[1] Devised originally for the clergy of Chrodegang's cathedral, it
was largely an adaptation of St Benedict's rule to secular clergy
living in common. In 816 it was confirmed, with certain
modifications, by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, and became the law
for collegiate and cathedral churches in the Frankish empire. See
CANON.
[2] The list of these in the deed of transfer is the oldest Scottish
library catalogue.
CULEBRA, the smaller of two islands lying in the Virgin Passage
immediately E. of Porto Rico and known as the Islas de Passaje. It is
about 18 m. distant from Cape San Juan and rises from the same submerged
plateau with the larger islands of the Antilles. Its extreme dimensions
are 3 by 6 m., and its surface is low and comparatively uniform, which
gives the prevailing winds an unbroken sweep across it. For this reason
the rainfall is limited to a short season, and the population is
compelled to store rainwater in cisterns for drinking purposes. Its soil
is fertile, and cattle, poultry, vegetables and small fruits are
produced. The island has been a dependency of Porto Rico since 1879,
when its colonization was formally undertaken, and it is now described
as a ward of the Vieques district of the department of Humacao. In 1902
the American naval authorities selected the Playa Sardinas harbour on
the S. side of Culebra as a rendezvous of the fleet and marine
encampments were located on shore. The strategic position of the island,
its healthiness and its continued use as a naval station have given it
considerable importance. Its population was 704 in 1899, which had
increased to nearly 1200 in 1903.
CULLEN, PAUL (1803-1878), cardinal and archbishop of Dublin, was born
near Ballytore, Co. Kildare, and educated first at the Quaker school at
Carlow and afterwards at Rome, where he joined the Urban College of the
Propaganda and, after passing a brilliant course, was ordained in 1829.
He then became vice-rector, and afterwards rector, of the Irish National
College in Rome; and during the Mazzini revolution of 1848 he was rector
of the Urban College, saving the property under the protection of the
American flag. In 1849, on the strong recommendation of Archbishop John
MacHale of Tuam, Cullen was nominated as successor to the primatial see
of Armagh; and, on his return to Ireland, presided as papal delegate at
the national council of Thurles in the August of 1850. Taking a strong
line on the educational question which was then agitating Ireland, he
took a leading part in the national movement of 1850-1852, and at first
supported the Tenant Rights League. In May 1852 he was translated to
Dublin, and soon a divergence of opinion broke out between him and the
more ardent Nationalists under Archbishop MacHale. When the Irish
university was started, with Newman, appointed by Cullen, at its head,
the scheme was wrecked by the personal opposition to the archbishop of
Dublin. As time went on, his distrust of the national movement grew
deeper; and in 1853 he sternly forbade his clergy to take part publicly
in politics, and for this he was denounced by the _Tablet_ newspaper.
His own political opinion had best be told in his own words. "For thirty
years I have studied the revolution on the continent, and for nearly
thirty years I have watched the Nationalist movement in Ireland. It is
tainted at its sources with the revolutionary spirit. If any attempt is
made to abridge the rights and liberties of the Catholic Church in
Ireland, it will not be by the English government nor by a 'No Popery'
cry in England, but by the revolutionary and irreligious Nationalists of
Ireland" (Purcell's _Life of Manning_, ii. 610). Cullen, therefore,
while an ardent patriot, was consistently an opponent of Fenianism. He
was made cardinal in 1866, being the first Irish cardinal. Energetic as
an administrator, churches and schools rose throughout his diocese; and
the excellent Mater Misericordiae Hospital and the seminary at Clonlife
are lasting memorials of his zeal. He took part in the Vatican Council
as an ardent infallibilist. In 1873 he was defendant in a libel action
brought against him by the Rev. R. O'Keeffe, parish priest of Callan, on
account of two sentences of ecclesiastical censure pronounced by the
cardinal as papal delegate. The damages were laid at L10,000. Three of
the four judges allowed the defence of the cardinal to be valid; but it
was held that the papal rescript upon which he relied for his
extraordinary powers as delegate was illegal under statute; and the lord
chief justice decided that the plaintiff could not renounce his natural
and civil liberty. After several days' trial, during which Cullen was
submitted to a very close examination, the verdict was given for the
plaintiff with 1/4d. damages. The cardinal died in Dublin on the 24th of
October 1878. (E. Tn.)
CULLEN, WILLIAM (1710-1790), Scottish physician and medical teacher, was
born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on the 15th of April 1710. He received
his early education at the grammar-school of Hamilton, and he appears to
have subsequently attended some classes at the university of Glasgow. He
began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a Glasgow
surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he became surgeon to a
merchant vessel trading between London and the West Indies. On his
return to Scotland in 1732 he settled as a practitioner in the parish of
Shotts, Lanarkshire, and in 1734-1736 studied medicine at Edinburgh,
where he was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society. In 1736
he began to practise in Hamilton, where he rapidly acquired a high
reputation. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter was his resident pupil, and
at one time they proposed to enter into partnership. In 1740 Cullen took
the degree of M.D. at Glasgow, whither he removed in 1744. During his
residence at Hamilton, besides the arduous duties of medical practice,
he found time to devote to the study of the natural sciences, and
especially of chemistry. On coming to Glasgow he appears to have begun
to lecture in connexion with the university, the medical school of which
was as yet imperfectly organized. Besides the subjects of theory and
practice of medicine, he lectured systematically on botany, materia
medica and chemistry. His great abilities, enthusiasm and power of
conveying instruction made him a successful and highly popular teacher,
and his classes increased largely in numbers. At the same time he
diligently pursued the practice of his profession. Chemistry was the
subject which at this time seems to have engaged the greatest share of
his attention. He was himself a diligent investigator and experimenter,
and he did much to encourage original research among his pupils, one of
whom was Dr Joseph Black. In 1751 he was appointed professor of
medicine, but continued to lecture on chemistry, and in 1756 he was
elected joint professor of chemistry at Edinburgh along with Andrew
Plummer, on whose death in the following year the sole appointment was
conferred on Cullen. This chair he held for ten years--his classes
always increasing in numbers. He also practised his profession as a
physician with eminent success. From 1757 he delivered lectures on
clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary. This was a work for which his
experience, habits of observation, and scientific training peculiarly
fitted him, and in which his popularity as a teacher, no less than his
power as a practical physician, became more than ever conspicuous. On
the death of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the
students undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica;
he delivered an entirely new course, which were published in an
unauthorized edition in 1771, but which he re-wrote and issued as _A
Treatise on Materia Medica_ in 1789.
On the death of Robert Whytt (1714-1766), the professor of the
institutes of medicine, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same time
resigning that of chemistry. In the same year he had been an
unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice of physic,
but subsequently an arrangement was made between him and John Gregory,
who had gained the appointment, by which they agreed to deliver
alternate courses on the theory and practice of physic. This arrangement
proved eminently satisfactory, but it was brought to a close by the
sudden death of Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole
professor of the practice of physic, and he continued in this office
till a few months before his death, which took place on the 5th of
February 1790.
As a lecturer Cullen appears to have stood unrivalled in his day. His
clearness of statement and power of imparting interest to the most
abstruse topics were the conspicuous features of his teaching, and in
his various capacities as a scientific lecturer, a physiologist, and a
practical physician, he was ever surrounded with large and increasing
classes of intelligent pupils, to whom his eminently suggestive mode of
instruction was specially attractive. Living at the time he did, when
the doctrines of the humoral pathologists were carried to an extreme
extent, and witnessing the ravages which disease made on the solid
structures of the body, it was not surprising that he should oppose a
doctrine which appeared to him to lead to a false practice and to fatal
results, and adopt one which attributed more to the agency of the solids
and very little to that of the fluids of the body. His chief works were
_First Lines of the Practice of Physic_ (1774); _Institutions of
Medicine_ (1770); and _Synopsis Nosologicae Medicae_ (1785), which
contained his classification of diseases into four great classes--(1)
Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases, as typhus fever; (2) Neuroses, or nervous
diseases, as epilepsy; (3) Cachexiae, or diseases resulting from bad
habit of body, as scurvy; and (4) Locales, or local diseases, as cancer.
Cullen's eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796 under the
title of Lord Cullen, and was known for his powers of mimicry.
The first volume of an account of _Cullen's Life, Lectures and
Writings_ was published by Dr John Thomson in 1832, and was reissued
with the second volume (completing the work) by Drs W. Thomson and D.
Craigie in 1859.
CULLEN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 1936. It is situated on Cullen Bay, 11(1/2) m. W. by N. of
Banff and 66(1/2) m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland
railway. Deskford Burn, after a course of 7(1/2) m., enters the sea at
Cullen, which it divides into two parts, Seatown, the older, and
Newtown, dating only from 1822. St Mary's, the parish church, a
cruciform structure, was founded by Robert Bruce, whose second wife died
at Cullen. The industries include rope and sail making, boat-building,
brewing and fishing. The harbour, constructed between 1817 and 1834,
though artificial, is one of the best on this coast. About 1 m. to the
S. is Cullen House, a seat of the earl of Seafield, which contains some
fine works of art. A mile and a half to the W. is the picturesque
fishing village of Port Knockie with a deep-sea harbour, built in 1891.
On the cliffs, 2 m. to the E., stand the ruins of Findlater Castle,
fortified in 1455. From 1638 to 1811, when the title expired, it gave
the title of earl to the Ogilvies, whose name was adopted in addition to
his own by Sir Lewis Alexander Grant, when he succeeded, as 5th earl of
Seafield, to the surviving dignities. Five miles to the E. of Cullen is
the thriving fishing town of Portsoy, with a small, safe harbour and a
station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Besides the fisheries
there is fish-curing and a distillery; and the quarrying of a
pink-coloured variety of granite and of Portsoy marble is carried on.
Good limestone is also found in the district. Pop. (1901) 2061.
CULLERA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the
Mediterranean Sea, at the mouth of the river Jucar, and at the southern
terminus of the Valencia-Silla-Cullera railway. Pop. (1900) 11,947.
Cullera is a walled town, containing a ruined Moorish citadel, large
barracks, several churches and convents and a hospital. It occupies the
Jucar valley, south of the Sierra de Zorras, a low range of hills which
terminates eastward in Cape Cullera, a conspicuous headland surmounted
by a lighthouse. To the south and west extends a rich agricultural
district, noted for its rice. Besides farming and fishing, the
inhabitants carry on a coasting trade with various Mediterranean ports.
In 1903 the harbour was entered by 66 vessels of about 25,000 tons,
engaged in the exportation of grain, rice and fruit, and the importation
of guano. The town of Sueca (q.v.) is 4 m. W.N.W. by rail.
CULLINAN, a town of the Transvaal, 36 m. by rail E. by N. of Pretoria.
It grew up round the Premier diamond mine and dates from 1903, being
named after T. Cullinan, the purchaser of the ground on which the mine
is situated. Here was discovered in January 1905 a diamond--the largest
on record--weighing 3025(3/4) carats. This diamond was in 1907 presented
by the Transvaal government to Edward VII. and was subsequently cut into
two stones, one of 516(1/2) carats, the other of 309 carats, intended to
ornament the sceptre and crown of England. The "chippings" yielded
several smaller diamonds (see DIAMOND).
CULLODEN, a desolate tract of moorland, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It
forms part of the north-east of Drummossie Muir, and is situated about 6
m. by road E. of Inverness, and 1/2 m. from Culloden Muir station on the
Highland railway from Aviemore to Inverness via Daviot. It is celebrated
as the scene of the battle of the 16th of April 1746 (see CUMBERLAND,
WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF, and MURRAY, LORD GEORGE), by which the fate
of the house of Stuart was decided. By Highlanders the battle is more
generally described as the battle of Drummossie. Memorial stones bearing
the names of the clans engaged in the conflict were erected in 1881 at
the head of each trench where the clansmen--about 1000 in number--were
buried. A monumental cairn, 20 ft. high, marks the chief scene of the
fight, and the Cumberland Stone, a huge boulder, indicates the spot
where the English commander took up his position. A mile to the north is
Culloden House, which belonged to Duncan Forbes, the president of the
Court of Session. The _Culloden Papers_, a number of historical
documents ranging from 1625 to 1748, were discovered in this mansion in
1812 and published in 1815 by Duncan George Forbes. On the death of the
10th laird, the collection of Jacobite relics and works of art was sold
by auction in 1897. About 1 m. to the south of the field, on the right
bank of the Nairn, is the plain of Clava, containing several stone
circles, monoliths, cairns and other prehistoric remains. The circles,
some apparently never completed, vary in circumference from 12 yds. to
140 yds.
CULM, in geology, the name applied to a peculiar local phase of the
Carboniferous system. In 1837 A. Sedgwick and R. I. Murchison classified
into two divisions the dark shales, grits and impure limestones which
occupy a large area in Devonshire and extend into the neighbouring
counties of Somerset and Cornwall. These two divisions were the Upper
and Lower Culm Measures, so named from certain impure coals, locally
called "culm,"[1] contained within the shales near Bideford.
Subsequently, these two geologists, when prosecuting their researches in
Germany and Austria, applied the same name to similar rocks which
contained, amongst others, _Posidonomya Becheri_, common to the phase of
sedimentation in both areas.
The Culm measures of the Devonshire district are folded into a broad
syncline with its axis running east and west; but within this major fold
the rocks have been subjected to much compression accompanied by minor
folding. This circumstance, together with the apparent barrenness of the
strata, has always made a correct interpretation of their position and
relationships a matter of difficulty; and for long they were regarded as
an abnormal expression of the Lower Carboniferous, with the uppermost
beds as doubtful equivalents of the Millstone Grit of other parts of
Britain. The labours of W. A. E. Ussher and of G. J. Hinde and H. Fox
have resulted in the differentiation of the following subdivisions in
the Devonshire Culm:--(1) _Upper Culm Measures_ or Eggesford grits; (2)
_Middle Culm Measures_, comprising the Morchard, Tiverton and Ugbrooke
lithological types overlying the Exeter type; (3) _Lower Culm_, the
_Posidonomya_ limestone and shale overlying the Coddon Hill beds with
radiolaria. Ussher's subdivisions were introduced to satisfy the
exigencies of geological mapping, but, as he pointed out, while they are
necessary in some parts of the district and convenient in others, the
lithological characters upon which they are founded are variable and
inconstant. More recently E. A. N. Arber (1904-1907) clearly
demonstrated that no palaeontological subdivision of the Upper Culm
(Middle and Upper) is possible, and that these strata, on the evidence
of the fossil plants, represent the Middle Coal Measures of other parts
of the country. Wheelton Hind has called attention to the probability
that the _Posidonomya_ limestone and shale may represent the Pendleside
group of Lancashire, Derbyshire, &c. The Coddon Hill beds may belong to
this or to a lower horizon. Thus the English Culm measures comprise an
Upper Carboniferous and a Lower Carboniferous group, while in Germany,
Austria and elsewhere, as it is important to bear in mind, the Culm, or
"Kulm," stage is shown by its contained fossils to belong to the lower
division alone.
The typical Carboniferous limestone of the Franco-Belgian area changes
as it is traced towards the east and south into the sandy, shaly Culm
phase, with the characteristic "Posidonia" (_Posidonomya_) schists. This
aspect of the Culm is found in Saxony, where there are workable coals,
in Bohemia, Thuringia, the Fichtelgebirge, the Harz, where the beds are
traversed by mineral veins, and in Moravia and Silesia. In the
last-mentioned region the thickness of the Culm formation has been
estimated by D. Stur at over 45,000 ft. In the east and south of the
Schiefergebirge (a general term for the slaty mountains of the Hundsruck
and Taunus range, the Westerwald and part of the Eifel district), the
Culm shales pass upwards into a coarser deposit, the "Culm-grauwacke,"
which attains a considerable thickness and superficial extent. Culm
fossils appear in the Carnic Alps, in the Balkans and parts of Spain,
also in Spitzbergen and part of New Guinea.
The most characteristic fossil is of course _Posidonomya Becheri_;
others are _Glyphioceras sphaericum_, _Rhodea patentissima_,
_Asterocalamites scrobiculatus_ (Schloth), _Lepidodendron
veltheimianum_, _Gastrioceras carbonarium_.
See E. A. N. Arber, "On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of West Devon
and North Cornwall," _Q.J.G.S._ lxiii. (1907), which contains a
bibliography of the English Culm; E. Holzapfel, _Palaont. Abhandl._
Bd. v. Heft i. (1889); H. Potonie, _Abhandl. preuss. geol.
Landesanst._, Neue Folge, 36 (1901); D. Stur, "Die Culm Flora,"
_Abhandl. k.k. geol. Reichsanst._ viii. (Vienna, 1875).
(J. A. H.)