The order is represented in Britain by bryony (_Bryonia dioica_), (fig.
1) a hedge-climber, perennial by means of large fleshy tubers which send
up each year a number of slender angular stems. The leaves are
heart-shaped with wavy margined lobes. The flowers are greenish, 1/2 to
3/4 in. in diameter; the fruit, a red several-seeded berry, is about 1/4
in. in diameter.
Many genera are of economic importance; _Cucumis_ (fig. 2) affords
cucumber (q.v.) and melon (q.v.) _Cucurbita_, pumpkin and marrow;
_Citrullus vulgaris_ is water-melon, and _C. Colocynthis_, colocynth;
_Ecballium Elaterium_ (squirting cucumber) is medicinal; _Sechium edule_
(chocho), a tropical American species, is largely cultivated for its
edible fruit; it contains one large seed which germinates in situ.
_Lagenaria_ is the gourd (q.v.). The fruits of _Luffa aegyptiaca_ have a
number of closely netted vascular bundles in the pericarp, forming a
kind of loose felt which supplies the well-known loofah or bath-sponge.
CUDDALORE, a town of British India, in the South Arcot district of
Madras, on the coast 125 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 52,216,
showing an increase of 10% in the decade. It lies low, but is regarded
as exceptionally healthy, and serves as a kind of sanatorium for the
surrounding district. The principal exports are sugar, oil-seeds and
indigo. There are two colleges and two high schools. In the
neighbourhood are the ruins of Fort St David situated on the river
Gadilam, which has as stirring a history as any spot in the Presidency.
As a small fort built by a Hindu merchant it fell into the hands of the
Mahrattas after the capture of Gingi by Sivaji in 1677. From them it was
purchased by the English in 1690, the purchase including not only the
fort but the adjacent towns and villages "within ye randome shott of a
piece of ordnance." A great gun was fired to different points of the
compass and all the country within its range, including the town of
Cuddalore, passed into the possession of the English. The villages thus
obtained are still spoken of as "cannon ball villages." From 1725
onwards the fortifications were greatly strengthened. In 1746 Fort St
David became the British headquarters for the south of India, and
Dupleix' attack was successfully repulsed. Clive was appointed its
governor in 1756; in 1758 the French captured it, but abandoned it two
years later to Sir Eyre Coote. In 1782 they again took it and restored
it sufficiently to withstand a British attack in 1783. In 1785 it
finally passed into British possession.
CUDDAPAH, a town and district of British India, in the Madras
Presidency. The town is 6 m. from the right bank of the river Pennar,
and 161 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 16,432. It is now a poor
place, but has some trade in cotton and indigo, and manufactures of
cotton cloth. Hills surround it on three sides, and it has a bad
reputation for unhealthiness.
The DISTRICT OF CUDDAPAH has an area of 8723 sq. m. It is in shape an
irregular parallelogram, divided into two nearly equal parts by the
range of the Eastern Ghats, which intersects it throughout its entire
length. The two tracts thus formed possess totally different features.
The first, which constitutes the north, east and south-east of the
district, is a low-lying plain; while the other, which comprises the
southern and south-western portion, forms a high table-land from 1500 to
2500 ft. above sea-level. The chief river is the Pennar, which enters
the district from Bellary on the west, and flows eastwards into Nellore.
Though a large and broad river, and in the rains containing a great
volume of water, in the hot weather months it dwindles down to an
inconsiderable stream. Its principal tributaries are the Kundaur,
Saglair, Cheyair, and Papagni rivers. One of the most interesting
antiquities in the district is the ancient fort of Gurramkonda. The fort
is supposed to have been built by the Golconda sultans; it stands on a
hill 500 ft. high, three sides of which consist of almost perpendicular
precipices. According to a local legend the name Gurramkonda, meaning
"horse hill," was derived from the fact that a horse was supposed to be
guardian of the fort and that the place was impregnable so long as the
horse remained there. The story goes that a Mahratta chief at length
succeeded in scaling the precipice and in carrying off the horse, and
although the thief was captured before reaching the base of the hill,
the spell was broken and the fort, when next attacked, fell. The
population of the district in 1901 was 1,291,267. The principal crops
are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and
indigo. The two last are largely exported. There are several steam
factories for pressing cotton, and indigo vats. The district is served
by lines of the Madras and the South Indian railways.
CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688), English philosopher, was born at Aller,
Somersetshire, the son of Dr Ralph Cudworth (d. 1624), rector of Aller,
formerly fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. His father died in 1624,
and his mother then married the Rev. Dr Stoughton, who gave the boy a
good home education. Cudworth was sent to his father's college, was
elected fellow in 1639, and became a successful tutor. In 1642 he
published _A Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lord's Supper_,
and a tract entitled _The Union of Christ and the Church_. In 1645 he
was appointed master of Clare Hall and the same year was elected Regius
professor of Hebrew. He was now recognized as a leader among the
remarkable group known as the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.). The whole
party were more or less in sympathy with the Commonwealth, and Cudworth
was consulted by John Thurloe, Cromwell's secretary of state, in regard
to university and government appointments. His sermons, such as that
preached before the House of Commons, on the 31st of March 1647,
advocate principles of religious toleration and charity. In 1650 he was
presented to the college living of North Cadbury, Somerset. From the
diary of his friend John Worthington we learn that Cudworth was nearly
compelled, through poverty, to leave the university, but in 1654 he was
elected master of Christ's College, whereupon he married. On the
Restoration he contributed some Hebrew verses to the _Academiae
Cantabrigiensis_ [Greek: Sostra], a congratulatory volume addressed to
the king. In 1662 he was presented to the rectory of Ashwell, Herts. In
1665 he almost quarrelled with his fellow-Platonist, Henry More, because
the latter had written an ethical work which Cudworth feared would
interfere with his own long-contemplated treatise on the same subject.
To avoid clashing, More brought out his book, the _Enchiridion ethicum_,
in Latin; Cudworth's never appeared. In 1678 he published _The True
Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the
reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility
demonstrated_ (imprimatur dated 1671). No more was published, perhaps
because of the theological clamour raised against this first part.
Cudworth was installed prebendary of Gloucester in 1678. He died on the
26th of June 1688, and was buried in the chapel of Christ's. His only
surviving child, Damaris, a devout and talented woman, became the second
wife of Sir Francis Masham, and was distinguished as the friend of John
Locke. Much of Cudworth's work still remains in manuscript; _A Treatise
concerning eternal and immutable Morality_ was published in 1731; and _A
Treatise of Freewill_, edited by John Allen, in 1838; both are connected
with the design of his _magnum opus_, the _Intellectual System_.
The _Intellectual System_ arose, so its author tells us, out of a
discourse refuting "fatal necessity," or determinism. Enlarging his
plan, he proposed to prove three matters: (a) the existence of God; (b)
the naturalness of moral distinctions; and (c) the reality of human
freedom. These three together make up the intellectual (as opposed to
the physical) system of the universe; and they are opposed respectively
by three false principles, atheism, religious fatalism which refers all
moral distinctions to the will of God, and thirdly the fatalism of the
ancient Stoics, who recognized God and yet identified Him with nature.
The immense fragment dealing with atheism is all that was published by
its author. Cudworth criticizes two main forms of materialistic atheism,
the atomic, adopted by Democritus, Epicurus and Hobbes; and the
hylozoic, attributed to Strato, which explains everything by the
supposition of an inward self-organizing life in matter. Atomic atheism
is by far the more important, if only because Hobbes, the great
antagonist whom Cudworth always has in view, is supposed to have held
it. It arises out of the combination of two principles, neither of which
is atheistic taken separately, i.e. atomism and corporealism, or the
doctrine that nothing exists but body. The example of Stoicism, as
Cudworth points out, shows that corporealism may be theistic. Into the
history of atomism Cudworth plunges with vast erudition. It is, in its
purely physical application, a theory that he fully accepts; he holds
that it was taught by Pythagoras, Empedocles, and in fact, nearly all
the ancient philosophers, and was only perverted to atheism by
Democritus. It was first invented, he believes, before the Trojan war,
by a Sidonian thinker named Moschus or Mochus, who is identical with the
Moses of the Old Testament. In dealing with atheism Cudworth's method is
to marshal the atheistic arguments elaborately, so elaborately that
Dryden remarked "he has raised such objections against the being of a
God and Providence that many think he has not answered them"; then in
his last chapter, which by itself is as long as an ordinary treatise, he
confutes them with all the reasons that his reading could supply. A
subordinate matter in the book that attracted much attention at the time
is the conception of the "Plastic Medium," which is a mere revival of
Plato's "World-Soul," and is meant to explain the existence and laws of
nature without referring all to the direct operation of God. It
occasioned a long-drawn controversy between Pierre Bayle and Le Clerc,
the former maintaining, the latter denying, that the Plastic Medium is
really favourable to atheism.
No modern reader can endure to toil through the _Intellectual System_;
its only interest is the light it throws upon the state of religious
thought after the Restoration, when, as Birch puts it, "irreligion began
to lift up its head." It is immensely diffuse and pretentious, loaded
with digressions, its argument buried under masses of fantastic,
uncritical learning, the work of a vigorous but quite unoriginal mind.
As Bolingbroke said, Cudworth "read too much to think enough, and
admired too much to think freely." It is no calamity that natural
procrastination, or the clamour caused by his candid treatment of
atheism and by certain heretical tendencies detected by orthodox
criticism in his view of the Trinity, made Cudworth leave the work
unfinished.
A much more favourable judgment must be given upon the short _Treatise
on eternal and immutable Morality_, which deserves to be read by those
who are interested in the historical development of British moral
philosophy. It is an answer to Hobbes's famous doctrine that moral
distinctions are created by the state, an answer from the standpoint of
Platonism. Just as knowledge contains a permanent intelligible element
over and above the flux of sense-impressions, so there exist eternal and
immutable ideas of morality. Cudworth's ideas, like Plato's, have "a
constant and never-failing entity of their own," such as we see in
geometrical figures; but, unlike Plato's, they exist in the mind of God,
whence they are communicated to finite understandings. Hence "it is
evident that wisdom, knowledge and understanding are eternal and
self-subsistent things, superior to matter and all sensible beings, and
independent upon them"; and so also are moral good and evil. At this
point Cudworth stops; he does not attempt to give any list of Moral
Ideas. It is, indeed, the cardinal weakness of this form of intuitionism
that no satisfactory list can be given and that no moral principles have
the "constant and never-failing entity," or the definiteness, of the
concepts of geometry. Henry More, in his _Enchiridion ethicum_, attempts
to enumerate the "_noemata moralia_"; but, so far from being
self-evident, most of his moral axioms are open to serious controversy.
The _Intellectual System_ was translated into Latin by J. L. Mosheim
and furnished with notes and dissertations which were translated into
English in J. Harrison's edition (1845). Our chief biographical
authority is T. Birch's "Account," which appears in editions of the
_Works_. There is a good chapter on Cudworth in J. Tulloch's _Rational
Theology_, vol. ii. Consult also P. Janet's _Essai sur le mediateur
plastique_ (1860), W. R. Scott's _Introduction to Cudworth's
"Treatise,"_ and J. Martineau's _Types of Ethical Theory_, vol. ii.
(H. St.)
CUENCA, a city and the capital of the province of Azuay, Ecuador, about
190 m. S. of Quito and 70 m. S.E. of Guayaquil. Pop. (1908 estimate)
30,000 (largely Indians), including the suburb of Ejido. Cuenca stands
at the northern end of a broad valley, or basin, of the Andes, lying
between the transverse ridges of Azuay and Loja, and is about 8640 ft.
above sea-level. Near by is the hill of Tarqui which the French
astronomers chose for their meridian in 1742. Communication with the
coast is difficult. Cuenca is the third most important city of Ecuador,
being the seat of a bishopric, and having a college, a university
faculty, a cathedral, and several churches, and a considerable
industrial and commercial development. It manufactures sugar, woollen
goods and pottery, and exports Peruvian bark (cinchona), hats, cereals,
cheese, hides, &c. It was founded in 1557 on the site of a native town
called Tumibamba, and was made an episcopal see in 1786.
CUENCA, a province of central Spain bounded on the N. by Guadalajara,
N.E. by Teruel, E. by Valencia, S. by Albacete, S.W. by Ciudad Real, W.
by Toledo and N.W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 249,696; area, 6636 sq. m.
Cuenca occupies the eastern part of the ancient kingdom of New Castile,
and slopes from the Serrania de Cuenca (highest point the Cerro de San
Felipe, on the north-eastern border of the province, 5905 ft.), down
into the great southern Castilian plain watered by the upper streams of
the Guadiana. The lowlands bordering on Ciudad Real belong to the wide
plain of La Mancha (q.v.). The rocky and bare highland of Cuenca on the
north and east includes the upper valley of the Jucar and its tributary
streams, but in the north-west the province is watered by tributaries of
the Tagus. The forests are proverbial for their pine timber, and rival
those of Soria; considerable quantities of timber are floated down the
Tagus to Aranjuez and thence taken to Madrid for building purposes.
Excessive droughts prevail; the climate of the hills and of the high
plateaus is harsh and cold, but the valleys are excessively hot in
summer. The soil, where well watered, is fertile, but little attention
is paid to agriculture, and three-fourths of the area is left under
pasture. The rearing of cattle, asses, mules and sheep is the principal
employment of the people; olive oil, nuts, wine, wheat, silk, wax and
honey are the chief products. Iron, copper, alum, saltpetre, jasper and
agates are found, but in 1903 all the workings had been abandoned except
three salt mines; and there are few manufactures except the weaving of
coarse cloth. The roads are in such a backward condition that they
cripple not only the mining interests but also the exports of timber,
and at the beginning of the 20th century there was no railway except a
branch line which passed westwards from Aranjuez through Tarancon to
Cuenca, the capital (pop. 1900, 10,756). No other town has as many as
6000 inhabitants, and no other Spanish province is so thinly populated
as Cuenca. In 1900 there were only 37.6 inhabitants per sq. m. Education
is backward, and extreme poverty almost universal among the peasantry.
See also CASTILE.
CUENCA, the capital of the Spanish province of Cuenca; 125 m. by rail E.
by S. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 10,756. Cuenca occupies a height of the
well-wooded Serrania de Cuenca, at an elevation of 2960 ft., overlooking
the confluence of the rivers Jucar and Huecar. A fine bridge, built in
1523, crosses the Jucar to the convent of San Pablo. Among several
interesting churches in the city, the most noteworthy is the
13th-century Gothic cathedral, celebrated for the beautiful carved
woodwork of its 16th-century doorway, and containing some admirable
examples of Spanish sculpture. The city has a considerable trade in
timber, and was long the headquarters of the provincial wool industry;
the loss of which, in modern times, has partly been compensated by the
development of soap, paper, chocolate, match and leather manufactures.
Cuenca was captured from the Moors by Alphonso VIII. of Castile in 1177,
and shortly afterwards became an episcopal see. In 1874 it offered a
prolonged and gallant resistance to the Carlist rebels.
CUESTA, a name of Spanish origin used in New Mexico for low ridges of
steep descent on one side and gentle slope on the other. It has been
proposed as a term for the land form which consists of the two elements
of a steep scarp or "strike" face, and an inclined plain or gentle "dip"
slope.
CUEVAS DE VERA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Almeria; on the right bank of the river Almanzora, 8 m. W. of the
Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 20,562. Cuevas de Vera is built at the
eastern extremity of the Sierra de los Filabres (6823 ft.), which
isolate it from the railway system of Almeria. It is, however, the chief
market for the rich agricultural districts towards the south and for the
argentiferous lead and other mines among the mountains. In appearance it
is modern, with wide streets, two fine squares, and a parish church in
Doric style, dating from 1758. But in reality the town is of
considerable antiquity. One of the towers in the Moorish palace owned by
the marquesses of Villafranca is probably of Roman origin.
CUFF. (1) (Of uncertain origin), the lower edge of a sleeve turned back
to show an ornamental border, or with an addition of lace or trimming;
now used chiefly of the stiff bands of linen worn under the coat-sleeve
either loose or attached to the shirt. (2) Also uncertain in origin, but
with no connexion, probably, with (1), a blow with the hand either open
or closed, as opposed to the use of weapons.
CUIRASS (Fr. _cuirasse_, Lat. _coriaceus_, made of leather, from
_corium_, the original breastplate being of leather), the plate armour,
whether formed of a single piece of metal or other rigid material or
composed of two or more pieces, which covers the front of the wearer's
person. In a suit of armour, however, since this important piece was
generally worn in connexion with a corresponding defence for the back,
the term cuirass commonly is understood to imply the complete
body-armour, including both the breast and the back plates. Thus this
complete body-armour appears in the middle ages frequently to have been
described as a "pair of plates." The _corslet_ (Fr. _corselet_,
diminutive of the O. Fr. _cors_, body), a comparatively light cuirass,
is more strictly a breast-plate only. As parts of the military equipment
of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corslets of bronze, and at later
periods also of iron or some other rigid substance, were habitually in
use; but while some special kind of secondary protection for the breast
had been worn in earlier times by the men-at-arms in addition to their
mail hauberks and their "cotes" armed with splints and studs, it was not
till the 14th century that a regular body-defence of plate can be said
to have become an established component of medieval armour. As this
century continued to advance, the cuirass is found gradually to have
come into general use, in connexion with plate defences for the limbs,
until, at the close of the century, the long familiar interlinked
chain-mail is no longer visible in knightly figures, except in the
camail of the bassinet and at the edge of the hauberk. The prevailing,
and indeed almost the universal, usage throughout this century was that
the cuirass was worn covered. Thus, the globose form of the
breast-armour of the Black Prince, in his effigy in Canterbury
cathedral, 1376, intimates that a cuirass as well as a hauberk is to be
considered to have been covered by the royalty-emblazoned jupon of the
prince. The cuirass, thus worn in the 14th century, was always made of
sufficient length to rest on the hips; otherwise, if not thus supported,
it must have been suspended from the shoulders, in which case it would
have effectually interfered with the free and vigorous action of the
wearer. Early in the 15th century, the entire panoply of plate,
including the cuirass, began to be worn without any surcoat; but in the
concluding quarter of the century the short surcoat, with full short
sleeves, known as the tabard, was in general use over the armour. At the
same time that the disuse of the surcoat became general, small plates of
various forms and sizes (and not always made in pairs, the plate for the
right or sword-arm often being smaller and lighter than its companion),
were attached to the armour in front of the shoulders, to defend the
otherwise vulnerable points where the plate defences of the upper-arms
and the cuirass left a gap on each side. About the middle of the
century, instead of being formed of a single plate, the breast-plate of
the cuirass was made in two parts, the lower adjusted to overlap the
upper, and contrived by means of a strap or sliding rivet to give
flexibility to this defence. In the second half of the 15th century the
cuirass occasionally was superseded by the "brigandine jacket," a
defence formed of some textile fabric, generally of rich material, lined
throughout with overlapping scales (resembling the earlier "imbricated"
form) of metal, which were attached to the jacket by rivets, having
their heads, like studs, visible on the outside. In the 16th century,
when occasionally, and by personages of exalted rank, splendid surcoats
were worn over the armour, the cuirass--its breast-piece during the
first half of the century, globular in form--was constantly reinforced
by strong additional plates attached to it by rivets or screws. About
1550 the breast-piece of the cuirass was characterized by a vertical
central ridge, called the "tapul" having near its centre a projecting
point; this projection, somewhat later, was brought lower down, and
eventually the profile of the plate, the projection having been carried
to its base, assumed the singular form which led to this fashion of the
cuirass being distinguished as the "peascod cuirass."
Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn by
foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their mounted comrades were
equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses; and these defences continued
in use after the other pieces of armour, one by one, had gradually been
laid aside. Their use, however, never altogether ceased, and in modern
armies mounted cuirassiers, armed as in earlier days with breast and
back plates, have in some degree emulated the martial splendour of the
body-armour of the era of medieval chivalry. Some years after Waterloo
certain historical cuirasses were taken from their repose in the Tower
of London, and adapted for service by the Life Guards and the Horse
Guards. For parade purposes, the Prussian _Gardes du Corps_ and other
corps wear cuirasses of richly decorated leather.
CUIRASSIERS, a kind of heavy cavalry, originally developed out of the
men-at-arms or gendarmerie forming the heavy cavalry of feudal armies.
Their special characteristic was the wearing of full armour, which they
retained long after other troops had abandoned it. Hence they became
distinguished as cuirassiers. The first Austrian corps of _kyrissers_
was formed in 1484 by the emperor Maximilian and was 100 strong. In 1705
Austria possessed twenty regiments of cuirassiers. After the war of
1866, however, the existing regiments were converted into dragoons.
Russia has likewise in modern times abolished all but a few guard
regiments of cuirassiers. The Prussian cuirassiers were first so called
under Frederick William I., and in the wars of his successor Frederick
the Great they bore a conspicuous part. After the Seven Years' War they
ceased to wear the cuirass on service, but after 1814 these were
reintroduced, the spoils taken from the French cuirassiers being used to
equip the troops. The cuirass is now worn only on ceremonial parades. In
France the cuirassiers date from 1666, when a regiment, subsequently
numbered 8th of the line, was formed. During the first Empire many
regiments were created, until in 1812 there were fourteen. The number
was reduced after the fall of Napoleon, but in modern times it has been
again increased. The French regiments alone in Europe wear the cuirass
on all parades and at manoeuvres.
CUJAS (or CUJACIUS), JACQUES (or as he called himself, JACQUES DE CUJAS)
(1520-1590), French jurisconsult, was born at Toulouse, where his
father, whose name was Cujaus, was a fuller. Having taught himself Latin
and Greek, he studied law under Arnoul Ferrier, then professor at
Toulouse, and rapidly gained a great reputation as a lecturer on
Justinian. In 1554 he was appointed professor of law at Cahors, and
about a year after L'Hopital called him to Bourges. Duaren, however, who
also held a professorship at Bourges, stirred up the students against
the new professor, and such was the disorder produced in consequence
that Cujas was glad to yield to the storm, and accept an invitation he
had received to the university of Valence. Recalled to Bourges at the
death of Duaren in 1559, he remained there till 1567, when he returned
to Valence. There he gained a European reputation, and collected
students from all parts of the continent, among whom were Joseph
Scaliger and de Thou. In 1573 Charles IX. appointed Cujas counsellor to
the parlement of Grenoble, and in the following year a pension was
bestowed on him by Henry III. Margaret of Savoy induced him to remove to
Turin; but after a few months (1575) he once more took his old place at
Bourges. But the religious wars drove him thence. He was called by the
king to Paris, and permission was granted him by the parlement to
lecture on civil law in the university of the capital. A year after,
however, he finally took up his residence at Bourges, where he remained
till his death in 1590, in spite of a handsome offer made him by Gregory
XIII. in 1584 to attract him to Bologna.
The life of Cujas was altogether that of a scholar and teacher. In the
religious wars which filled all the thoughts of his contemporaries he
steadily refused to take any part. _Nihil hoc ad edictum praetoris_,
"this has nothing to do with the edict of the praetor," was his usual
answer to those who spoke to him on the subject. His surpassing merit as
a jurisconsult consisted in the fact that he turned from the ignorant
commentators on Roman law to the Roman law itself. He consulted a very
large number of manuscripts, of which he had collected more than 500 in
his own library; but, unfortunately, he left orders in his will that his
library should be divided among a number of purchasers, and his
collection was thus scattered, and in great part lost. His emendations,
of which a large number were published under the title of
_Animadversiones et observationes_, were not confined to lawbooks, but
extended to many of the Latin and Greek classical authors. In
jurisprudence his study was far from being devoted solely to Justinian;
he recovered and gave to the world a part of the Theodosian Code, with
explanations; and he procured the manuscript of the _Basilica_, a Greek
abridgment of Justinian, afterwards published by Fabrot (see BASILICA).
He also composed a commentary on the _Consueludines Feudorum_, and on
some books of the Decretals. In the _Paratitla_, or summaries which he
made of the Digest, and particularly of the Code of Justinian, he
condensed into short axioms the elementary principles of law, and gave
definitions remarkable for their admirable clearness and precision. His
lessons, which he never dictated, were continuous discourses, for which
he made no other preparation than that of profound meditation on the
subjects to be discussed. He was impatient of interruption, and upon the
least noise he would instantly quit the chair and retire. He was
strongly attached to his pupils, and Scaliger affirms that he lost more
than 4000 livres by lending money to such of them as were in want.
In his lifetime Cujas published an edition of his works (Neville,
1577). It is beautiful and exact, but incomplete; it is now very
scarce. The edition of Colombet (1634) is also incomplete. Fabrot,
however, collected the whole in the edition which he published at
Paris (1658), in 10 vols. folio, and which was reprinted at Naples
(1722, 1727), in 11 vols. folio, and at Naples and at Venice (1758),
in 10 vols. folio, with an index forming an eleventh volume. In the
editions of Naples and Venice there are some additions not to be found
in that of Fabrot, particularly a general table, which will be found
very useful, and interpretations of all the Greek words used by Cujas.
See Papire-Masson, _Vie de Cujas_ (Paris, 1590); Terrasson, _Histoire
de la jurisprudence romaine_, and _Melanges d'histoire, de
litterature, et de jurisprudence_; Bernardi, _Eloge de Cujas_ (Lyons,
1775); Hugo, _Civilistisches Magazin_; Berriat Saint Prix, _Memoires
de Cujas_, appended to his _Histoire du droit romain; Biographie
universelle_; Gravina, _De ortu et progressu juris civilis_;
Spangenberg, _Cujacius und seine Zeitgenossen_ (Leipzig, 1882).
CULDEES, an ancient monastic order with settlements in Ireland and
Scotland. It was long fondly imagined by Protestant and especially by
Presbyterian writers that they had preserved primitive Christianity free
from Roman corruptions in one remote corner of western Europe, a view
enshrined in Thomas Campbell's _Reullura_:
"Peace to their shades. The pure Culdees
Were Albyn's earliest priests of God,
Ere yet an island of her seas
By foot of Saxon monk was trod."
Another view, promulgated like the above by Hector Boece in his Latin
history of Scotland (1516), makes them the direct successors in the 9th
to the 12th century of the organized Irish and Iona monasticism of the
6th to the 8th century. Both these views were disproved by William
Reeves (1815-1892), bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore.
As found in the Irish MSS. the name is _Cele De_, i.e. God's comrade or
sworn ally. It was latinized as _Coli dei_, whence Boece's _culdei_. The
term seems, like the Latin _vir dei_, to have been applied generally to
monks and hermits. There are very few trustworthy ancient sources of
information, but it seems probable that the Rule of Chrodegang,[1]
archbishop of Metz (d. 766), was brought by Irish monks to their native
land from the monasteries of north-eastern Gaul, and that Irish
anchorites originally unfettered by the rules of the cloister bound
themselves by it. In the course of the 9th century we find mention of
nine places in Ireland (including Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Clones, Devenish
and Sligo) where communities of these Culdees were established as a kind
of annexe to the regular monastic institutions. They seem especially to
have had the care of the poor and the sick, and were interested in the
musical part of worship. Meanwhile in Scotland the Iona monks had been
expelled by the Pictish king Nechtan in 717, and the vacancies thus
caused were by no means filled by the Roman monks who thronged into the
north from Northumbria. Into the gap, towards the end of the 8th
century, came the Culdees from Ireland. The features of their life in
Scotland, which is the most important epoch in the history of the order,
seem to resemble closely those of the secular canons of England and the
continent. From the outset they were more or less isolated, and, having
no fixed forms or common head, tended to decay. In the 12th century the
Celtic Church was completely metamorphosed on the Roman pattern, and in
the process the Culdees also lost any distinctiveness they may formerly
have had, being brought, like the secular clergy, under canonical rule.
The pictures that we have of Culdee life in the 12th century vary
considerably. The chief houses in Scotland were at St Andrews, Dunkeld,
Lochleven, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, Abernethy and Brechin. Each was an
independent establishment controlled entirely by its own abbot and
apparently divided into two sections, one priestly and the other lay and
even married. At St Andrews about the year 1100 there were thirteen
Culdees holding office by hereditary tenure and paying more regard to
their own prosperity and aggrandizement than to the services of the
church or the needs of the populace. A much-needed measure of reform,
inaugurated by Queen Margaret, was carried through by her sons Alexander
I. and David I.; gradually the whole position passed into the hands of
Turgot and his successors in the bishopric. Canons Regular were
instituted and some of the Culdees joined the new order. Those who
declined were allowed a life-rent of their revenues and lingered on as a
separate but ever-dwindling body till the beginning of the 14th century,
when, excluded from voting at the election of the bishop, they disappear
from history. At Dunkeld, Crinan, the grandfather of Malcolm Canmore,
was a lay abbot, and tradition says that even the clerical members were
married, though like the priests of the Eastern Church, they lived apart
from their wives during their term of sacerdotal service. The Culdees of
Lochleven lived on St Serf's Inch, which had been given them by a
Pictish prince, Brude, about 850. In 1093 they surrendered their island
to the bishop of St Andrews in return for perpetual food and clothing,
but Robert, who was bishop in 1144, handed over all their vestments,
books,[2] and other property, with the island, to the newly founded
Canons Regular, in which probably the Culdees were incorporated. There
is no trace of such partial independence as was experienced at St
Andrews itself, possibly because the bishop's grant was backed up by a
royal charter. In the same fashion the Culdees of Monymusk, originally
perhaps a colony from St Andrews, became Canons Regular of the
Augustinian order early in the 13th century, and those of Abernethy in
1273. At Brechin, famous like Abernethy for its round tower, the Culdee
prior and his monks helped to form the chapter of the diocese founded by
David I. in 1145, though the name persisted for a generation or two.
Similar absorptions no doubt account for the disappearance of the
Culdees of York, a name borne by the canons of St Peter's about 925, and
of Snowdon and Bardsey Island in north Wales mentioned by Giraldus
Cambrensis (c. 1190) in his _Speculum Ecclesiae_ and _Itinerarium_
respectively. The former community was, he says, sorely oppressed by the
covetous Cistercians. These seem to be the only cases where the Culdees
are found in England and Wales. In Ireland the Culdees of Armagh endured
until the dissolution in 1541, and enjoyed a fleeting resurrection in
1627, soon after which their ancient property passed to the vicars
choral of the cathedral.
See W. Reeves, _The Culdees of the British Islands_ (Dublin, 1864); W.
F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880), especially vol. ii.; W.
Beveridge, _Makers of the Scottish Church_ (1908). The older view will
be found in J. Jamieson's _Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees_
(1811).