It is an interesting circumstance that what threatened to be a great
disaster to Cuba proved in fact to be one of the greatest blessings that
the Island had enjoyed since the Spanish settlement. We have already
seen how great an alarm was caused at Havana and throughout Cuba by the
threatened attack of the British under Sir Francis Drake and how fine a
degree of public spirit and unity among all classes was thereby
inspired. The threatened attack did not occur, and it was many years
before an actual British conquest or even invasion of the Island was
effected. But the lessons learned in that period of agitation and after
were not speedily forgotten, either in Cuba or in Spain. Therefore, a
much larger degree of public spirit and of unity prevailed in the
Island, among the Government officers and among the people, while the
Spanish crown was awakened to a fuller realization than ever before of
the value of Cuba and the imperative necessity of defending the Island
if the integrity of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere was to
be maintained. It was then that Philip II began to appreciate Cuba as
the bulwark of the West Indies and of the City of Havana, its capital,
as the key to the New World. Hitherto Cuba had been nothing but a
stepping stone between Spain on the one hand and Mexico, Darien and
Florida on the other; and Havana was merely a convenient base of
operations and a port of call. But now the immense strategical
importance of Havana was realized, while the value of the Island, in its
products of copper, wood, sugar, hides and other commodities, was
appreciated.
Governor Luzan administered the affairs of Cuba until the end of March,
1589. On that day he was succeeded by Juan de Tejada, a Field Marshal
of the Spanish Army. He was selected by the King chiefly because of his
military experience and knowledge, and he was the first of the line of
governors of Cuba to be known as Captain-General. In him were merged
both the civil and the military authority of the Island, so that there
would no longer be any such friction as had prevailed between Luzan and
Quinones. Tejada was speedily commissioned by the King to make plans for
the fortification of Cuba and also of the other important islands of the
Spanish West Indies. He was accordingly accompanied on his coming to
Cuba by one of the most distinguished Italian engineers of that age,
Juan Bautista Antonelli. Together they surveyed the port of Havana, the
port of San Juan in Porto Rico, and that of Carthagena in Colombia and
planned powerful defenses for them all. There fortifications were in
fact constructed under the direction of Antonelli and to this day bear
impressive testimony to his skill.
His first attention was paid, most properly, to Havana. Already there
had been constructed temporary fortifications at La Punta and El Morro,
and also a camp more of observation than of defense at San Lazaro Cove,
probably where the Queen's battery stood in later years. Both
Captain-General Tejada and Antonelli were quick to see the importance of
the Punta and Morro fortifications and to approve those headlands as the
sites of the most powerful fortifications of Havana. Plans were
accordingly made for extensive masonry forts at both those places, and
these were approved and very prompt execution ordered by the King. Funds
for the work were obtained from Mexico, from which source also
appropriations were received for the maintenance of La Fuerza with its
garrison of 300 men.
The work of Antonelli in Cuba was by no means confined, however, to
military engineering. He laid out and constructed a number of roads,
including some which are to this day principal streets of Havana and its
suburbs. He also constructed a dam across the Chorrera River and an
aqueduct by means of which an ample water supply was conveyed to Havana
and distributed through the city. For by this time it must be understood
Havana was rapidly growing into a populous and prosperous community and
was already the assured metropolis of the Island and indeed one of the
three or four chief centres of Spanish civilization and authority in the
western world. It was during the administration of Tejada that the
technical legal title of "City" was conferred upon Havana, and the place
received the grant of a coat-of-arms. Its escutcheon bore the emblems of
a crown, underneath it in a blue field three silver fortresses,
emblematic of La Fuerza, La Punta and El Morro, and finally a golden key
symbolic of Havana's importance as the key of the western world. The
administration of Tejada lasted a little more than five years and was
marked with almost unbroken peace, prosperity and progress. The new
fortifications of Havana were not all completed in that time, but they
were carried far toward completion and the work upon them was marked
with no such difficulties and complications as had been the bane of La
Fuerza.
The one exception to the rule of peace and harmony which prevailed
during the administration of Captain-General Tejada was a controversy
with Bishop Salcedo, who was then in charge of the diocese. Because of
some differences of policy concerning the finances of the colony and the
church, Salcedo bitterly criticised Tejada and even cast unfavorable
reflections upon his integrity, which we must regard as unwarranted. To
these attacks, however, Tejada gave little or no attention, and the
peace of Cuba was therefore not materially disturbed by the incident. It
seems probable that the Bishop desired larger revenues than the
straitened condition of Cuban affairs made possible. Tejada indeed
almost exhausted the pecuniary resources of the island in the
prosecution of the much-needed works of fortification, road building,
and what not, and also drew heavily upon his own private funds. He was
saved from more serious embarrassment by the arrival of a treasure fleet
from Vera Cruz, which enabled him to discharge all obligations and to
place a fund of 120,000 ducats in the insular treasury for future needs.
At this period, it is interesting to recall, the salary of the Governor,
or Captain-General, was only 2,000 pesos a year, that of the Alcalde of
El Morro was 6,600 reales, that of the Alcalde of La Punta was 4,400
reales, and that of the Sergeant-Mayor was 2,700 reales. The total
yearly budget of the island was about 100,000 pesos.
It is gratifying to know that Tejada's fine services were appreciated by
the royal government. His insistent resignation was accepted in April,
1595, with sincere regret, and he was made a Knight Commander of the
Order of St. James and was placed in charge of the castle and district
of La Barlete, at Naples.
Tejada's successor, the second Captain-General of Cuba, was Juan
Maldonado Barrionuevo, who took office in July, 1594. This distinguished
servant of the crown had been an equerry to the Queen of Spain and
Treasurer of the Invincible Armada which had come to grief a few years
before in the Narrow Seas. He was also a Knight of the Military Order of
St. James. Having had, while with the Armada, a taste of Drake's
quality, and learning that that formidable commander was meditating
another descent upon Cuba he gave his first and best attention to
hastening the completion of the fortifications of Havana. Drake was
indeed at that very time in Spanish-American waters planning disaster to
every seaport within reach, but disagreement between himself and other
officers of the fleet made the entire expedition a failure and led,
probably, to the death of Drake himself in 1595. Learning of Drake's
death Maldonado sent out an expedition to attack the British fleet as it
was returning from Darien and succeeded in capturing one of its vessels
and putting the others to flight near the Isle of Pines. This triumph
over the much feared British fleet caused great rejoicing throughout
Cuba and immensely encouraged the Government and the people in their
hope of making a successful stand against British aggressions.
Despite the growth and importance of Havana it must be remembered that
at this time that city was still in a very primitive condition. The
great majority of the houses were still built of cedar or pine boards
with thatched roofs. They were so scattered, even in the heart of the
city, that it was possible to have gardens and orchards around them.
There were some houses of substantial masonry two or three stories in
height. And the rich cedar, mahogany and other woods native to Cuba made
it possible to finish and furnish them in very rich style. The houses of
the rich were lighted with lamps of bronze or other metal, generally fed
with olive oil, and those of the poor with candles made of suet. The
streets were unlighted save by an occasional lantern at the entrance to
some house. And they were so infested not only with stray dogs but with
vagabonds and ruffians that it was unsafe for citizens to go abroad
after dark without an armed guard. Social and domestic customs, which
had at first been kept after those of Spain itself, by this time began
to have an individuality suited to the circumstances and conditions of
life on the Island. It was the custom to have the chief meal of the day
at noon and a lighter supper quite late in the evening, probably between
eight and ten o'clock.
It is interesting to record that during the administration of Maldonado
occurred the first theatrical performance in the history of Cuba. This
was on the night of St. John, in the year 1599, and the performance took
place in honor of the Captain-General in the great hall of the military
barracks. It is recorded that on assembling the audience was so noisy
that it was impossible to begin the performance until threats had been
made of serious physical punishment. Despite this vexatious incident the
people were so delighted with the performance that when it came to an
end they unanimously clamored for its repetition although by this time
it was one o'clock in the morning.
The sugar industry was now rising to great importance, especially in the
vicinity of Havana and thence toward Matanzas. The largest of all the
sugar mills in the Island was that founded by Anton Recia at Guaicanama,
now known as Regla. In 1588 a royal decree was issued bestowing upon the
sugar mills of Cuba the same favor that was formerly granted to those of
Hispaniola, namely, the exemption of the buildings, machinery, negro
slaves and in fact all other property from seizure or attachment for
debt. The sugar plantations were somewhat hampered at this time by lack
of labor, and on that account the importation of negro slaves was
encouraged and hundreds were brought in every year.
In fact, negro slavery was by this time fully established as the
principal reliance of the industries of the island. It was recognized
that Cuba was a land of inestimable wealth, particularly in agriculture.
Stock raising was the chief industry, but sugar growing was rising in
importance, while the production of honey and wax was also a widespread
and highly lucrative occupation. Of all industries sugar growing was the
most laborious and called, therefore, for the greatest number of slaves.
Each mill required from eighty to a hundred workmen.
Strangely enough, while the royal government strove in some ways to
encourage and stimulate the sugar industry, it persisted in hampering
it, at any rate in Cuba, in the matter of slave labor. As far back as
1556 a decree fixed the maximum price at which slaves might be sold in
the island at one hundred ducats, or about seventy pesos. Yet at the
same time the price fixed for slaves in Venezuela was one hundred and
ten ducats, and in Mexico one hundred and twenty ducats. The result was
inevitable. Slaves were sent to Venezuela and Mexico rather than to
Cuba; or the best were sent thither and the poorest to the island. This
was only one of a number of eccentricities of government, which
suggested a persistent and inexplicable tendency to discriminate
against Cuba in favor of the other colonies.
Against such purblind policies the ablest administrators and the most
enterprising planters and merchants struggled to little avail. It was a
splendid achievement for the engineer Antonelli in 1586 to tap the
Almendares River, west of Havana, with a system of canals and aqueducts,
and thus bring an abundant supply of fresh water into Havana. In so
doing he not merely provided the capital with one of the prime
necessities of life, but he also made Havana the centre of the sugar
industry. For it was along these artificial watercourses that the first
sugar mills were erected and operated. But this availed little while
there was persistent discrimination against Cuba to a degree that kept
the island without a tithe of the labor which was needed for the
development of its resources. We cannot, of course, approve the slave
trade, or argue that it should have been followed to a greater extent
than it was. But if it was to exist at all, and Spain was willing and
indeed determined that it should, justice and economic reason required
that it should exist as freely in Cuba as in the neighboring colonies.