have come to the conclusion that the mass of water which he
saw and thought was a lake was merely the result of the Nile flood, or
inundation, and that there never was a Lake Moeris.
[Illustration: The Entrance to the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at
Thebes.]
=Deserts.= On each side of the Valley of the Nile lies a vast desert.
That on the east is called the Arabian Desert, or Red Sea Desert,
and that on the west the Libyan Desert. The influence of the latter
on the climate of Egypt is very great, as for six months of the year
the prevailing wind blows from the west. At many places in the Eastern
and Western Deserts there are long stretches of sand scores of miles
in length, and immense tracts covered with layers of loose pebbles and
stone, and the general effect is desolate in the extreme. The hills which
skirt the deserts along the Valley of the Nile are usually quite low, but
at certain points they rise to the height of a few hundred feet. Nothing
grows on them, and more bare and inhospitable places cannot be imagined.
The accompanying illustration gives a good idea of the general appearance
of the stone hills on the Nile. In the fore-ground are masses of broken
stone, sand, rocks, etc., and these stretch back to a gap in the range of
hills just below the letter A, whence, between steep rocks, a rough road
winds in and out along the dreary valley which contains the sepulchres
of the great kings of the XVIIIth, XIXth and later dynasties. Under the
light of a full moon the Valley is full of weird beauty, but in the
day-time the heat in it resembles that of a furnace.
The chief characteristic of Egypt is the great =river Nile=, which has in
all ages been the source of the life and prosperity of its inhabitants,
and the principal highway of the country. The Egyptians of the early
Dynastic Period had no exact knowledge about the true source of the
river. In their hymns to the Nile-god they described him as the “hidden
one,” and “unseen,” and his “secret places” are said to be “unknown.” The
river over which he presided formed a part of the great celestial river,
or ocean, upon which sailed the boats of the Sun-god daily. This river
surrounded the whole earth, from which, however, it was separated by a
range of mountains. On one portion of this river was placed the throne
of Osiris, according to a legend, and close by was the opening in the
range of mountains through which an arm of the celestial river flowed
into the earth. The place where the Nile appeared on earth was believed
to be situated in the First Cataract, and in late times the Nile was
said to rise there, between two mountains which were near the Island of
Elephantine and the Island of Philae. Herodotus gives the names of these
mountains as “Krôphi” and “Môphi,” and their originals have probably been
found in the old Egyptian “Qer-Ḥāpi” and “Mu-Ḥāpi”; these names mean
“Cavern of Ḥāpi” and “Water of Ḥāpi” respectively.
[Illustration: The two Nile-gods and their Cavern, and the hippopotamus
goddess, who is armed with a huge knife, their protectress.]
[Illustration: The Nile-god in his cavern, under the rocks at Philae,
pouring out the waters which formed the two Niles.]
The underground caverns, or “storehouses of the Nile,” from which the
river welled up, are depicted in the illustrations here given. In the
first the cavern is guarded by a hippopotamus-headed goddess, who is
armed with a large knife and wears a feather on her head. Above are
seated two gods, one wearing a cluster of papyrus plants on his head,
and the other a cluster of lotus flowers; the former represents the
Nile of the South, and the other the Nile of the North. Each god holds
water-plants in one hand. In the second illustration the god is depicted
kneeling in his cavern, which is enclosed by the body of a serpent; he
wears a cluster of water-plants on his head, and is pouring out from two
vases the streams of water which became the South and North Niles.
The Egyptians called both their river and the river-god “=Ḥāp=” or
“=Ḥāpi=” 𓎛𓂝𓊪, 𓎛𓂝𓊪𓏭𓈘𓈗𓀭, a name of which the meaning is unknown; in
very early dynastic times the god was called “Ḥep-ur” 𓎛𓊪𓈘𓅨, _i.e._, the
“great Ḥep.” The name “Nile,” by which the “River of Egypt” is generally
known, is not of Egyptian origin, but is probably derived from the
Semitic word _nakhal_ “river”; this the Greeks turned into “Neilos,” and
the Latins into “Nilus,” whence comes the common form “Nile.” The river
appears in the form of a man wearing a cluster of water-plants on his
head, and his fertility is indicated by a large pendent breast. In the
accompanying illustration the gods of the South and North Niles are seen
tying stems of the lotus and papyrus plants round the symbol of “union”;
the scene represents the union of Upper and Lower Egypt.
[Illustration: The Nile-god bearing offerings of bread, wine, fruit,
flowers, etc.]
[Illustration: The Nile-gods of the South and North tying the stems of
a lily and a papyrus plant round the symbol of “union,” symbolizing the
union of Upper and Lower Egypt.]
The ideas held by the Egyptians concerning the power of the Nile-god are
well illustrated by a lengthy Hymn to the Nile preserved on papyrus in
the British Museum (Sallier II, No. 10,182). “Homage to thee, O Ḥāpi,
thou appearest in this land, and thou comest in peace to make Egypt
to live. Thou waterest the fields which Rā hath created, thou givest
life unto all animals, and as thou descendest on thy way from heaven
thou makest the land to drink without ceasing. Thou art the friend of
bread and drink, thou givest strength to the grain and makest it to
increase, and thou fillest every place of work with work.... Thou art
the lord of fish ... thou art the creator of barley, and thou makest the
temples to endure for millions of years.... Thou art the lord of the
poor and needy. If thou wert overthrown in the heavens, the gods would
fall upon their faces, and men would perish. When thou appearest upon
the earth, shouts of joy rise up and all people are glad; every man of
might receiveth food, and every tooth is provided with meat.... Thou
fillest the storehouses, thou makest the granaries to overflow and thou
hast regard to the condition of the poor and needy. Thou makest herbs
and grain to grow that the desires of all may be satisfied, and thou art
not impoverished thereby. Thou makest thy strength to be a shield for
man.” Elsewhere he is called the “father of the gods of the company of
the gods who dwell in the celestial ocean,” and he was declared to be
self-begotten, and “One,” and in nature inscrutable.
In another passage of the same hymn it is said that the god is not
sculptured in stone, that images of him are not seen, “he is not to
be seen in inscribed shrines, there is no habitation large enough to
contain him, and thou canst not make images of him in thy heart.” These
statements suggest that statues or figures of the Nile-god were not
commonly made, and it is a fact that figures of the god, large or small,
are rare. In the fine collection of figures of Egyptian gods exhibited
in the Third Egyptian Room, which is certainly one of the largest in
the world, there is only one figure of Ḥāpi (No. 108, Wall-case 125).
In this the god wears on his head a cluster of papyrus plants 𓇇, before
which is the Utchat, or Eye of Horus, 𓂀, and he holds an altar from which
he pours out water. The only other figure of the god in the British
Museum collection is the fine quartzite sandstone statue (Southern
Egyptian Gallery, No. 766) which was dedicated to Ȧmen-Rā by Shashanq,
the son of Uasarken and his queen Maāt-ka-Rā. Here the god bears on his
out-stretched hands an altar, from which hang down bunches of grain,
green herbs, flowers, waterfowl, etc. The statue was dedicated to
Ȧmen-Rā, who included the attributes of Ḥāp among his own.
[Illustration: The NILE from SEA to SOURCE]
The true =source of the Nile= is Victoria Nyanza, or =Lake Victoria=,
which lies between the parallels of latitude 0° 20′ N. and 3° S., and
the meridians of 31° 40′ and 35° E. of Greenwich; the lake is 250
miles in length and 200 in breadth, and was discovered in modern times
by Speke, on August 3rd, 1858. Other contributory sources are Albert
Nyanza, or =Lake Albert=, discovered by Sir Samuel Baker on March 16th,
1864, and =Lake Albert Edward=, discovered by Sir H. M. Stanley in 1875;
the connecting channel between these lakes is the Semliki River. The
portion of the Nile between Lake Victoria and Lake Albert is called the
“=Victoria Nile=” (or the “Somerset River”); that between Lake Albert
and Lake Nô is called the “Baḥr al-Gebel” or “=Upper Nile=”; and that
between Lake Nô and Kharṭûm is called “Baḥr al-Abyaḍ,” or “=White Nile=.”
The total length of these three portions of the Nile is about 1,560
miles. At Kharṭûm the White Nile is joined by the “=Blue Nile=” (or
Abâî, the Astapos of Strabo, which rises in Lake Ṣânâ and is about 1,000
miles long), and their united streams form that portion of the river
which is commonly known as the “Nile.” The distance from Kharṭûm to the
Mediterranean Sea is about 1,913 miles, and thus the =total length of
the Niles= is about =3,473 miles=. Between Kharṭûm and the sea the Nile
receives but one tributary, viz., the =Atbara=, the Astaboras of Strabo,
a torrential stream which brings into the Nile an immense quantity of
dirty red water containing valuable deposits of mud. The =Cataracts=, or
series of rapids, on the Nile are six in number: the =first= is between
Aswân and Philae, the =second= is a little to the south of Wâdî Ḥalfah,
the =third= is at Ḥannek, the =fourth= is at Adramîya, the =fifth= is at
Wâdî al-Ḥamâr, and the =sixth= is at Shablûkah. On the White Nile is a
series of cataracts known as the “Fôla Falls,” and on the Blue Nile there
are cataracts from Rusêres southwards for a distance of 40 miles.
[Illustration: Statue of Ḥāpi the Nile-god.
[No. 766.]]
The most important characteristic of the Nile is its annual flooding or
=Inundation=. By the end of May, in Egypt, the river is at its lowest
level. During the month of June the Nile, between Cairo and Aswân, begins
to rise, and a quantity of “green water” appears at this time. The cause
of the colour is said to be myriads of minute algae, which subsequently
putrefy and disappear. During August the river rises rapidly, and its
waters assume a red, muddy colour, which is due to the presence of the
rich red earth which is brought into the Nile by the Blue Nile and the
Atbara. The rising of the waters continues until the middle of September,
when they remain stationary for about a fortnight or three weeks. In
October a further slight rise occurs, and then they begin to fall; the
fall continues gradually until, in the May following, they are at their
lowest level once more. The cause of the Inundation is, as Aristotle (who
lived in the fourth century B.C.) first showed, the spring and early
summer rains in the mountains of Ethiopia and the Southern Sûdân; these
are brought down in torrents by the great tributaries of the Nile, viz.,
the Gazelle River, the Sobat (the Astasobas of Strabo), the Giraffe
River, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara. The Sobat rises about April 15, the
Gazelle River and the Giraffe River about the 15th of May, the Blue Nile
at the end of May, and the Atbara a little later. The united waters of
these tributaries, with the water of the Upper Nile, reach Egypt about
the end of August, and cause the Inundation to reach its highest level.
The Nile rises from 21 feet to 28 feet, and deposits a thin layer of
fertilizing mud over every part of the country reached by its waters.
Formerly, when the rise was about 26 feet, there was sufficient water to
cover the whole country; when it was less, scarcity prevailed; and when
it was more, ruin and misery appeared through over-flooding. In recent
years, the British irrigation engineers in Egypt have regulated, by means
of the Aswân Dam, the Barrage at Asyûṭ, and the Barrage near Al-Manâshî,
a little to the north of Cairo,[2] the supply of water during the winter,
or dry season, with such success, that, in spite of “low” Niles, the
principal crops have been saved, and the people protected from want.
In connection with the adoration of the Nile, two important =festivals=
were observed. The first of these took place in June and was called
the “Night of the Tear,” 𓈖𓇉𓄿𓏏𓏲𓏭𓇌𓁻, _Qerḥ en Ḥatui_, because it was
believed that at this time of the year the goddess Isis shed tears in
commemoration of her first great lamentation over the dead body of her
husband Osiris. Her tears fell into the river, and as they fell they
multiplied and filled the river, and in this way caused the Inundation.
This belief exists in Egypt, in a modified form, at the present time,
and, up to the middle of last century the Muḥammadans celebrated, with
great solemnity, a festival on the 11th day of Paoni (June 17th), which
was called the “Night of the Drop,” _Lêlat al-Nuḳtah_. On the night of
this day a miraculous drop of water was supposed to fall into the Nile
and cause it to rise. The second ancient Nile-festival was observed about
the middle of August, and has its equivalent in the modern Muḥammadan
festival of the “Cutting of the Dam.” A dam of earth about 23 feet high
was built in the Khalîg Canal, and when the level of the Nile nearly
reached this height, a party of workmen thinned the upper portion of the
dam at sunrise on the day following the “completion of the Nile,” and
immediately afterwards a boat was rowed against it, and, breaking the
dam, passed through it with the current.
The history of Egypt shows that in all periods the country has suffered
from severe =famines=, which have been caused by successions of “low”
Niles. Thus a terrible seven years’ famine began in A.D. 1066, and lasted
till 1072. Dogs, cats, horses, mules, vermin fetched extravagant prices,
and the people of Cairo killed and ate each other, and human flesh was
sold in the public markets. In Genesis xli, we have another example
of a seven years’ famine, and still an older one is mentioned in an
inscription cut upon a rock on the Island of Sâḥal in the First Cataract.
According to the text, this famine took place in the reign of Tcheser,
a king of the IIIrd dynasty, about B.C. 4000, because there had been no
satisfactory inundation of the Nile for seven years. The king says that
by reason of this, grain was very scarce, vegetables and garden produce
of every description could not be obtained, the people had nothing to
eat, and men were everywhere robbing their neighbours. Children wailed
for food, young men had no strength to move, strong men collapsed for
want of sustenance, and the aged lay in despair on the ground waiting
for death. The king wrote to Matar, the Governor of the First Cataract,
where the Nile was believed to rise, and asked him to enquire of Khnemu,
the god of the Cataract, why such calamities were allowed to fall on the
country. Subsequently the king visited Elephantine, and was received by
Khnemu, the god of the Cataract, who told him that the Nile had failed to
rise because the worship of the gods of the Cataract had been neglected.
The king promised to dedicate offerings regularly to their temples in
future, and, having kept his promise, the Nile rose and covered the land,
and filled the country with prosperity.
=Egyptian Geography.=—From time immemorial Egypt has been divided into
two parts, viz., the =Land of the South=, _Ta-Resu_, 𓇾𓏤𓈇𓇖𓊖, and the
=Land of the North=, _Ta-Meḥt_, 𓇾𓏤𓈇𓇉𓏏𓊖. The Land of the South is Upper
Egypt, and its northern limit in modern times is Cairo; the Land of the
North is Lower Egypt, _i.e._, the Delta, and its southern limit is Cairo.
The ancient Egyptians divided the Land of the South into twenty-two
parts, and the Land of the North into twenty parts; each such part was
called _Ḥesp_ 𓎛𓊃𓊪𓈈, a word which the Greeks rendered by =nome=. Each
nome was to all intents and purposes a little complete kingdom. It was
governed by a _ḥeq_, 𓋾𓈎, or chief man, and it contained a capital town
in which was the seat of the god of the nome and the priesthood, and
every _ḥeq_ administered his _ḥesp_ as he pleased. The number of the
nomes given by Greek and Roman writers varies between thirty-six and
forty-four. In late times Egypt was divided into three parts, Upper,
Central, and Lower Egypt; Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, and was
therefore called Heptanomis. The nomes were:
UPPER EGYPT.
Nome. Capital. God or Goddess.
1. =Ta-Kens.= =Ābu.=[3] ELEPHANTINE. Khnemu.
_Aswân._
2. =Tes-Ḥeru.= =Ṭeb.= APOLLINOPOLIS MAGNA. Ḥeru-Beḥuṭet.
_Edfû._
3. =Ten.= =Nekheb.= EILEITHYIASPOLIS. Nekhebit.
_Al-Kâb._
4. =Uast.= =Uast.= THEBES (or HERMONTHIS). Ȧmen-Rā.
_Luxor_, _Karnak_.
5. =Ḥerui.= =Ḳebti.= COPTOS. Ȧmsu, or Menu.
_Ḳuft._
6. =Ȧati.= =Taenterert.= TENTYRIS. Hathor.
_Denderah._
7. =Seshesh.= =Ḥa.= DIOSPOLIS PARVA. Hathor.
_Ḥau._
8. =Ȧbt.= =Teni.= THIS. Ȧn-Ḥer.
9. =...= =Ȧpu.= PANOPOLIS. Ȧmsu or Menu.
_Ahkmîm._
10. =Uatchet.= =Ṭebu.= APHRODITOPOLIS. Hathor.
11. =Set.= =Shas-ḥetep.= HYPSELIS. Khnemu.
_Shutb._
12. =Ṭu-...= =Nut-ent-bȧk.= HIERAKONPOLIS. Horus.
13. =Ȧm-f-khent.= =Saut.= LYKOPOLIS. Ȧp-uat.
_Asyûṭ._
14. =Ȧm-f-peḥ.= =Kesi.= KUSAE. Hathor.
_Al-Kusîyah._
15. =Unt.= =Khemennu.= HERMOPOLIS. Thoth.
_Ashmnûnên._
16. =Maḥetch.= =Ḥebennu.= Horus.
17. =Ȧnpu(?).= =Kasa.= KYNONPOLIS. Anubis.
_Al-Kês._
18. =Sepṭ.= =Ḥet-suten.= AL-HÎBAH. Anubis.
19. =Bu-tchamui.= =Pa-Mātchet.= OXYRRHYNCHUS. Set.
_Bahnassâ._
20. =Ȧm-Khent.= =Suten-ḥenen.= HERAKLEOPOLIS Ḥeru-shefit.
MAGNA. _Ahnâs._
(The Hânês of the Bible.)
21. =Ȧm-peḥ.= =Smen-Ḥeru.= Khnemu.
22. =Maten.= =Ṭep-Ȧḥet.= APHRODITOPOLIS. Hathor.
_Atfîḥ._
LOWER EGYPT.
Nome. Capital. God or Goddess.
1. =Ȧneb-ḥetch.= =Men-nefert.= MEMPHIS. Ptaḥ.
_Mît-Rahînah._
2. =Ȧa.= =Sekhem.= LETOPOLIS. Ḥeru-ur.
3. =Ȧment.= =Pa-neb-Ȧmt.= APIS. Hathor.
4. =Sȧpi-Rest.= =Tchekā.= Ȧmen-Rā.
5. =Sȧpi-Meḥt.= =Saut.= SAÏS. Neith.
_Ṣâ._
6. =Ka-semt.= =Khasut.= XOÏS. Ȧmen-Rā.
7. =Nefer-Ȧment.= =Pa-Aḥu-neb-Ȧment.= Ḥu.
_Metelis (?)._
8. =Nefer-Ȧbt.= =Thekaut= (=Succoth=), Atem, or Temu.
=Pa-Tem= (=Pithom=).
PATUMOS.
_Tall al-Maskhûṭah._
9. =Ȧthi(?).= =Pa-Ȧsȧr.= BUSIRIS. Osiris.
_Abû-Ṣîr._
10. =Ka-Qam.= =Ḥet-ta-ḥer-ȧbt.= ATHRIBIS. Ḥeru-Khenti-Khati.
11. =Ka-ḥeseb.= =Ḥesbet(?)=, =Ka-Ḥebset(?).= Isis, or Sebek.
KABASOS.
12. =Theb-...= =Theb-neter(?).= SEBENNYTOS. Ȧn-Ḥer.
_Sammanûd._
13. =Ḥeq-āṭ.= =Ȧnnu= (The On of the Bible). Temu.
HELIOPOLIS. _Maṭarîyah._
14. =Khent-ȧbt.= =Tchal.= TANIS. Horus.
_Ṣân._
15. =Teḥuti.= =Pa-Teḥuti.= HERMOPOLIS MINOR. Thoth.
16. =Ḥātmeḥit.= =Pa-Ba-neb Ṭeṭ.= MENDES. Osiris.
_Tmai al-Amdîd._
17. =Sam-Beḥuṭet.= =Pa-Khen-en-Ȧmen.= DIOSPOLIS. Ȧmen-Rā.
18. =Ȧm-Khent.= =Pa-Bast.= PIBESETH BUBASTIS. Bast.
_Tall Basṭah._
19. =Ȧm-peḥ.= =Pa-Uatchet.= BUTO. Uatchet.
20. =Sepṭ.= =Kesem.= PHAKUSSA. Sepṭ.
_Fakûs._
The =Sûdân= was divided into =13 nomes=:
1. =Peḥ-Qennes.= The region south of Meroë.
2. =Maruat.= Meroë. Bagrawîr. Ȧmen.
3. =Napt.= Napata. Ȧmen.
4. =Peten-Ḥeru.= Pontyris. Horus.
5. =Pa-Nebset.= Pnups. Thoth.
6. =Ta-Uatchet.= Autoba (?).
7. =Behent.= Boôn. Wâdî Ḥalfah. Horus.
8. =Ȧtefthit.= Tasitia (?).
9. =Nehȧu.= Noa.
10. =Meḥit.= Meae. Horus.
11. =Maamet.= Ibrîm. Horus.
12. =Bekt.= Bok. Kubbân. Horus.
13. =Ḥet-Khent.= P-ȧlek. Philae. Bilâk. Isis.
Under the Ptolemies, the district between Elephantine and Philae was
called =Dodekaschoinos=, because it contained twelve schoinoi, or
measures of land, but later this term was applied to the whole region
between Elephantine and Hiera Sykaminos.
Under the late Roman emperors many of the nomes were subdivided, probably
for convenience in levying taxes, and in still later times the governor
of a nome, or province, bore the title of Duke (Δουξ).
=Modern Egypt= is divided into =14 provinces=:
LOWER EGYPT.
Province. Capital.
1. Baḥêrah. Damanhûr.
2. Ḳalyûbîyah. Benha.
3. Sharkîyah. Zaḳâzîḳ.
4. Dakhâlîyah. Manṣûrah.
5. Manûfîyah. Menûf.
6. Gharbîyah. Ṭanṭa.
UPPER EGYPT.
Province. Capital.
1. Gîzah. Gîzah.
2. Beni-Suwêf. Beni-Suwêf.
3. Minyah. Minyah.
4. Asyûṭ. Asyûṭ.
5. Girgah. Ṣûhâḳ.
6. Ḳena. Ḳena.
7. Nûba. Aswân.
8. Fayyûm. Madînat al-Fayyûm.
The towns of Cairo, Alexandria, Port Sa’îd, Suez, Damietta, etc., are
generally governed each by a native ruler.
The provinces of the Sûdân are as follows:
1. Baḥr al-Ghazâl. 2. Berber. 3. Blue Nile Province. 4. Dongola. 5.
Ḥalfah. 6. Kassala. 7. Kharṭûm Province. 8. Kordofân. 9. Mongalla. 10.
Red Sea Province. 11. Sennaar. 12. Upper Nile Province. 13. White Nile
Province.