countries had been conducted under conventions and agreements entered
into by the countries immediately concerned, and the rates to be charged
were prescribed by these conventions or agreements. Foreign rates were
often built up by the addition of a rate for the transmission abroad to
the ordinary rate chargeable for the inland transmission. The fact that
numerous rates were chargeable for one and the same letter in respect of
its transmission within the same country thus naturally made the rates
charged for transmission abroad likewise numerous. In many cases there
was an additional variation in the rate of postage between two countries
according as one or other route was followed. And not only were the
international rates of postage high and complicated. The methods
employed for accounting between the countries respectively concerned in
regard to the proceeds of postage on international letters were equally
complicated and burdensome.
In 1850 the necessity for some simplification of the arrangements for
the interchange of correspondence led to the formation of the
Austro-German Postal Union by Prussia and Austria. The chief feature of
the arrangement was the adoption of a common rate of postage for the
whole territory of the Union, moderate in amount, and based on a small
number of zones of distances. The advantages resulting from the Union
were soon apparent. Other German States joined, and within a short time
the question of extending it to foreign countries was mooted. At a
Conference held in Berlin in 1851, a general European Postal Union was
adumbrated.
The first definite suggestion for the general re-organization of
international postal traffic on a common basis came, however, from
America. In 1863, Mr. Blair, Postmaster-General of the United States, in
a note to the postal administrations of the world, suggested the
assembling of a Congress representative of all nations for the
discussion of the subject. The proposal was favourably received by
fifteen administrations,[575] representing nine-tenths of the commerce
and nineteen-twentieths of the correspondence of the world. The
representatives of these administrations (with the exception of Ecuador)
met at Paris in May 1863.
The Conference was not empowered to enter into any definite arrangement
for the amelioration of the system of international postal traffic. Its
function was simply to discuss and proclaim general principles
applicable to the conduct of the traffic, with a view to their ultimate
adoption by the nations of the world. The discussions centred on the
three fundamental questions of uniformity of weights, uniformity of
rate, and simplification of accounting.[576] Thirty-one articles of
agreement were adopted.[577] These articles recommended, _inter alia_,
the adoption for ordinary letters of a unit of weight and a progression
of weight of 15 grammes; and for corrected proofs, samples, and
documents not in the nature of a letter, a unit and progression of 40
grammes. The Conference was convinced that transit charges were often an
invincible obstacle to the establishment of a really advantageous
international system, and recommended that the transit rate for each
country should never exceed half the postage reckoned at the inland rate
of the country traversed, and that for small countries it should be
even less. For sea transit the Conference recommended that in no case
should the charge against an administration in respect of such transport
be greater than the actual charge made on the country of destination by
the shipping agency by whom the mails were conveyed.
Although its conclusions were without the sanction of authority, the
Conference was nevertheless of great assistance to the development of an
international system. It brought into prominence the obstacles in the
way of international postal intercourse, and the difficulties which must
be removed before a common system could be founded. And it formulated
general principles which might with advantage be observed in the making
of fresh agreements between individual countries, and might serve as a
basis for a common agreement. Its conclusions were, as a matter of fact,
so used in numerous instances.
Towards the end of 1868 Dr. von Stephan, of the postal administration of
the North German Union, published in the official journal of the Union a
definite project for a postal union between all civilized nations, and
proposed a discussion of the project at a universal Congress. The
proposal was taken up by the administration of the North German Union.
The diplomatic arrangements for calling a Conference were, however,
interrupted by the Franco-German War of 1870. After the conclusion of
peace, the proposal was again taken up, and the Swiss Government
undertook the task of inviting the administrations of the chief
countries to send representatives to a Congress at Berne. The invitation
was readily accepted, and the Congress met in 1874.
The proposal submitted to the Conference was that the Union should cover
the following categories of postal traffic:--
(1) Letters.
(2) Postcards.
(3) Newspapers and other printed matter.
(4) Samples.
(5) Commercial papers.
Each contracting State should fix its own international rates, under
the limitation that for letters the rate should not exceed 4d., or 40
centimes; and for newspapers or other printed matter, for samples or
commercial papers, should not be less than 1d., or 10 centimes. There
should be no division of postage, but each State should retain the
postage which it collected. Each State should give liberty of transit,
and transit charges should be abolished, except in the case of
extraordinary charges or services.[578]
The proposals which gave rise to most discussion were those for the
establishment of a uniform rate, and for the gratuitous transit of mails
across the territory of intermediate countries. The vast number of rates
actually existing was made an argument in favour of the uniform rate;
and a low rate was recommended on the ground that it was well known
that, although low rates imposed a temporary monetary loss, they were in
a broad view profitable to the finances of the State.[579] It was urged
that as all rates were already tending to equality, the Congress, by
establishing uniformity, would only be advancing by a few years an
existing tendency. The principle of uniformity of rate and of weight was
adopted unanimously, the rate of charge being fixed at 25 centimes, and
the unit of weight, and progression in the scale of weight, at 15
grammes. The rate of charge, 25 centimes (with the reservations[580]),
was arrived at by consideration of the case of the most unfavourably
situated country as regards conditions of transit, viz. a case in which
there would be five intermediate countries, and consequently five
transit rates. As most, if not all, of the countries represented had
already adopted inland penny postage, this rate, assuming 10 centimes
(or 1d.) to be a reasonable charge for the inland service at both ends,
left 15 centimes (1-1/2d.) to cover the cost of transmission from
country of origin to country of destination; and there was in addition
the optional margin up to 32 centimes which might be taken advantage of,
if a charge of 25 centimes was thought by any administration to be too
little. A proviso was added that for all sea transits exceeding 300
nautical miles a surtax not exceeding half the general rate of the Union
might be added to the postage charge, whether for letters, samples,
printed matter, or commercial papers.
A reduced rate for commercial papers, samples of merchandise,
newspapers, books, pamphlets, catalogues, etc., was adopted without
discussion, the delegates no doubt basing their action on the existence
of similar reduced rates in many countries. The minimum rate for such
packets was fixed at 7 centimes, and the unit of weight and the
progression of weight at 50 grammes. The maximum weight for samples was
fixed at 250 grammes, and that for other articles at 1,000 grammes. A
proposal to increase the weight for samples was opposed by Dr. von
Stephan on the ground that it would cause practical inconvenience in the
post offices.
M. Radoikovitch, the Serbian delegate, proposed a modification of the
progression of rate. He suggested that the packets should be divided
into two categories--those not exceeding 300 grammes, and those over 300
grammes in weight. For the lighter packets he proposed a progression of
50 grammes, and for the heavier packets a greater progression. For the
sake of simplicity it was considered preferable to retain the single
progression, and the proposal, which met with no support, was
withdrawn.[581] All packets (samples, etc.) sent at the lower rate must
be sent under band or in open envelopes, or made up in such a way as to
admit of their being easily examined.[582]
The proposal for gratuity of transit was advanced with a view to
simplification of the administration of the Union. Its adoption would
have made all countries independent, so far as expenses and accounting
were concerned, of intermediate countries, and would have assisted the
adoption of a low rate of postage. It was, however, resolutely opposed
by those countries which, owing to their geographical situation and the
means of communication which they controlled, were called upon to serve
as intermediaries to a special degree. The case of Belgium was of
particular importance. It naturally resulted from her situation that she
was called upon to perform for other countries a transit business much
greater than that performed by other countries for Belgium. The net
revenue accruing to the Belgian administration from this source was very
considerable.[583] France and Italy were in a somewhat similar position,
mainly owing to the transmission of the mails between England and India
by the overland route. France rejected entirely the principle of
gratuitous transit.
It was feared that if an administration derived no benefit from transit
traffic it might be led to discourage it, to the detriment of general
facilities for the transmission of mails, and the Congress arrived at
the conclusion that some method of specially remunerating all countries
for transit services ought to be devised. A simple reservation as
regards special expenses caused by transit traffic was objected to on
the ground that in most cases the international traffic was forwarded by
the ordinary means and no special expense was caused--the real causes of
Post Office expenses being the services of despatch and delivery.[584]
Indeed, it was contended on this ground that the transit of
international mails could not be regarded as a service rendered.
Agreement was reached on most of the points raised by the proposals, and
a Convention constituting an International Postal Union, under the title
"L'Union g['e]n['e]rale des Postes,"[585] was signed on the 9th October
1874, to become operative on the 1st July 1875. The chief provisions of
the Convention in regard to the rates of postage were as follows:--
(1) The rate of postage for the Union was fixed--
(_a_) At 25 centimes for single letters, with liberty for each
country, as might be necessary on account of its monetary system or
for other reasons, to fix a higher or lower rate, provided that
such rate was not greater than 32 centimes, and not less than 20
centimes.
The unit of weight for a single letter was fixed at 15 grammes, and
the scale of progression was by steps of 15 grammes.
(_b_) For postcards, half the rate for letters.
(_c_) For printed matter, samples, and commercial papers the unit
rate was fixed at 7 centimes, with liberty for each country to fix
a rate not exceeding 11 centimes or less than 5 centimes.
The unit weight was fixed at 50 grammes, and the progression of
weight was by steps of 50 grammes. The maximum limit of weight for
samples was fixed at 250 grammes, and for printed matter and
commercial papers at 1,000 grammes.[586]
(2) In cases where letters were forwarded by sea for distances over
300 miles, a surtax not exceeding half the general Union rate of
prepaid postage might be added to the normal rate.
(3) The proposal as to the division of postage was accepted, with
slight amplification.
(4) Transit payments, that is, rates of payment by one
administration to another administration in respect of the
transmission of closed mails over the territory of the second
administration by means which it provided, were fixed at 2 fr. per
kilogramme for mails containing letters and postcards, and 25
centimes per kilogramme for mails containing other articles. The
rates were increased to 4 fr. and to 50 centimes, respectively,
when the distance of transmission exceeded 750 kilometres on the
territory of one administration. In the case of sea transits
exceeding 300 nautical miles, the despatching country was required
to pay to the administration which provided the service, the
expenses of the transportation, not exceeding 6 fr. 50 per
kilogramme for letters and 50 centimes per kilogramme for other
articles.
In November 1875 the Indian Post Office administration applied for
admission to the Union. A further Conference at Berne was thereupon
called to consider this request. Representatives of a large majority of
the signatories of the Treaty of 1874 attended the Conference, and other
questions were raised. France, Spain, and Holland asked for the
admission of their respective colonies; Brazil submitted a declaration
of adhesion; and Great Britain intimated that Canada and Newfoundland
would submit applications. The original Union had been limited to the
European countries, Turkey (including Turkey-in-Asia), Russia-in-Asia,
Northern Africa, Egypt, and the United States of America; and these
further developments widened the problem before the Congress. Instead of
merely considering the question of admitting India, it was called upon
to face the possible extension of the Union to the remotest parts of the
globe.
The question of transit rates, particularly of transit rates by sea,
became therefore one of very great importance and difficulty, since it
was necessary to fix such rates as would permit of the maintenance of
that uniformity and lowness of the rates of postage which were the
fundamental bases of the Union. On this point there were prolonged and
difficult discussions. The French delegates submitted a proposal for the
application of the treaty of Berne to all quarters of the globe, with a
uniform transit rate of 6 fr. 50 per kilogramme for letters and 50
centimes for printed matter, etc.[587]
The countries which maintained the more important and costly maritime
services were not, however, prepared to submit to the loss of revenue
which the adoption of the proposed transit rates would entail.[588]
Germany submitted a scheme for classifying all countries of the world
outside the Union into four groups with four graduated maritime transit
rates of 6 fr. 50, 25 fr., 40 fr. and 60 fr. per kilogramme,
respectively, for letters, and 50 centimes, 1 fr., 1 fr., and 2 fr. per
kilogramme for printed matter, etc.,[589] a proposal which was opposed
as contrary to the fundamental principle of uniformity, and calculated
to give rise to difficulties and complications. Moreover, the zones,
being reckoned as from Europe, were not applicable as between the
distant countries themselves, e.g. between Mexico and the West
Indies.[590]
The Conference was able to arrive at an agreement only as regards the
admission of British India and the French Colonies in Asia, Africa,
America and the Pacific. The entry of these territories was fixed for
the 1st July 1876, and the general international rates of postage and
transit rates, fixed under the Convention of 1874, were made applicable
to the new territories of the Union, except that for transit by sea for
distances exceeding 300 nautical miles a surtax equal to the full
postage rates (32 centimes and 11 centimes) was authorized, instead of a
surtax of half rates fixed under the original treaty; and the transit
rates in respect of mails for or from these territories for distances of
more than 300 nautical miles were made 25 fr. per kilogramme for letters
and postcards, and 1 fr. per kilogramme for printed matter, samples, and
commercial papers.
The later Congresses have added numerous services to those provided
under the original scheme, such as, e.g., reply-paid postcards. For the
most part, however, these additional services are of minor importance,
and concern only a small part of the international traffic,[591] the
bulk of which still passes under the main divisions established at the
first Congress.
In connection with the rates applied to those classes of the traffic
there are three chief points of importance--the initial charge, the
scale of weights, and the transit rates. The question of modifying the
international letter rate, which had remained unchanged since the
foundation of the Union, was raised at the Washington Congress in 1897.
The Austrian delegate proposed, not indeed that the initial charge
should be reduced below 25 centimes, but that the maximum weight allowed
for the single letter should be increased from 15 grammes to 20 grammes.
The British and French delegates opposed the proposal.[592] The French
delegates said it would involve a loss of more than a million francs to
their administration. In some cases, e.g., Italy, the raising of the
limit would have had the effect of rendering the international service
cheaper than the internal service. In the end the proposal was rejected.
The subject of transit rates, which had not been seriously considered
since the first Congress, was also raised at the Congress of Washington
(1897), two proposals in regard to it, by Germany and by Austria-Hungary
respectively, being under discussion. In the original project of the
Union, gratuitous transit had been proposed, with the reservation that
remuneration should be paid in cases of special expenses occasioned to
an intermediary by the transit of foreign mails. The new German proposal
was for the abolition of all transit payments except in those cases
where, according to the statistics of the international service, a
payment of more than 50,000 fr. a year was due, and in those cases the
actual amount due to be reduced by 25 per cent., or at least by 50,000
fr.; to make the amount payable only by those countries whose share
exceeded 10,000 fr.; and the reduction of the maritime transit rate from
15 fr. to 10 fr. This proposal was avowedly a step towards completely
gratuitous territorial transit. The Austrian proposal was for gratuitous
transit for all correspondence sent _[a'] d['e]couvert_, and a reduction of
the transit rates for closed mails. Gratuitous transit, to which, as
already stated, the German proposal admittedly tended, was advocated by
the delegates of the South American countries, but was opposed by
several other countries, especially by Belgium, France, and Italy. As at
the first Congress, the delegates of the latter countries called
attention to the great expense to which they were put in providing
transport for transit mails, and rejected altogether the idea of
gratuitous transit. In face of this opposition, the proposals could not
be carried in their entirety. The transit rates were, however,
considerably reduced, and simplifications in the method of ascertaining
the amounts payable in respect of transit were introduced. The land
rates were reduced from 2 fr. per kilogramme for letters and postcards
and 25 centimes per kilogramme for other articles, to 1 fr. 90 and to
23-3/4 centimes for the years 1899 and 1900, to 1 fr. 80 and to 22-1/2
centimes for the years 1901 and 1902, and to 1 fr. 70 and to 21-1/4
centimes for and after 1903. The maritime transit rates were similarly
reduced. Countries whose expenses for the transit of foreign mails
exceeded the receipts, and those whose combined receipts and expenses
for that purpose did not exceed 5,000 fr. per year, were excused all
payment under this head.
At the next Congress, held at Rome in 1906, the question of reducing the
letter rate and transit rates was again discussed. Proposals to raise
the limit of weight for single letters from 15 grammes to 20 grammes
were submitted by several States. It was pointed out that, although in
general sufficient, the limit of 15 grammes was often exceeded, and
frequently the weight of letters required to be tested, causing
inconvenience both to the public and the postal administrations. The
German delegate expressed the opinion that the public were anticipating
some concession, and that as reduction of the initial rate of 25
centimes was impossible, an increased limit of weight would no doubt be
appreciated.[593] The British delegates pointed out that the equivalent
of 20 grammes in British weight was 2/3 or 3/4 ounce, a unit which would
be highly inconvenient and could not be adopted. They would have
accepted a limit of 30 grammes; but in many countries the existing limit
of weight for the initial letter rate in the inland service was 20
grammes, and the introduction of a higher initial weight in the
international service might lead to difficulties in the case of those
administrations which desired to retain the lower limit in the inland
service. On these grounds they inclined to the maintenance of the
_status quo_. The delegates of the United States, Italy, and Turkey
supported the British view. The Italian delegates pointed out that the
result would in effect be to compel those countries in which the limit
was 15 grammes to introduce modifications into their internal service--a
position which it was obviously undesirable for the Congress to take up.
Japan advocated the maintenance of the existing limit, because the
effect of raising it would be to render further reduction of transit
rates still more difficult. In the end the proposal was adopted by
thirteen votes against twelve.[594] Countries using the avoirdupois
system were to regard 1 ounce as the initial weight limit.
Gratuitous transit was still unacceptable to the majority,[595] but both
land and sea charges were reduced. The land transit rates were reduced
to 1 fr. 50 per kilogramme for letters and postcards and 20 centimes per
kilogramme for other articles, for distances not exceeding 3,000
kilometres; to 3 fr. per kilogramme for letters and postcards and 40
centimes per kilogramme for other articles, for distances between 3,000
and 6,000 kilometres; to 4 fr. 50 per kilogramme for letters and
postcards and 60 centimes per kilogramme for other articles, for
distances between 6,000 kilometres and 9,000 kilometres; and to 6 fr.
per kilogramme for letters and postcards and 80 centimes per kilogramme
for other articles, for distances exceeding 9,000 kilometres.
The sea transit rates were reduced to 1 fr. 50 per kilogramme for
letters and postcards and to 20 centimes for other articles, for
distances not exceeding 300 nautical miles; to 4 fr. per kilogramme for
letters and postcards and to 50 centimes for other articles, for
distances exceeding 300 nautical miles, between countries of Europe,
between parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia on the Mediterranean and Black
Seas, and between Europe and North America; to 8 fr. per kilogramme for
letters and postcards and to 1 fr. for other articles, for all routes
not falling under the above headings.
At this Congress the question of reducing the international letter rate
was raised by Sir J. G. Ward, the Australasian delegate. In 1901 New
Zealand had introduced a universal penny rate for letters, and the
financial results of the change had been regarded as satisfactory. The
loss of revenue was some [L]80,000 in the first year, reduced to [L]50,000
in the second. There was an increase of 35 per cent. in the number of
foreign letters posted in the first year, as compared with an increase
of 1.76 per cent. for the last year under the 2-1/2d. rate.[596]
The proposal met with strong opposition and little support. The
opposition was based entirely on financial considerations, many of the
delegates stating that their administrations were unable to face the
sacrifice of revenue involved. In this connection the term "sacrifice of
revenue" means sacrifice of gross revenue, and not necessarily that the
carrying of foreign letters at a penny would on the whole result in
actual loss through the cost of service being greater than a penny,
although it is probable that the cost of a foreign letter weighing as
much as an ounce would be slightly more than a penny.[597] The proposal
was defeated by eighteen votes to three.[598]
(II) INTERNATIONAL PARCEL POST