President to the Senate, they encountered serious opposition, but were
finally ratified. The Republican leaders, particularly Senator Lodge,
were twitted with charges of inconsistency in advocating certain
features of these treaties when they had violently opposed the League
of Nations. The Four-Power Treaty is much more of an entangling
alliance than the Covenant of the League, and the Naval Treaty deprives
Congress for a period of fifteen years of its constitutional right to
determine the size of the navy and to provide for the defense of Guam
and the Philippines. In fact, there were very few objections raised to
the League of Nations which could not with equal force be applied to
the Four-Power and Naval Treaties. The Four-Power Treaty was the main
object of attack, and Senators Lodge and Underwood were greatly
embarrassed in attempting to explain its meaning. Its "baffling
brevity" demanded explanations, but no satisfactory explanations were
forthcoming. They talked in general terms about the tremendous
importance of the treaty, but they dared not state the real fact that
the treaty was drafted by Mr. Balfour and Baron Kato as the most
convenient method of terminating the Anglo-Japanese Alliance without
making it appear to the Japanese public that their government had
surrendered the alliance without due compensation. According to an
Associated Press Dispatch from Tokio, January 31, 1922, Baron Uchida,
the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, replying to interpolations in
the House of Peers, said: "The Four-Power Treaty was not intended to
abrogate the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, but rather to widen and extend
it." The real _quid pro quo_ for the termination of the Anglo-Japanese
Alliance was the agreement of the United States not to construct naval
bases or new fortifications in Guam and the Philippines, and the clause
terminating the Anglo-Japanese Alliance might just as well have been
attached to the Naval Treaty, but this would not have satisfied
Japanese public opinion. Great Britain and Japan were permitted to
terminate their alliance in any way that they might deem best. After
the Four-Power Treaty was accepted by the American delegates, they
feared that it would look too much as if the United States had merely
been drawn into the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. It was decided,
therefore, at the eleventh hour to give the agreement a more general
character by inviting France to adhere to it. France agreed to sign,
although she resented not having been consulted during the negotiation
of the treaty.
The achievements of the Conference, although falling far short of the
extravagant claims made by the President and the American delegates,
are undoubtedly of great importance. The actual scrapping of millions
of dollars' worth of ships in commission or in process of construction
gives the world an object lesson such as it has never had before. One
of the most significant results of the Conference was the development
of a complete accord between England and the United States, made
possible by the settlement of the Irish question and furthered by the
tact and gracious bearing of Mr. Balfour. One of the unfortunate
results was the increased isolation of France, due to the failure of
her delegates to grasp the essential elements of the situation and to
play any but a negative role. The success of the Conference was due
largely to Secretary Hughes who, though handicapped at every point by
fear of the Senate and by the unfortunate commitments of President
Harding during the last campaign, may be said on the whole to have
played his hand reasonably well.
Meanwhile we are still drifting, so far as a general European policy is
concerned. President Harding's idea of holding aloof from "Europe's
league," as he prefers to designate the League of Nations, and of
having a little league of our own in the Pacific, will not work. The
world's problems cannot be segregated in this way. Europe's league
includes all of the principal American nations except the United States
and Mexico, while our Pacific league includes the two leading European
powers. As soon as the American people realize--and there are
indications that they are already waking up to the reality--that the
depression in domestic industry and foreign commerce is due to
conditions in Europe and that prosperity will not return until we take
a hand in the solution of European problems, there will be a general
demand for a constructive policy and America will no longer hesitate to
reassume the leadership which she renounced in the referendum of 1920,
but which the rest of the world is ready to accord to her again.
INDEX
ABC alliance, 162, 165.
Aberdeen, Lord, opposes annexation of Texas by United States, 108.
Adams, Charles Francis, 114.
Adams, Henry, letter from Hay to, 90.
Adams, John Quincy, opposes joint action with England, 31; accepts
invitation to send delegates to Panama Congress, 154.
"Alabama Claims," 66, 113, 114.
Alaskan Boundary Dispute, 122, 124.
Algeciras Conference, 74; American participation in, 76, 77.
Alliance, of 1778 with France, 5-8; proposed alliance with England, 13,
26; Holy Alliance, 22, 24; Anglo-Japanese alliance, 92, 120. _See_
"Entangling Alliances."
Alverstone, Lord, member of Alaskan boundary commission, 123.
American Colonisation Society, 59.
American delegation to Peace Conference, 225.
American Institute of International Law, 157.
American Republics, Bureau of, 156.
American Revolution, significance of, 99.
Anglo-American ideals, 126, 127.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 92, 120, 265, 279, 288.
Arbitration, international, 64. _See_ Hague Court, Olney-Pauncefote
Treaty.
Armistice, negotiations preceding, 213-217.
Arms and ammunition. _See_ Munitions of war.
"Aroostook War," 106.
Austria-Hungary, protests against trade in munitions, 182.
Balfour, Arthur James, 274, 288, 289.
Beer, George L., quoted, 99.
Belgium, German invasion of, 79; restoration of, demanded, 207.
Beresford, Lord Charles, advocates open door in China, 86.
Berlin Conference of 1884, 6l.
"Big Four," at Peace Conference, 230.
Bingham, Hiram, on Monroe Doctrine, 131.
Bismarck, Prince, on Monroe Doctrine, 45; on English control of North
America, 126; forces war on Austria, 47; forces war on France, 48.
Blaine, James G., efforts to modify Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 115; issues
invitation to International Conference of American States, 155, 156.
Bliss, Gen. Tasker H., 225.
Board of Reference, in China, 286.
Bolivar, Simon, 153.
Bolsheviki, 203.
Bonaparte, Napoleon, acquires Louisiana, 12; fails to establish control
over Spain's Colonies, 25.
Bowen, Herbert, 51.
Boxer uprising in China, 88
Brest-Litovsk, peace negotiations at, 203, 210, 212.
Brussels Conference on African slave trade, 62.
Bryan, William Jennings, negotiates treaty with Nicaragua, 135; with
Colombia, 144; refuses to modify neutrality laws at demand of Germany,
182.
Bryce, Lord, quoted, 125, 126.
Bülow, Prince von, 75, 91.
California, danger of English occupation of, 109.
Canada, insurrection of 1837, 103.
Canning, George, British foreign secretary, proposes Anglo-American
alliance, 26; delays recognition of South American republics, 33, 34;
interview with Prince Polignac, 35; boasts of calling new world into
existence, 39; opposes Pan-American movement, 155.
Caribbean Sea, American supremacy in, 121; advance of United States in,
132; new American policies in, 132, 137, 144.
_Caroline_, the, 103.
Carranza, Venustiano, 162, 163.
Castlereagh, Viscount, 20.
China, treaties relating to tariff and open door, 282-285. _See_
Open-door policy.
Choate, Joseph H., at Second Hague Conference, 68, 69.
Civil War, foreign policy of United States during, 65; disputes with
England, 112.
Clay, Henry, opposes joint action with England, 31; instructions to
delegates to Panama Congress, 154.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 44, 111.
Cleveland, Grover, intervenes in Venezuelan boundary dispute, 48;
withholds Kongo treaty from Senate, 61; Venezuelan policy justified by
events, 115; favours general arbitration treaty with England, 116.
Cobden, Richard, essay on America, 102.
Colby, Bainbridge, secretary of state, 259, 260.
Colombia, aggrieved at seizure of Canal Zone, 142; attempts of United
States to settle controversy, 143, 144.
Consuls, status of, in European leases in China, 87, 88.
Continuous voyage, doctrine of, 72, 124, 176, 177.
Cowdray, Lord, seeks concession from Colombia, 142.
Cox, James M., candidate for President, 255.
Crampton, British Minister to United States, dismissal of, 111.
Declaration of London, 71-73, 175, 177.
Declaration of Paris, 64, 65.
Declaration of Rights and Duties of Nations, adopted by American
Institute of International Law, 158, 159.
Democracy against autocracy, 198.
Dewey, Admiral George, on withdrawal of Germany from Venezuela, 51;
demands apology from German admiral in Manila Bay, 119.
Dickens, Charles, "American Notes," 102.
Diederichs, German Admiral, 119.
Diplomacy, secret, 76, 77.
Dunning, William A., "British Empire and the United States," quoted,
102, 111.
Durfee, Amos, 103.
Egypt, financial administration of, by Great Britain, 134.
England. _See_ Great Britain.
"Entangling Alliances," warning of Jefferson against, 12; Wilson's
views on, 187.
Entente treaty of 1904 between England and France, 74.
European balance of power, interest of United States in preserving, 76;
disturbed by Japan, 171.
Fenian movement, encouraged in United States, 112, 113.
Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, 20, 25.
Fish, Hamilton, secretary of state, renews negotiations for settlement
of "Alabama Claims," 113, 114.
Fiume, and Treaty of London, 195.
Foch, Ferdinand, 217-219, 236.
Fonseca Bay, United States acquires naval base on, 135, 136.
Forsyth, John, secretary of state, 104.
Fortifications in the Pacific, limitation of, 272.
Foster, John W., letter from Hay, to, 89.
Four-power Treaty, 278-280, 287-289.
Fourteen Points, 205-210, 220, 221.
France, treaty of alliance with, 5-8; refuses to accept plan for
limitation of navies, 270, 271; isolation of, 289.
Gases, use of poisonous, prohibited, 274, 275.
Gênet, Edmond C., minister of the French Republic, 6.
George, David Lloyd, defines British war aims, 204-205; pre-election
pledges of, 227; opposes French demand for Left Bank of Rhine, 234.
Germany, intervenes in Venezuela, 50; excluded from South America by
aid of England, 53; designs of, on Philippine Islands, 85; adopts naval
policy, 120; influence of, in America, 126; submarine policy of, 178,
179; attempts of, to justify, 181; protests against munitions trade,
181; organizes propaganda and conspiracy in United States, 184.
Great Britain, withdraws from European alliance, 22; intervenes in
Mexico, 46; not unfavorable to Monroe Doctrine, 52, 53; forms alliance
with Japan, 92; points of contact with United States, 100; unfriendly
attitude, 101; change of attitude in Spanish War, 118; naval policy of,
120; interference with shipments to Germany resented in United States,
124; size of navy, 127; so-called blockade of Germany, 174-178. _See_
Anglo-American ideals.
Great Lakes, disarmament on, 103.
Guarantee treaties, offered to France, 235.
Gummeré, S. R., delegate to Algeciras Conference, 75.
Hague Conference, of 1899, 67; of 1907, 68.
Hague Conventions, status of, 71.
Hague Court of Arbitration, 68.
Haiti, Republic of, United States acquires financial supervision over,
136, 137.
Hamilton, Alexander, opinion on French treaty of 1778, 6.
Harding, Warren G., elected president, 255; ignores League of Nations,
262; calls Washington Conference, 266; differs with Hughes as to
meaning of Four-Power Treaty, 279; attitude toward Europe, 290.
Harris, Townsend, 95.
Hay, John, secretary of state, protests against persecution of Jews in
Rumania, 78; formulates open-door policy for China, 85; defines status
of consuls in European leases in China, 88; insists on "territorial and
administrative entity" of China, 89; private correspondence on Chinese
situation, 89-91.
Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 120, 121.
Henry, of Prussia, Prince, visit of, to United States, 118.
Hitchcock, Senator G. H., 252.
Holy Alliance, 22, 24.
House, Edward M., 225, 233.
Huerta, Victoriano, 160, 162, 193.
Hughes, Charles E., suggests changes in Covenant of League, 232;
asserts rights of the United States in mandated areas, 261; proposes
reduction of navies, 267; details of plan, 268, 269; offends the French
delegates, 270; takes personal charge of Far Eastern question, 281;
success of Washington Conference, due to, 290.
International Conference of American States, 156.
International Court of Arbitral Justice, plan for, 70; Permanent Court
of International Justice, 263.
International Law, attitude of United States toward, 64; attempts to
codify, 68, 72.
International Law, American Institute of, 157.
International Prize Court, plan for, adopted by Second Hague
Conference, 68.
Isolation, policy of, distinct from Monroe Doctrine, 3, 5; policy no
longer possible, 170.
Jameson Raid, in the Transvaal, 50.
Japan, beginning of American intercourse with, 83, 84; forms alliance
with Great Britain, 92; goes to war with Russia, 94; disturbing factor
in world politics, 171; advocates principle of racial equality, 233,
238; demands German leases in Shantung, 239; secures consent of Allies,
240; reluctantly accepts invitation to Washington Conference, 266;
objects to 5-5-3 ratio, 269; expansion of, 276.
Jefferson, Thomas, opinion on French treaty of 1778, 7; warns against
"entangling alliances," 12; plans alliance with England against France,
12-14; favors joint action with England against Holy Alliance, 28-30;
author of doctrine of recognition, 161.
Jews, diplomatic protests against harsh treatment of, 78, 79.
Johnson, Senator Hiram, 246.
Johnson-Clarendon convention, 113.
Knox, Philander C., proposes neutralisation of railways of Manchuria,
95; negotiates treaties with Honduras and Nicaragua, 134, 135; proposes
settlement with Colombia, 143; opposes League of Nations, 228, 231.
Kongo Free State, treaty establishing, signed by American delegates but
withheld from Senate by President Cleveland, 6l, 62.
Kruger, Paul, 50.
Lansing, Robert, secretary of state, replies to Austro-Hungarian note
on munitions trade, 182, 183; dismisses Austrian Ambassador and German
military and naval attachés, 185; delegate to Peace Conference, 225,
233.
Lansing-Ishii agreement, 95.
League of Nations, 188, 196, 205, 209, 211, 230, 244-254.
League to Enforce Peace, 197, 232.
Left Bank of Rhine, French demand for, 234.
Liberia, Republic of, 59
Limitation of Armament, commission of League on, 265; Conference on,
266-290.
Liverpool, Lord, 20.
Livingston, Robert R., minister to France, 12.
Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot, on Oregon dispute, 110, 111; denies
existence of secret treaty with England, 120; stands for unconditional
surrender of Germany, 217; issues round robin, 231; presents
reservations to Treaty of Versailles, 248; presents Four-Power Treaty,
278, inconsistency of, 287.
London Naval Conference, 71.
_Lusitania_, sinking of, 179.
Madero, Francisco, 160.
Madison, James, favors joint action with England against Holy Alliance,
30.
Mahan, Alfred T., 99.
Maine, boundary dispute with New Brunswick, 106.
Manchuria, Russian encroachments on, 91-93, 95.
Marcy, William L., secretary of state, views on Declaration of Paris,
65.
Maximilian, Prince, placed by Louis Napoleon on throne of Mexico, 46.
Merchant vessels, proposal to arm, 185.
Mexico, French intervention in, 46; Huerta revolution in, 160; American
policy toward, 160-164.
Monroe, James, sent to Paris to aid Livingston in negotiations for
purchase of New Orleans and West Florida, 13; consults Jefferson and
Madison on subject of British proposals for joint action against Holy
Alliance, 26-28; message of December 2, 1823, 36-39; emphasizes
separation of European and American politics, 43.
Monroe Doctrine, compared with policy of isolation, 3; justification
of, 4; formulation of, 19; text of, 36-39; reception of, in Europe, 39;
basis of, 43; sanction of, 45; relation of, to European balance of
power, 46, 52; attitude of England toward, 52; negative side of, 57;
adverse criticism of, 131; not a self-denying declaration, 147;
reservation of, 232, 249.
Moore, John Bassett, 263.
Moroccan question. _See_ Algeciras Conference.
Motley, John L., 113.
Munitions of war, sale of to belligerents, 181-184.
McKinley, William, reasons for retaining Philippine Islands, 84, 85.
McLeod, Alexander, arrest of, 104; acquittal of, 105.
Napoleon, Louis, intervenes in Mexico, 46; decides to withdraw, 47, 48.
Neutral prizes, destruction of, 72, 180.
Neutrality, Washington's proclamation of 1793, 8; failure of, in
Napoleonic wars, 14, 15; Wilson's proclamation of, 172; nature of, 172,
173; so-called ethical neutrality, 174; abandonment of, 186.
New Brunswick, boundary dispute with Maine, 106.
Niagara conference on Mexican question, 162.
Olney, Richard, on Monroe Doctrine, 43; conducts correspondence on
Venezuelan boundary dispute, 48; signs general arbitration treaty with
England, 116.
Olney-Pauncefote treaty, 116, 117.
Open-door policy in China, Hay's note of September 6, 1890, 85;
Anglo-American origin of, 87; guaranteed by treaty, 284.
Oregon, joint occupation of, 107.
O'Shaughnessy, Nelson, 162.
Pacific and Far Eastern Questions, Conference on, 266-290.
Panama Canal, effect of, on naval policy, 132.
Panama Canal Zone, seizure of, 142.
Panama Congress of 1826, 153, 154.
Panama Tolls Act, 121.
Pan-American Financial Congress, 157.
Pan-American Scientific Congress, 157.
Pan-American Union, 156.
Pan-Americanism, 153-157.
Pauncefote, Sir Julian, signs general arbitration treaty with United
States, 116; signs Canal treaty, 120.
Platt Amendment, provisions of, 144, 145.
Peace Conference of Paris, 225-242. _See_ Hague Conference.
Perry, Commodore Matthew C. commands expedition to Japan, 83, 84, 95.
Philippine Islands, McKinley's reasons for retaining, 84, 85.
Polignac, Prince, interview with Canning on subject of the Spanish
colonies, 35.
Polk, James K., settles Oregon dispute, 110.
Portsmouth, treaty of, 94.
Prize Court. _See_ International Prize Court.
Prizes, destruction of, 179, 180.
Recognition, doctrine of, discussed with reference to Mexican question,
161.
Reparations, 236, 237.
Reservations to Treaty of Versailles, 248-251, 254.
Roosevelt, Theodore, forces Germany to withdraw from Venezuela, 51;
sends delegates to Algeciras Conference, 75; exerts influence to
preserve European balance of power, 76; protests against persecution of
Jews in Rumania and Russia, 78, 79; invites Russia and Japan to peace
conference, 94; incurs ill will of Japan, 95; submits Alaskan boundary
dispute to limited arbitration, 123; establishes financial supervision
over Dominican Republic, 133, 138; Big-Stick policy, 139; extension of
Monroe Doctrine, 140; seizure of Canal Zone, 142.
Root, Elihu, proposes international court of justice, 69; author of
Platt Amendment, 146; visits South America, 156; suggests changes in
Covenant of League, 232; member of commission to draft statute of
Permanent Court of International Justice, 263; presents resolutions on
China, 277.
Rush, Richard, conferences with Canning on South American situation,
26, 33, 34.
Russia, occupies Manchuria, 91, 92; opposes opening of Manchurian ports
to American commerce, 93; goes to war with Japan, 94; revolution, of
March, 1917, 198; of November, 1917, 203.
Russo-Japanese war, 94.
Sackville-West, Lord, dismissal of, 115.
Salisbury, Lord, backs down in Venezuelan dispute, 50; warns President
McKinley of Germany's designs on Philippines.
San Remo agreement, 259, 260.
Santo Domingo, financial supervision over, 133, 134.
Secret Treaties, 193.
Self-determination, 198, 203, 205.
Senate of the United States, debates Treaty of Versailles, 244-254.
Seward, William H., protests against French occupation of Mexico, 47.
Shantung question, at Peace Conference of Paris, 239-242; at Washington
Conference, 280-282.
Siberia, Japanese troops in, 276; promise of Japan to evacuate, 286.
Slave trade, provision for suppression of, in Webster-Ashburton treaty,
59, 60; Brussels conference on, 62.
Slavery, and isolation, 58.
South America, neglected by United States as field for commercial
development, 52; open door in, 53.
Spanish colonies, revolt of, 25.
Spanish revolution of 1820, 20.
Spanish War, turning point in relations of United States and England,
118.
Submarines, question of, discussed at Washington Conference, 271, 272;
use of, limited by treaty, 274, 275.
Sumner, Charles, 113.
Taft, William H., proposes to bring Nicaragua and Honduras under
financial supervision of United States, 134, 135; tries to reëstablish
friendly relations with Colombia, 143; suggests changes in Covenant of
League, 232.
Tardieu, André, report of Algeciras Conference, 76; quoted on Armistice
negotiations, 217, 218.
Temperley, H. W. V., "History of the Peace Conference of Paris," 191.
"Ten Points," 278.
Texas, annexation of, opposed by Great Britain, 107, 108.
Thayer, William R., gives version of Roosevelt-Holleben interview, 51.
Tocqueville, Alexis de, "Democracy in America," 102.
Treaty of London, 195.
Treaty of Peace with Austria, 263.
Treaty of Peace with Germany, 263.
Treaty of Versailles, signed, 242; laid before Senate, 243; debate on,
244-254; votes on, 252-254.
Twenty-One Demands, 276.
Vera Cruz, American occupation of, 162; evacuation of, 163.
Verona, Congress of, 19, 21, secret treaty of, 22-24.
Vienna, Congress of, 19.
Villa, Francisco, 162, 163.
War aims, of Allies, 196; British, 204.
War of 1812, 15.
Washington, George, requests opinions of cabinet on French treaty, 6;
issues proclamation of neutrality, 8; Farewell Address, 9-11.
Washington Conference, 266-290.
Washington, treaty of, 66, 114.
Webster, Daniel, secretary of state, 104, 105.
Webster-Ashburton treaty, 59, 60, 107.
Wellington, Duke of, at Congress of Verona, 21; protest and withdrawal,
22.
West Indies, American supremacy in, 120.
White, Henry, delegate to Algeciras Conference, 75; to Peace
Conference, 225.
William II, German Kaiser, telegram to President Kruger, 50; forced to
withdraw from Venezuela, 51; visits Morocco, 74; demands retirement of
Delcassé, 75; insists on general conference on Morocco, 75; thwarted in
efforts to humiliate France, 77; abdicates and flees to Holland, 219.
Williams, Talcott, on McKinley's reasons for retaining Philippines, 85.
Wilson, Henry Lane, 160.
Wilson, Woodrow, secures modification of Panama Tolls Act, 121; extends
financial supervision over Nicaragua and Haiti, 136, 137; warns
Latin-American states against granting concessions to European
syndicates, 140, 141; attitude of, on questions of international law
and diplomacy, 151, 152; general Latin-American policy, 152, 165; New
Pan-Americanism, 153; Mexican policy, 160-164; asks for declaration of
war on Germany, 185; views on extension of Monroe Doctrine, 187;
political philosophy of, 192; refusal to recognize Huerta, 193; reasons
for neutrality, 194; calls on all belligerents to state war aims, 195;
first discussion of war aims, 196; war address, 199; draws distinction
between German people and German Government, 200-202; reply to Pope,
201; announces Fourteen Points, 205-210; decides to go to Paris, 225;
suffers political defeat, 226, 227; greeted with enthusiasm in Europe,
228; proposes League of Nations, 230; returns temporarily to the United
States, 231; makes concessions to French and British, 238; returns to
the United States and lays treaty before Senate, 242; tours the country
on behalf of League of Nations, 246; illness of, 247; letter read at
Jackson day dinner proposing referendum on Treaty of Versailles, 252,
253; awarded Nobel Peace Prize, 255; withdraws from participation in
European affairs, 259.
Wood, General Leonard, 146.
Yap, island of, 260-262.