THE RELATION OF THE IRISH MONASTIC SCHOOLS TO THE GENERAL EDUCATIONAL
SITUATION (550–900 A.D.):
The wide distribution of Irish monastic schools throughout Ireland,
Scotland, England, France, Belgium, Germany, and even Italy, was
discussed in the previous chapter. Reference was also made to the
numerous Irish missionaries who going abroad were regarded as
“representative of a higher culture than was then to be found on
the Continent.”[195] Here we shall consider the general educational
situation in Ireland with a view to determine the causes which produced
results of such moment to the spread of Christianity and to restoration
of learning.
During the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries the greater part
of Britain and Europe was in a state of turmoil consequent on the
barbarian invasion while Ireland escaped the ravages such an invasion
entails. During this period of relative domestic peace Ireland was an
oasis in the educational desert of Europe; then, if ever, she deserved
to be styled “the school of the West, the quiet habitation of sanctity
and literature.”[196] In bringing about this desirable state of
affairs, no doubt, the monastic schools took a leading part, but there
were other contributory factors the chief of which was the lay schools
whose relation to the monastic will now be touched upon very briefly.
We shall also endeavour to determine the extent to which education
prevailed among the different classes of society—and finally we shall
discuss the question of the admission of foreign students to Irish
monastic schools.
DUAL SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS:
The schools of ancient Ireland were of two classes, lay and
ecclesiastical. The ecclesiastical or monastic schools as we have seen
were of Christian origin, and were conducted by monks. The lay, or
secular, schools existed from a period of unknown antiquity, and in
pagan times were taught by druids. The monastic schools were celebrated
all over Europe during the Middle Ages: the lay schools though playing
an important part in spreading learning at home are not so well known.
These two classes of schools are quite distinct all through the
literary history of Ireland, and without conflicting with each other
worked contemporaneously from the sixth to the nineteenth century.[197]
LAY SCHOOLS:
As we are mainly interested in the monastic schools we shall deal with
the lay schools only so far as is necessary to explain the general
educational situation in Ireland during the period we have chosen.
Originally pagan and taught by druids these lay schools held their
ground after the general spread of the new faith, but were now taught
by Christian _ollamhna_ or doctors, laymen who took the place of the
druid teachers of earlier times.[198]
The aim of these schools at first was apparently to prepare a limited
number of men as _brehons_ or judges, and _filí_ or poets, and
_senachidhe_ or historians. In very early times the same man performed
two or more of these offices. In later times there was a tendency
to specialization. A lay college generally comprised three distinct
schools. We are told that Cormac MacAirt, King of Ireland (254–277
A.D.) founded three schools, one for the study of Military Science,
one for Law and one for General Literature.[199] It would appear that
schools of this last type developed into the “Bardic Schools” in which
were taught poetry, history, and vernacular literature in general.
The law schools and military schools were evidently exclusively
professional, whereas the “Bardic Schools” were attended by those
seeking admission to the Bardic Order and others desiring a liberal
education.[200]
RE-ORGANIZATION OF BARDIC SCHOOLS:
The members of Bardic Order became so numerous and exacting in their
demands as to arouse widespread dissatisfaction with the result
that the complete abolition of the Order was contemplated. Owing to
the timely intervention of St. Columba reform was substituted for
abolition. At the Convention of Drum-Ceata in 573 A.D. St. Columba who
had received part of his own education in a Bardic School pleaded the
cause of the bards with such success that the whole system of public
secular education was reorganized. The scheme was devised by the chief
poet (_ard-ollamh_) of Ireland, Dallan Forgaill. There was to be a
chief school or college for each of the five provinces; and under
these were several smaller schools, one for each _tuath_ or district.
They were all endowed with lands and all those persons who needed
it received free education in them. The heads of these schools were
_ollamhna_ doctors of literature and poetry, and were all laymen.[201]
There was now a great tendency towards specialization. Many schools
became noted for the excellency of their teaching in particular
branches of learning according to the individual tastes or bent of
mind of the teachers or the traditions of the several schools. These
subjects whether Law, History, Antiquities, Poetry, etc. were commonly
taught by the same family for generations.[202]
EDUCATION OF LAYMEN:
It has sometimes been asserted that in early times learning in Ireland
was confined to ecclesiastics, but this assertion is quite erroneous.
We have shown that there were numerous facilities afforded laymen both
for a professional and a general education. Nearly all the professional
men, physicians, lawyers (Brehons), poets, builders, and historians
were laymen; lay tutors were employed to teach princes; and in fact
laymen played a very important part in the diffusion of knowledge and
in building up that character for learning that rendered Ireland famous
in former times.[203] A glance through Ware’s _Irish Writers_, or
O’Reilly’s _Irish Writers_, or Hyde’s _Literary History of Ireland_ or
Miss Hull’s _Text Book of Irish Literature_ is enough to convince the
most sceptical on this point.[204]
RELATION OF THE LAY SCHOOL TO THE MONASTIC SCHOOL:
Though differing in aim, both the lay school and the monastic school
were so closely related to the social system that there does not appear
to have been any actual antagonism between them. They were to a large
extent complementary. As an instance of the friendly relations which
obtained between the ecclesiastics and the lay school we might cite
the fact, already referred to, that St. Columba pleaded the cause
of the bards. St. Columba himself had practical experience of the
bards as teachers. We are told that after he had spent some years at
the monastic school of Finnian of Movilla and having been ordained
deacon he placed himself under the instruction of an aged bard called
Gemman.[205] Nor did his monks in the severe and pious solitude of
Iona lose their love for their national poetry. On one occasion it is
recorded they inquired from the saint why he did not ask an Irish poet
who visited Iona to recite a poem for them after the sermon—a question
that did not scandalize the saint in the least.[206] We know also
that much of the pagan literature was preserved by monastic scribes,
and some of the finest Old Irish poems that have been discovered were
written by monks on the margin of MSS. they were copying.[207] These
examples are given for the purpose of removing a false impression that
there was a clear cut line of demarcation between the study of native
and classical literature. As a learned French Celticist writes: “On
aurait tort de croire qu’en Irelande il y eût entre les savants addonés
aux lettres classiques où à la théologie, alors leurs inseparable
associée,—et les gens des lettres voués à la culture de la littérature
nationale, la ligne de séparation presque infranchissable qu’on
remarque pendant le moyen âge sur le continent.”[208]
On the other hand many laymen attended Monastic schools at some period
of their lives not only to get religious instruction but to get a
wider general education.[209] Besides laymen were sometimes professors
in the monastic schools, and even occupied the important position of
Fer-leighinn or Principal of a monastic school, for example Flann
Mainistrech (d. 1056 A.D.), a layman and the most learned scholar in
Ireland of his time, was appointed Fer-leighinn of Monasterboice. About
a century earlier the lay ollamh, Mac Cosse, held a similar position
in the great school of Ros-Ailithir, now Ros Carbery, in Cork.[210]
Owing to the increasing popularity of the monastic schools and the
appointment of laymen as professors in monastic schools there was a
tendency to introduce into the Bardic school some of the subjects
which attracted lay students to monastic schools. St. Bricin’s College
at Tomregan (recte Tuaim Drecain) near Ballyconnel in Cavan, founded
in the seventh century, though having an ecclesiastic for Principal
was typical of the lay schools. It had one school for law, one for
classics, and one for poetry and general Gaelic learning. Each school
was under a special _druimcli_, or head professor,[211] corresponding
apparently to a Dean in a modern university.
HOME EDUCATION AND FOSTERAGE:
Thus far we have dealt with literary and professional education.
It remains to add a few words in regard to what may be called home
education. This education was partly literary and partly technical in
nature, and differed according to the age, sex, and social position of
the child.
In addition to the usual literary education the sons of the chiefs were
instructed in archery, swimming, and chess-playing,[212] while the
daughters were taught sewing, cutting-out and embroidery. The sons
of chiefs were also taught horsemanship. The children of the wealthy
class were often put to fosterage and the foster father was held
responsible for the instruction in these branches for neglect of which
he was punished by a fine of two-thirds the fosterage fee. The Brehon
Law clearly defines the relation between the teacher and pupil in the
following words:
“The social position that is considered between the foster-pupil
and his foster-father is that the latter is to instruct him without
reserve, and to prepare him for his degree, and to chastise him without
severity; to feed and to clothe him while he is learning his lawful
profession unless he obtains it (food and clothing) from another
person. On the other hand, the foster son is to assist his tutor in
poverty, and support his old age, and to give him the honour price of
the degree for which he is being prepared, and all the gains of his art
while he is earning it, and the first earning of his art after he has
left the house of his tutor; and moreover the literary foster father
has power of judgment and proof and witnesses upon his foster son as
the father has upon his son.”[213]
In the case of children who were put to fosterage the parents were
apparently left to their own discretion as to the training of their
children in their own homes. In such a case the instruction was of the
more or less technical type that all must master to a greater or less
extent in order to discharge the ordinary duties of life.[214]
Notwithstanding the facilities afforded by the numerous lay and
monastic schools the great body of the people were probably neither
able to read or write, yet they were not uneducated. They had an
education of another kind, reciting poetry, historical tales, and
legends, or listening to recitation in which all took delight. In
every hamlet there was one or more amateur reciters. This practice of
listening to the recitation of stories and poems was then as general as
the reading of newspapers and story-books is at the present day.[215]
Anyone acquainted with the social life of the Irish-speaking peasantry
even in modern Ireland and has listened to a story told, or poem
recited, by a _seanchaidhe_ (raconteur) will realise that this was
true education, a real exercise for the intellect and a refined source
of enjoyment. Taking education then in the broad sense we see that
the great body of the Irish people in these early times were really
educated.
EDUCATION OF WOMEN:
We have ample evidence that education in ancient Ireland was not
confined to men. As we have already seen, the Brehon Laws made
provision for the education of girls as well as for that of boys. In a
convent established by St. Brigid (d. 525 A.D.) at Kildare we are told
that St. Mel was employed to instruct herself and her nurse,[216] and
the history of that school would lead us to infer that it compared not
unfavourably with some of the great monastic schools. St. Brendan of
Clonfert (d. 577 A.D.) when a child about one year old was placed in
fosterage in the convent of St. Ita at Killeedy, Co. Limerick, where
he remained for five years. This young saint always looked upon St.
Ita as his foster mother and often had listened to her counsels.[217]
On one occasion she advised him not to study with women lest some
evilly disposed person might revile him.[218] We may safely infer
from this that it was not unusual for young children to receive the
rudiments of education from the nuns, but that by the time they reached
the age of six or more probably seven years[219] they were sent to
the monastic school. Moreover, St. Ita’s words of advice clearly
suggest that education was provided for girls but that except in the
case of children of pre-adolescent age she was decidedly opposed to
co-education. Unlike St. Brendan and some other saints, St. Columbanus
was not put to fosterage and his childhood’s days were spent in
his father’s home under his mother’s care.[220] His latest and best
biographer informs us that he received his earliest literary education
from an elderly lady who lived near his parent’s home.[221] One of the
First Order of Saints named Mugint founded a school in Scotland to
which girls as well as boys were admitted.[222] It is evident likewise
that the Irish missionaries in Northumbria did much for the education
of women. Among the more noteworthy convents or monasteries for women
that owe their origin to Irish missionaries were St. Bees, Coldingham,
Streanshalch or Whitby which are all referred to by Bede.[223] It was
in this last-named monastery and by the enlightened patronage of Abbess
Hilda that the earliest Anglo-Saxon poet, Caedmon, was encouraged in
his efforts.[224] That women were sometimes accomplished scribes is
quite probable. In an old record we are informed that in the sixth
century King Branduff’s mother had a writing style (delg graiph), so
that she must have practised writing on waxen tablets,[225] this being
spoken of in old MSS. as a common practice among ladies.[226]
There is not sufficient evidence to justify the assertion that girls
were admitted as students to monastic schools, though we read that one
of the daughters of the King of Cualann was sent to Clonard to learn to
read her Psalms (in Latin),[227] and Plummer thinks that women taught
in this school.[228] Probably there was a separate school for women.
From what we know of the Second Order of Saints to which St. Finnian,
the founder of Clonard, belonged we cannot believe that co-education
would be likely to receive any sanction as a desirable practice in a
monastic school. On the other hand, with Mugint and the other saints of
the First Order such a practice may possibly have been quite usual; for
“strong in faith they feared not the breath of temptation.”[229]
Many other instances of educational facilities for women might be
adduced, but enough has been said to prove the position for which we
have been contending, namely, that though education was not universal
nor compulsory there was ample facilities for all to acquire a
liberal education. That a very large proportion of both sexes availed
themselves of this privilege there can be no reasonable doubt.
FOREIGN STUDENTS IN IRELAND:
The fame of the Irish monastic schools of the seventh, eighth and ninth
centuries attracted a large number of students from foreign lands. To
these the Irish monks extended freely the benefits of education which
during this period were not available in their own less favoured lands.
The _Felire of Aengus_[230] which according to linguistic and other
internal evidence was written as early as the seventh century[231]
mentions various nationalities who have died in Ireland: Romans,
Gauls, sometimes called Franks, monks of Egypt, and Saxons (more
correctly Angles). The well-known stone inscription “VII ROMANI” in
the churchyard of St. Brecan in Arranmore[232] testifies to this day
of presence of Romans. It is also known that in times of persecution
Egyptian monks fled to Ireland.[233] In this same calendar of Aengus
mention is made of seven Egyptian monks who died in one place.
Scattered through the _Lives of Irish Saints_ there are innumerable
passages recording the arrival and departure of foreign pilgrims or
students, or noting their residence or death. Thus we hear of Britons,
including a British bishop, at Clonfert; of British monks at Rahen,
Lynally, Taghmon, Clonard, Ferns, and Tallaght; of a British priest
at Hare Island in Lough Ree; of British “peregrini” at Tullach Bennan.
We even know the names of many British saints who studied or resided
in Ireland: Cadoc under St. Mocuda at Lismore, Gildas, Carantoc, Cybi,
Petroc, and Sampson.[234] Aldhelm, bishop of Shereboree (705–707 A.D.)
in a letter to Eadfrid, bishop of Lindisfarne, states that “fleet
loads” of Angles went to Ireland.[235] A passage in Bede corroborates
Aldhelm’s testimony. Speaking of the ravages of the Yellow Plague in
664 A.D. Bede says: “This pestilence did no less harm in the island of
Ireland. Many of the nobility and of the lower ranks of the English
nation were there at the time who in the days of the Bishops Finan
(651–661) and Colman (661–664), forsaking their native island retired
thither either for the sake of divine studies, or a more continent
life: and some of them presently devoted themselves to monastic life;
others chose rather to apply themselves to study, going from one
master’s cell to another. The Scots willingly received them all, and
took care to supply them with food as well as to furnish them with
books to read and their teaching all gratis.”[236] The bishop Finan
and Colman who are referred to by Bede were respectively the second
and third abbots of Lindisfarne. After the Synod of Whitby (644 A.D.)
Colman and his English adherents who refused to adopt the Roman usage
with regard to the date of Easter and the form of tonsure retired to a
small island called Inisbofinn off the coast of Mayo and there founded
a monastery about 667 A.D. A little later Colman founded another
monastery on the mainland which he placed in charge of his English
companions and disciples. As late as 730 A.D. at least this monastery
was occupied by English monks and was named by the Irish “Mayo of the
Saxons.”[237] We know too that one of the divisions of Armagh was
called “Trian Saxon” or the Saxon’s Third from the great number of
English students inhabiting it, and we learn incidentally that in the
eighth century seven streets in a town called Kilbally near Rahen in
King’s Co. were wholly occupied by Galls, or foreigners.[238]
Among the foreign students there were sometimes princes. Of the more
illustrious of these we may mention Oswald (d. 642) and Ailfrid (d.
704), kings of Northumbria, and Dagobert II. (d. 679) king of France,
all of whom were educated in Ireland. Owing to one of those wars so
common in England in the seventh century Oswald, son of King Ethelfrid
of Northumbria, had to seek refuge in Ireland when he was fifteen
years old. He was educated in a monastery and became a Christian.
On regaining his kingdom he sought the aid of the monks of Iona
to convert his heathen subjects. In 635 A.D. St. Aidan arrived in
Northumbria and founded a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne which
was destined to become the Iona of the North of England.[239] Ailfrid,
another Northumbria king, spent his schooldays in Ireland. While there
he was called the Irish Flann Fina (literally Fina’s Flann) from
his mother Fina who was an Irish princess. There is still extant a
very ancient Irish poem[240] which he composed in praise of Ireland.
He would appear to have got a very good education; for Aldhelm in
dedicating to him an epistle on Latin prosody congratulates him on
having been educated in Ireland.[241] After the death of King Sigibert
his little son, who eventually became Dagobert II., was brought by
Didon, bishop of Pointers, to Ireland to be educated. This was done
at the command of Grimoald, Mayor of the Palace.[242] The greatest of
English missionaries, Wilibrord (657–739) was educated in Ireland where
he spent thirteen years. With twelve companions, some of them Irish,
and other English whom he selected from the Irish schools, he set sail
for Friesland and converted that country to the Christian faith.[243]
As Alcuin says so tersely, Britain gave him birth but Ireland reared
and educated him. (“Quem tibi iam genuit fecunda Britannia mater
doctaque nutrivit studiis sed Hibernia sacris.”)[244] Bede mentions
other Anglo-Saxon missionaries who in addition to Wilibrord received
their training in Irish schools; of these the most familiar names are
Victbert and Hewald.[245] Agilbert, a native of Gaul, after spending
some time in Ireland studying the Scriptures, was appointed bishop
of the West Saxons in 650 A.D. and later occupied the episcopal see
of Paris.[246] Other distinguished students were the Angles, Chad
and Egbert. Bede tells us that Egbert spent a long time in exile in
Ireland studying the Scriptures.[247] Apparently the prestige of the
Irish schools continued to draw many students from England even after
the establishment of schools in their own country; for we find Aldhelm
(d. 709 A.D.) writing in a somewhat bitter mood to three young men
who had just returned from the Irish schools: “Why does Ireland pride
herself on such a priority that such numbers of students look there
from England, as if upon this fruitful soil there were not abundance
of _Argivi didasculi_ (or Greek masters), to be found fully capable
of solving the deepest problems of religion and satisfying the most
ambitious of students.”[248] Zimmer looks upon the reluctance of
Aldhelm to acknowledge the superiority of the Irish monastic schools as
an additional testimony in their favour.[249]
There are some grounds for believing that Alcuin whose name is
intimately connected with the Carolingian revival of learning studied
in Ireland, probably in Clonmacnoise. Meyer,[250] Joyce,[251] and
Healy,[252] do not hesitate to claim him as a student of Clonmacnoise.
Turner[253] thinks it more probable that he was a student of the
school of York (in which case he came under Irish as well as Roman
influence[254]) but regards him as representative of Irish rather than
English scholarship. The opinion that Alcuin studied at Clonmacnoise
is based on a letter[255] which is evidently one of a series written
by Alcuin to Colchu (d. 792 A.D.), Fer-leighinn, or Headmaster of the
school of Clonmacnoise. This Colchu was a very distinguished scholar
and teacher. There is no evidence that he ever left Ireland, but his
name was well known on the Continent. The general opinion of his
contemporaries was that “no one in any age or any country was equal to
him in learning, or equal to him in sanctity.”[256] In this letter,
which is of a very cordial nature, Alcuin styles Colchu his holy father
and speaks of himself as his son. The writer complains that for some
time past he was not deemed worthy to receive any of those letters
so precious in his sight, and concludes by saying he is sending a
messenger with presents from himself and King Charles (Charlemagne) to
Clonmacnoise and other Irish monasteries.[257] Dr. Healy points out
that some of these gifts are of such a nature as to suggest that Alcuin
had a personal knowledge of the needs of Irish monasteries.[258]
No doubt, further research would reveal many other instances of
foreign students who sought in Ireland and there were freely given the
education which was not available in their own lands. In summarising
the conclusions which we believe are justified by the facts presented
in this chapter we would say:
1. That both the monastic schools and the bardic schools were so
intimately connected with the native Irish social system that they were
not antagonistic but rather complementary to each other.
2. That these two classes of schools exerted a mutual influence on each
other: the aim of the monastic schools was frankly religious, yet
owing to the influence of the bardic schools vernacular learning was
not neglected; moreover, as we shall see later, the monks were led for
a variety of reasons to study the writings of the classical authors;
on the other hand, the bardic schools though mainly devoted to the
cultivation of native learning followed the example of the monastic
schools in introducing classical learning, thus widening their own
curriculum.
3. That with the abundant facilities thus afforded there was ample
opportunity for everyone who so desired to acquire liberal education in
either a lay or ecclesiastical school.
4. That though education was not universal nor compulsory, the great
body of the people without distinction of class or sex was not
uneducated.
5. That the educational advantages enjoyed by the Irish in their native
land were as freely extended to others irrespective of race or country.
6. That the educational influence of the Irish monastic schools reached
Britain and the Continent in two ways: first, numerous students from
foreign countries who studied in the schools of Ireland would on
returning to their own country naturally endeavour to transmit the
culture they had acquired during their residence in Ireland; secondly,
still more important was the influence of the numerous bands of Irish
missionaries who, as we have shown, established monasteries all over
Western Europe and whose love of learning was equalled only by their
zeal for Christianity.