GENERAL REMARKS ON THE QUADRUMANA.
The Classification of the Monkeys of the New World--The
Geographical Distribution of the Genera--The Fossil Monkeys of the
New and Old World and their Alliances--The former old Fauna of
Europe, Asia, and Africa--The Resemblance of Quadrumana to other
Animals and Man.
With regard to the Monkeys of the New World, they are to be grouped and
classified as follows:--The Howlers must be placed by themselves, then
the Spider Monkeys; the Lagothrix and the Sajous form a very distinct
group; and thus the prehensile-tailed series is complete. Then come
the non-prehensile-tailed. The Sakis form one group, and the Squirrel
Monkeys, and the Night, or Owl Monkeys (the Douroucoulis), make a
second. The Arctopithecini are another family, and consist of the
Marmosets and Tamarins.
_Family._ _Sub-Family._ _Genus._ _Example._
{ Mycetes Howler.
Platyrhini, {
or Cebidæ Prehensile-tailed { Ateles Spider Monkey.
{ Lagothrix Barrigudo.
{ Cebus Cai.
{ Pithecia,
{ including
{ Brachyurus Saki.
Non-prehensile-tailed { Callithrix Squirrel Monkey.
{ Nyctipithecus Douroucouli.
Arctopithecini Hapale Marmosets.
Midas Tamarins.
The American Monkeys present some remarkable instances of the
localisation and dispersion of species; allied kinds of different
species, but with the same habits, occupying neighbouring districts,
or being rather remote. And it is noticed that the great rivers form
barriers between the homes of different kinds, which, however, mingle
at the river source, and in the country not rendered impassable to
them by broad streams. Thus Wallace noticed that the Howler (_Mycetes
Beelzebub_) is apparently confined to the Lower Amazon, in the vicinity
of Para, and a black species to the Upper Amazon, the Red Ursine Howler
having the Rio Negro and the Upper Amazon as its forest ground.
One Spider Monkey is found only in the Guiana district north of the
Amazons, and another, the _Ateles ater_, inhabits West Brazil, but the
species of the genus range, as a whole, over the forest regions from
the south of Mexico to 30° south latitude, and even on the west of the
Andes.
The Lagothrix Monkeys, with their fine, furry coats, are found in the
Ecuador district of the Amazons, but are unknown in Guiana and Eastern
Brazil, and the species of the short-tailed Sakis are restricted
to special districts; thus the Couxio is from Guiana, and does not
pass the Rio Negro on the west, or the Amazon on the south. The
white-skinned one is found on the Rio Negro, and the _B. rubicundus_ on
the Upper Amazon, another species being found on the lower part of the
same river. So it is with the other Sakis with long tails. The genus
is found widely dispersed, but the species are restricted in their
roaming. One is found, according to Wallace, on the north bank of the
Upper Amazon, and another, with a red beard, only to the south-west of
the Rio Negro. The genus Cebus has a very wide range in South America,
so has the Squirrel Monkey group, for they are found on both banks of
the Amazon and Rio Negro; but the white-collared species is found only
on the Upper Rio Negro, and another on the Upper Amazon.
The same author noticed the range of the Douroucoulis in the Amazon
districts; one (_N. trivirgatus_) is found in Ecuador, and the Cat-like
kind on the Upper Amazon. Equally restricted to limited districts were
three kinds of Marmosets.
Fossil remains of Monkeys have been found in the New World in the
Brazils, which belong to the existing genera Cebus, Callithrix, and
Hapale. The fossil Cebus is at least four feet in height, and the
Callithrix was of a very large kind. The fossil Ouistitis are large
and small. The geological age of the Brazilian fossils is probably
about that of the last European deposits. Now, the remarkable part of
this interesting story is, that in the olden time there was the same
division of the Monkeys into those of the Old and of the New World. The
Catarhini were then, as now, restricted to Europe, Asia, and doubtless
to Africa; and the Platyrhini were only found in America, and moreover
the resemblance of the old forms to the new is remarkable, the large
size of the fossils being in keeping with what is known about the large
dimensions of most of the old forms of life. Rütimeyer’s discovery in
Switzerland of a fossil with bones like those of the Howler (Mycetes),
and yet like a Lemur in structure, and of vast antiquity, carries us
back to a time when a different distribution of animals prevailed. Then
there were American-looking and Madagascar-looking things in Europe,
and associated with them were Opossums and other creatures foreign
enough to it at the present time. Nevertheless, this fact gives the
hint of the origin of the American Monkeys from the Lemurs. Lately the
fossil remains of a Lemur-like animal have been found in North America.
In concluding this short notice of the extinct Monkeys, it must be
remembered that in the days when there were those agreeable northern
climates which made Greenland a land of flowers, Indian Monkeys lived
in the dense woods of Greece, Central Europe, and Southern France.
Mr. Darwin, who has collected a vast array of facts relating to the
resemblance of the Monkeys to other beings, writes very much as
follows:--
“The resemblance of Monkeys to man is greatly caused by the relative
position of the features of the face. The eyes are arched over; they
are separated by a long nose, the end of which in some is very human.
The mouth is not carried back, but occupies the same general position
as in man, and the forehead, so often wrinkled, is usually prominent,
and like that of a child. The likeness is increased by the fact that
anger, sorrow, pleasure, and satisfaction are displayed by the Monkey
by nearly similar movements of the muscles and skin, chiefly above
the eyebrows, and round the mouth. Some few expressions,” writes Mr.
Darwin, “are, indeed, almost the same, as in the weeping of certain
kinds of Monkeys, and in the laughing noise made by others, during
which the corners of the mouth are drawn backwards, and the eyelids
wrinkled. In man the nose is much more prominent than in most Monkeys;
but,” writes the same author, “we may trace the commencement of an
aquiline curvature in the nose of the Hoolock Gibbon, and this in
the great-nosed Monkey is carried to a ridiculous extreme.” All this
is disappointing to those who pride themselves on “the family nose,”
especially if it is a Roman. Again, the faces of many Monkeys are
furnished with beards, whiskers, and moustaches. The hair grows to a
great length in some species of Semnopithecus, and in the Bonnet Monkey
(_Macacus radiatus_) it radiates from a point on the crown, with a
parting down the middle. This is a human fashion; moreover, in this
Monkey the front hair ends rather abruptly, and a downy and almost
smooth-looking forehead is shown. They have eyebrows in some instances.
Mr. Darwin, in carrying out his investigations into the resemblances
between men and Monkeys, said he is, as, indeed, have been all
anatomists, very interested regarding the hair of the limbs of those
he places in comparison. “It is well known,” he writes, “that the hair
on our arms tends to converge from above and below to a point at the
elbow. This curious arrangement, so unlike that in most of the lower
Mammals, is common to the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orang, some species of
Hylobates, and even to some American Monkeys. It is not invariable in
the same genus, for in _Hylobates agilis_ the hair on the forearm is
directed downwards, or towards the wrist, in the ordinary manner, and
in _Hylobates lar_, it is nearly erect, with only a slight forward
inclination. It can,” he adds, “hardly be doubted that with most
Mammals the thickness of the hair and its direction on the back are
adapted to throw off rain, and even the transverse hairs of the Dog’s
leg may serve for this end when he is curled up asleep.”
[Illustration: HEAD OF THE BLACK HOWLER. (From the _Proceedings of the
Zoological Society_.)]
Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the hair towards the elbow
on the arms of the Orang serves to throw off the rain when, as is the
custom of this animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped round
a branch, or over its own head. But the previously-mentioned naturalist
aptly remarks that the attitude may not determine the direction of
the hair; and that, on the contrary, the direction of the hair may
determine the attitude. Of course the darkness of the negro makes any
likeness, real or imaginary, with the Monkey, all the greater, and
really the resemblance of the American Monkey--whose name (_Satanas_)
indicates his ill looks with its jet-black skin, white rolling
eyeballs, and hair parted at the top of its head, to a young negro, is
laughable enough.
Any one who visits the Zoological Gardens soon becomes aware that
there is a great variety of expression in the eyes and muscles of the
face of Monkeys, and infinitely greater in amount than in any other
animals, and in some points infinitely less than in man. Mr. Darwin
has collected facts, and given the result of his own observations upon
the different methods of expression produced by the facial and other
muscles, and the following is from his work on the “Expression of the
Emotions”:--
“It is not possible to distinguish in Monkeys, at least, without more
experience than I have had, the expression of pleasure or joy from
that of affection. Young Chimpanzees make a kind of barking noise
when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are attached. When
this noise--which the keepers call a laugh--is uttered, the lips are
protruded; but so they are under various other emotions. Nevertheless,
I could perceive that when they were pleased, the form of the lips
differed a little from that assumed when they were angered. If a young
Chimpanzee be tickled, and the armpits are particularly sensitive to
tickling--as in the case of our children--a more decided chuckling or
laughing sound is uttered, though the laughter is sometimes noiseless.
The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards, and this sometimes
causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling,
which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more plainly seen in
some other Monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the Chimpanzee are
not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which respect they
differ from us; but their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L.
Martin, who has particularly attended to their expression, states.
“Young Orangs when tickled likewise grin and make a chuckling sound,
and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their
faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked, may be called a smile. I have
also noticed something of the same kind with the Chimpanzee. Dr.
Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me that he
kept a very tame Monkey in his house for a year, and when he gave it
during meal times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners
of its mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that
often seen on the face of man, could be plainly perceived in this
animal.
“The _Cebus azaræ_, when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
utters a peculiar twittering sound. It also expresses agreeable
sensations by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without producing
any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would be more
appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is different when
either pain or terror is expressed, and shrill shrieks are uttered.
Another species of Cebus in the Zoological Gardens when pleased makes
a reiterated shrill note, and likewise draws back the corners of its
mouth, apparently through the contraction of the same muscles as with
us. So does the Barbary Ape (_Inuus ecaudatus_) to an extraordinary
degree; and I observed in this Monkey that the skin of the lower
eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly moved
its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being exposed;
but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which we
sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this
slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and when I expressed some doubt
on this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it
attack, or rather threaten, a hated Entellus Monkey living in the same
compartment. Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus
changed; the mouth was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were
more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
“The Anubis Baboon was first insulted, and put into a furious rage,
as was easily done by his keeper, who then made friends with him, and
shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the Baboon rapidly
moved his jaws and lips up and down, and looked pleased. Two or three
species of Macacus, and the _Cynocephalus niger_, draw back their ears,
and utter a slight jabbering noise when they are pleased by being
caressed. With the Cynocephalus the corners of the mouth are at the
same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed;
hence this expression would never be recognised by a stranger as one
of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and
apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows
are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance.
The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled, but this wrinkling
is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the
face. With Monkeys the expression of slight pain, or of any painful
emotion, such as grief, vexation, jealousy, &c., is not easily
distinguished from that of moderate anger, and these states of mind
readily and quickly pass into each other. Grief, however, with some
species, is certainly exhibited by weeping. A woman who sold a Monkey
to the Zoological Society, believed to have come from Borneo (_Macacus
maurus_), said that it often cried, and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the
keeper, Mr. Sutton, has repeatedly seen it when grieved, or even when
much pitied, weeping so copiously, that the tears rolled down its
cheeks. There is, however, something strange about this case, for two
specimens subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the
same species, have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully
observed by the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly
screaming. Rengger states that the eyes of the _Cebus azaræ_ fill with
tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting
some much-desired object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts
that the eyes of the _Callithrix sciureus_ instantly fill with tears
when it is ‘seized with fear,’ but when this pretty little Monkey in
the Zoological Gardens was teased so as to cry out loudly, this did not
occur. I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy
of Humboldt’s statement.
“The appearance of dejection in young Orangs and Chimpanzees when out
of health is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our
children. Their state of mind and body is shown by their listless
movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
“This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of Monkeys, and is
expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks, in many different ways. Some species,
when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage glare
on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to spring
forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many display
their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the same
time opening the mouth, and pursing up the lips so as to conceal the
teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy as if in savage
defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed Monkeys, or
Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with
a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry. Mr. Sutton confirms the statement
that some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others
conceal them by the protrusion of their lips, and some kinds draw back
their ears. The _Cynocephalus niger_, lately referred to, acts in this
manner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead,
and showing its teeth, so that the movements of the features from anger
are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions can
be distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.
“Baboons often show their passion, and threaten their enemies in a
very odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely, as in the
act of yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two Baboons, when first
placed in the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other, and
thus alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently
to end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wished
to show to each other that they are provided with a formidable set
of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the
reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old Baboon,
and put him into a violent passion, and he almost immediately thus
acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cercopithecus behave in the same
manner. Baboons likewise show their anger--as was observed by Brehm
with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia--in another manner, namely,
by striking the ground with one hand, like an angry man striking the
table with his fist. I have seen this movement with the Baboons in the
Zoological Gardens, but sometimes the action seems rather to represent
the searching for a stone or other objects in their beds of straw. Mr.
Sutton has often observed the face of the Rhesus Monkey, when much
enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me another Monkey
attacked a Rhesus, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of a
man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes after the
battle the face of this Monkey recovered its natural tint; at the
same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the
body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder, but I cannot
positively assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is any way
excited the brilliantly-coloured naked parts of the skin are said to
become still more vividly coloured.
“With several species of Baboons the ridge of the forehead projects
much over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs representing
our eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in
order to look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it
would appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows.
However this may be, many kinds of Monkeys, especially the Baboons,
when angered or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their
eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads. As
we associate in the case of man raising and lowering of the eyebrows
with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the
eyebrows by Monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed
a man who had a trick of continually raising his eyebrows with any
corresponding emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so
it is with some persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little
drawn backwards and upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the
time they are not amused or pleased.
“A young Orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another
Monkey, slightly uncovered her teeth, and uttering a peevish noise,
like ‘tish-shist,’ turned her back on him. Both Orangs and Chimpanzees
when a little more angered protrude their lips greatly, and make a
harsh barking noise. A young female Chimpanzee in a violent passion
presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She
screamed loudly, with widely-open mouth, the lips being retracted so
that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about,
sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground,
sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, and hit everything
within reach. A young Gibbon in a passion has been described as
behaving in almost exactly the same manner. The lips of young Orangs
and Chimpanzees are protruded sometimes to a wonderful degree under
various circumstances. They act thus not only when slightly angered,
sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at anything--in one instance
at the sight of a Turtle--and likewise when pleased. But neither the
degree of protrusion nor the shape of the mouth is exactly the same,
as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds which are then uttered are
different.
“Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions
in man, is due to the contraction of the corrugations by which the
eyebrows are covered and brought together, so that vertical furrows
are formed on the forehead. Both the Orang and Chimpanzee are said
to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at
least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage,
and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young Orang and
Chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but, although they grew
rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown, nor was there any
frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two Chimpanzees from their
rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly
have caused us to frown. They blinked and winked their eyes, but only
once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion I tickled the
nose of a Chimpanzee with a straw, and, as it crumpled up its face,
slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never
seen a frown on the forehead of the Orang.
“A fresh-water Turtle was placed, at my request, in the same
compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many Monkeys, and they
showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear. This was displayed
by their remaining motionless, staring intently with widely-opened
eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their faces seemed
somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on their hind
legs to get a better view. They often retreated a few feet, and then,
turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was
curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the Turtle than
of a living Snake, which I had formerly placed in their compartment,
for in the course of a few minutes some of the Monkeys ventured to
approach and touch the Turtle. On the other hand some of the larger
Baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of
screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the black
Baboon, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely-opened eyes,
and advanced its ears a little forwards; but when the Turtle was placed
in its compartment, this Monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid,
jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate
or please the Turtle. I was never able clearly to perceive that the
eyebrows of astonished Monkeys were kept permanently raised, though
they were frequently moved up and down. Attention, which precedes
astonishment, is expressed by man by a slight raising of the eyebrows,
and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he gave to the Monkey formerly
mentioned some quite new article of food, it elevated its eyebrows a
little, thus assuming an appearance of close attention. It then took
the food in its fingers, and with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows
scratched, smelt, and examined it, an expression of reflection being
thus exhibited. Sometimes it would throw back its head a little, and
again with suddenly-raised eyebrows re-examine, and finally taste, the
food.
“In no case did any Monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
Mr. Sutton observed for me a young Orang and Chimpanzee during a
considerable length of time; and, however much they were astonished,
or whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep
their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any
expression is more general than a widely-open mouth, under the sense of
astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, Monkeys breathe
more freely through their nostrils than men do, and this may account
for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished, for, as
can be discovered with care, man apparently acts in this manner when
startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration,
and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
“Terror is expressed by many kinds of Monkeys by the utterance of
shrill screams, the lips being drawn back so that the teeth are
exposed. The hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise
felt. Mr. Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the Rhesus Monkey
grow pale from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear, and sometimes
they void their excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost
fainted from an excess of terror.”
Rengger, who studied the American Monkeys carefully, says that they
evidently understand each others’ gestures, and this is plain enough to
all who spend a little time in a large collection of them. They have
their likes and dislikes, and submit to be teased and bullied by some
favourite, although of a different species; the contrary, however,
is the usual occurrence, and they resent familiarities very readily.
Perhaps the most amusing instance of this fondness is given by Mr.
Darwin, who had it from the Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens.
Two Chimpanzees, rather older animals than those usually brought to
England, were introduced to each other for the first time:--“They sat
opposite, touching each other with their much-protruding lips, and
the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other. They then mutually
folded each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood up, each with
one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads, opened
their mouths, and yelled with delight.”
YOUNG ORANGS. (_From a Sketch at the Zoological Gardens._)
Mr. Bartlett, of the Zoological Gardens, states that the faculty of
attention which is necessary for imitation, obedience, and teaching,
is a very variable one amongst the same species of Monkeys, and told
Mr. Darwin the following anecdote:--“A man who trains Monkeys to act
used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological Society at the cost
of five pounds for each, but he offered to give double that price
if he might keep three or four of them for a few days, in order to
select one. When asked how he could possibly so soon learn whether a
particular Monkey world turn out a good actor, he answered that it
all depended on their power of attention. If, when he was talking and
explaining anything to a Monkey, its attention was easily distracted,
as by a fly on the wall, or other trifling object, the case was
hopeless. If he tried punishment to make an inattentive Monkey act, it
turned sulky. On the other hand, a Monkey which carefully attended to
him could always be trained.”
Very little is known about the family habits of the Monkey, and whether
they have one, two, or many wives; but in some instances, where the
colour of the male and his ornamentation differs from that of the
female, it has been possible to trace their habits. Thus, the Gorilla
is undoubtedly a polygamist, and the males and females differ. So it
is with the Baboons, which live in troops or herds containing twice as
many adult females as males. Amongst the South American Monkeys the
Howler (_Mycetes caraya_) usually lives with two or three wives, and
is distinguished from them by his voice, colour, and beard; and the
Capuchin, which also differs from the female, is probably polygamous.
The good example of having one wife set by some Monkeys is utterly
lost upon some Eastern potentates. Thus, Sir John Lubbock states, that
an intelligent Kandyan chief--of course a polygamist--was perfectly
scandalised at the utter barbarism of living with only one wife, and
never parting until separated by death. “It was,” he said, “just like
the Wanderoo Monkey.”
P. MARTIN DUNCAN.