North America, but about this time a competing system arose. For some
years there had been friction in the colonies between the authorities
and the publishers of newspapers. The anomalous English system of the
distribution of newspapers free by post by certain favoured individuals
had been introduced in America. The favoured officials were the American
Postmasters-General, and for that reason the office was much sought
after by publishers. Both Franklin and Hunter, who were joint
Postmasters-General (Franklin from 1753 to 1774, and Hunter from 1753
to his death in 1761), were printers, and Franklin's dismissal is
sometimes attributed to a desire on the part of the British Government
to hamper the distribution of his publications, and so restrict their
influence. Great efforts were at this time made by the Crown authorities
in America to prevent the dissemination of ideas contrary to the British
ascendancy. As early as 1757 the Governor of Pennsylvania endeavoured to
prevent the publication of improper intelligence in newspapers, and
suggested that special instructions should be given to the
Postmasters-General. The feeling against the newspapers grew with the
developments of the years that followed, and by 1774 much trouble was
being caused by the Crown Postmasters to the publishers of newspapers.
Many were toning down their comments in order to retain the privilege of
free transmission, but some began to look for other means of
distributing their papers. William Goddard of Baltimore, publisher of
the _Maryland Journal_, suggested the establishment of "an _American_
Post Office on constitutional principles," and visited various colonies
in the early part of the year 1774 with the object of enlisting support
for his project. He received a good measure of approval, and on the 30th
April 1774 subscriptions were invited from the public towards the
establishment of an American Post Office. The scheme of this Post Office
was that subscriptions should be invited for its establishment and
maintenance, and "for the necessary defence of post officers and riders
employed in the same"; and that the subscribers in each colony should
appoint a committee from among themselves, whose business should be to
appoint postmasters at places where offices had hitherto been kept or
might be judged necessary, "and to regulate the postage of letters and
packets, with the terms on which newspapers are to be carried."[146]
Meantime the committees of safety and the Assemblies of the various
colonies made certain provision for the transmission of mails, both
within and between the colonies. In May 1775 the New York Committee
appointed a sub-committee to inquire of the postmaster, Mr. Foxcroft,
the reason for the recent discharge by him of the post riders. The
postmaster's explanation was that the last four mails between New York
and Boston had been held up and violated on the journey, and he had
discharged the post riders on the ground that it was no longer safe to
send them with mails. The committee thereupon themselves immediately
arranged for the despatch of mails from New York, and a few days later
issued a notice "to acquaint the publick that a constitutional Post
Office is now rising on the ruins of the parliamentary one."
In the course of the next few months several provincial congresses
passed resolutions establishing Post Offices in the respective colonies.
Massachusetts fixed rates of postage at 5-1/4d. for a single letter for
not more than 60 miles, and increased rates for greater distances. The
whole matter was at the same time under the consideration of the
Continental Congress sitting at Philadelphia. Goddard had, from the
first establishment of the constitutional Post Office, expected Congress
to assume control.[147] In May, Congress appointed a committee to
consider the matter, and on the 26th July, having received the
committee's report, agreed to resolutions providing for the
establishment of a Post Office. Benjamin Franklin, who had been a member
of the committee, was unanimously chosen to be the first
Postmaster-General. It was provided that the remuneration of the
deputies should, in general, be 20 per cent. on the sums they collected,
the rate which had usually been paid under the parliamentary
system.[148] Postage of letters was to be 20 per cent. less than those
appointed by Act of Parliament. It was feared that such rates would
prove too low, and the proceeds of the office be insufficient to support
the necessary riders; and as people were in general well satisfied with
the rates lately paid, or at least had made no complaints regarding
them, the lowering of the rates was deferred.[149]
The parliamentary post continued for some years, concurrently with the
constitutional post, as the new independent Post Office was called. On
the 7th October 1775 a debate arose in Congress as to the expediency of
stopping the "parliamentary or ministerial posts." The stopping of the
post was desired chiefly as a means for hindering the correspondence of
their enemies. Inaction in the matter was advocated by some who
professed to find the royal post of great convenience; and by others
who, although desirous of seeing the parliamentary post stopped, thought
it unnecessary to take active measures against it, since it would soon
cease in any case.
On Christmas Day, 1775, the Secretary to the Post Office in New York
issued a notification to the public that, in consequence of the decision
of a provincial convention at Annapolis not to permit the parliamentary
post to travel through the province, that mail would be discontinued,
and the letters held at New York at the disposal of the persons to whom
they were addressed. The parliamentary post did not, however, altogether
die. As late as 1779 the Secretary in London wrote to the Deputy-General
at New York that the Postmasters-General were glad to find that a number
of letters were being brought to the Post Office to be delivered, and as
they hoped that method would be continued, the deputy would, no doubt,
soon have sufficient funds to pay the expenses of the establishment. But
in 1780 the Postmasters-General were concerned to find that the whole
postage would not defray the cost of management, a circumstance
attributed to the fact that the mails were often seized on arrival and
carried first to the headquarters of the Army. In consequence of this, a
great part of the letters were never delivered at all. Very little
postage could be collected, and the Postmasters-General addressed strong
representations to Lord George Germain, his Majesty's principal
Secretary of State.[150]
In 1776, in view of the great necessity, for the safety of the colonies,
that means should be provided for the frequent and rapid transmission of
intelligence, further dispositions with regard to the posts were made by
the Congress. Riders were appointed for every twenty-five or thirty
miles on the several post roads. They were required to proceed through
their respective stages three times a week. They were to set out
immediately on the receipt of the mail and were to travel "by night and
by day, without stopping," until they had delivered the mail to the next
rider. It was found that the revenue produced by the existing rates of
postage fell far short of the expenses, and on the 17th October 1777 the
rates were raised by 50 per cent. The difficulties of the administration
continued, and various committees of inquiry were appointed. In April
1779 one of these committees recommended the doubling of the rates, a
course which met with approval from patriotic Americans.[151]
Even this increase was not sufficient. In October of that year there was
a balance of [L]375 18s. 6d. due to the Postmaster-General, and arrears of
[L]17,666 1s. 3d. to the post riders. For the discharge of these
liabilities and for the continuance of the functions of the office a
draft on the Treasurer was authorized. In December 1779 a further grant
was found to be absolutely necessary in order to maintain the service,
and the sum of $30,000 was voted.[152] The establishment of express
riders which had been maintained in conjunction with the postal service
was at the same time abolished, and the rates of postage raised 20 per
cent. on those paid in 1775. But the cost still outran the revenue, and
in May 1780 sums amounting to $100,000 were voted in aid of the service.
The finances of the posts became involved in further difficulties
through the general depreciation of money, and Congress found it
necessary in December 1780 to make good the depreciation on the pay of
post riders, and to raise their nominal pay to double the sum received
before the war.[153]
Several minor changes of the rates of postage were made in this period.
In December 1780 the Congress fixed the rates on letters at half the
rates paid at the commencement of the war: and in October 1781 at the
actual rates charged at the commencement of the war. But, whatever the
rates, during the war they never produced sufficient revenue to meet
expenses, and the controlling factor in the administration of the
service was the necessity for a means of circulating the earliest
intelligence of the movements of the enemy, and of their ally, in order
to make the best disposition of their own forces.
By the Articles of Confederation Congress was vested with the sole and
exclusive rights and power of establishing a Post Office for the United
States; and, deeming "the communication of intelligence with regularity
and despatch from one part to another of the United States essentially
requisite to the safety as well as the commercial interest thereof," in
1782 revised all the regulations made theretofore in respect of the Post
Office, and reduced them to one Act. The Postmaster-General was required
to cause the mail to be carried with all care and despatch at least once
in every week to and from each of the stated post offices, and was given
a monopoly of "letters, packets, or other despatches." Postmasters were
to be paid such commission as the Postmaster-General might think their
services merited, not exceeding 20 per cent. of the postage collected by
them. Rates of postage on single letters were fixed as follows:--
Distance. Rate.[154]
Not exceeding 60 miles 1 dwt. 8 gr.
Exceeding 60 miles, not exceeding 100 miles 2 " 0 "
Exceeding 100 miles, not exceeding 200 miles 2 " 16 "
And so on, advancing 16 grains for every hundred miles.
For all letters for or from Europe by packet or despatch vessels, the
charge was 4 dwt. The rates were doubled for double letters; trebled for
treble letters; and a packet weighing an ounce was charged equal to four
single letters, and in that proportion if a greater weight. In the event
of a surplus of Post Office revenue over expenses, the
Postmaster-General was required to pay the amount to the Treasurer of
the United States "until the sums of money heretofore advanced by the
United States for the support of the General Post Office, with the
interest thereon at 6 per cent. per annum," should be repaid, after
which any such surplus was to be devoted to the establishment of new
post offices or other improvements of the service. If the necessary
expenses were found to exceed the revenue, the excess was to be paid to
the Postmaster-General by the Treasurer of the United States.[155] Cross
posts were farmed in much the same way as the cross posts and bye posts
had been farmed in England,[156] and the farmers were bound by contract
not to charge rates in excess of those fixed by the ordinance.[157]
After the adoption of the Constitution an Act of the Constitutional
Congress became necessary. The President, in recommending to Congress
the provision of the Post Office and post roads on a liberal and
comprehensive scale, referred to the political importance of such a
service as aiding the diffusion of a knowledge of the laws and
proceedings of the Government,[158] a consideration which was paramount
in determining the attitude of the United States Government towards the
posts. It was held to be a first duty of the Government to afford every
possible means for the dissemination of intelligence--general
intelligence for the information and education of the people, and more
especially political intelligence for the education of the people as
citizens of the Republic. They were making, it was their legitimate
boast, a tremendous experiment in politics. They were essaying to
demonstrate to the world whether a people had the genius to govern
itself, whether democracy and the republic were abstract political ideas
only, or whether they could be made actual living things. The English
Commonwealth had failed. The French Revolution had come after their own
and was still in doubtful case. They could therefore neglect no means
likely to strengthen the foundation of their own Republic, and in this
view must consider seriously the question of providing effective means
for the enlightenment of the sovereign people on all matters pertaining
to the executive Government and the Legislature.[159] In order to secure
the dissemination of such intelligence members of Congress were given
extensive powers of franking both letters and newspapers.
On the question of rates, opinion in Congress was divided. Although at
the time the gross revenue of the Post Office was small, some members
anticipated an increase sufficient to yield a net revenue, as in England
and most other European countries; whilst others, with more wisdom,
pointed out the vital difference in the case of America on account of
"its great extent and uncultivated state, as well as from a thousand
other causes."[160] The new rates were based on eight zones of distance.
For distances under 30 miles the charge for single letters was 6 cents;
for distances over 450 miles the charge was 25 cents; every double
letter, double rates; every triple letter, triple rates; and every
packet weighing 1 ounce avoirdupois, the rate of four single letters for
each ounce.
The rates for letters fixed by the Act of 1792 continued some thirty
years, except for slight modifications in 1799 and 1816, and except for
a brief period at the time of the war of 1812-14 with Great Britain. The
Government then attempted to obtain an increased revenue from the Post
Office, and the rates of postage were increased 50 per cent. The effect
on the revenue and on the business of the country was, however, so
disastrous that the increased rates were maintained only for about a
year.[161]
In 1825 the laws relating to the Post Office were codified. The
codifying Act placed on the Postmaster-General the duty of establishing
such post offices, and appointing such postmasters on the post roads as
should appear to him expedient, and of providing for the carriage of the
mail on all post roads that were or might be established by law,[162]
with such frequency as he should think proper, "_having_ _regard to the
productiveness_" of the routes, the means of the department, and other
circumstances. Errors and irregularities crept into the service; but
they were for the most part the result of "the representations and
pressing solicitations of the citizens," sustained by members of
Congress from almost every section of the country, of the extension of
the franking privilege, of the desire of the head of the department "to
extend the benefits of mail facilities and stage-coach accommodations to
every portion of the community," and of legislation extending the
transportation of the mail over unproductive routes. The deficits which
resulted were not regarded altogether as an evil, because the public had
greatly benefited by the measures which had produced them.[163] Despite
the solicitude of Congress the revenue failed to recover, and in 1837
and several succeeding years showed a deficit.
Sir Rowland Hill's pamphlet _Post Office Reform: Its Importance and
Practicability_ attracted attention in America, and as early as 1839 the
question of applying the principle of uniformity of rate to the American
service was under consideration. The rate proposed was not, however, 2
cents, the equivalent of a penny, but 5 cents. Sir Rowland Hill himself
expressed the opinion that owing to the widely different circumstances
penny postage might not be applicable to the United States, but that, as
the American people did not look for a revenue from their Post Office, a
low general rate might be feasible.[164]
Although a low and uniform rate was not immediately adopted, the example
of Great Britain had great influence.[165] There was considerable public
agitation in favour of reduction of rates, and in many respects the
circumstances resembled those obtaining in England before the reform.
The high rates of postage led to constant and widespread evasion,
advantage being taken of all available private means for the
transmission of letters, and an association formed in New York to work
for the adoption of reduced postage held meetings in the large cities.
In 1844 the finances of the department were in a more nourishing
condition. For four years the service had been able to maintain itself.
The state of the public Treasury had prevented any material change in
previous years, but as difficulties under that head had ceased, the
Government recommended the introduction of low rates--gradually, in
order to prevent any serious dislocation of the finance of the
department.[166] A statute was accordingly passed which, while not
introducing uniform postage, went a great way in that direction. There
were to be only two distance charges, viz. for distances not exceeding
300 miles, or greater than 300 miles, respectively. The new rate for
ordinary letters was 5 cents for distances not exceeding 300 miles, and
10 cents for any greater distance. This statute also introduced the
principle of charge by weight instead of by sheets, the half-ounce being
taken as the unit weight.[167]
The reduction resulted in so great a fall in the revenue that in the
first year at the reduced rates there was a deficit of between one and
two million dollars. In calling attention to this deficit, the
President, in his Message to Congress, said that no principle had been
more generally acquiesced in by the people than that the Post Office
should sustain itself, but Congress had "never sought to make it a
source of revenue except for a short period during the last war with
Great Britain." At the same time the service should not become a charge
on the general Treasury, and it would be necessary either to curtail the
existing service or so to modify the Act of the previous March as to
improve the revenue. As curtailment of service was out of the question,
revision of the rates was recommended.[168]
But the rates were not revised. Revision in an upward direction was,
indeed, hardly feasible. The public agitation for low rates continued
after the passing of the Act of 1845. Many citizens were convinced that
the system already adopted in England might be introduced in the United
States. The benefits which had resulted in England in the way of
commercial, social, and moral betterment were largely dwelt upon. The
chief demand was for a uniform rate, which now meant simply the
abolition of the increased charge for distances over 300 miles. There
was, of course, Sir Rowland Hill's calculation in regard to cost of
conveyance, which showed the futility of any attempt to make distance
the basis of charge; and the further consideration that the actual cost
of transit for each letter sent in a mail varies not in accordance with
the distance travelled, but inversely as the number of letters contained
in the mail. Moreover, it was not considered just that the letters of
the people of the populous Eastern States should be taxed in order to
provide unremunerative mail services to the remote and newly settled
Western States.[169]
Under the old high rates the revenue had not increased in proportion to
the increase of population, but since the reduction of 1845 the increase
was so much more rapid that even with the reduced rates the revenue was
greater than ever before. The Government preferred rates of postage
which were too low to rates which were too high, arguing that in the
former case the great mass of the people would benefit, whilst in the
latter case the benefits would extend only to a few.[170] The need for
some further reduction was well illustrated by the fact that the
ordinary charge for transporting a barrel of flour from Detroit to
Buffalo was at this time the same as the charge for carrying in the same
conveyance a letter weighing half an ounce, viz. 10 cents.
In 1851 an Act reduced to 3 cents the rate of postage on letters not
going over 300 miles, with a fourfold charge on Pacific mails, on
account of the great expense incurred by the department. It was
estimated that the expense of such mails was four times as great as in
the case of ordinary mails, but the proposal met with opposition.[171]
In 1863 mail matter was classified in three groups: (1) letters, (2)
regular printed matter, (3) other miscellaneous matter. The charge for
letters (first-class mail matter) was made 3 cents a half ounce
irrespective of distance. The rate was reduced to 2 cents a half ounce
in 1883, in deference to the wish and determination of the public,
supported by a very decided vote in Congress. It was anticipated that
the revenue would not suffer severely, but that, as in the case of the
earlier reductions, there would be an increase in the number of letters.
It was also anticipated that many letters sent unsealed at 1 cent would
be transferred to the sealed post, thus yielding an additional cent. The
number of groups or classes of mail matter had been increased to four in
1879, and the department was now asked to consider whether by
rearranging the third and fourth class matter additional revenue could
be obtained from such matter in order to diminish the deficiency
resulting from the reduction of letter postage. The department was
unable to suggest any method for achieving this object; but the
contemplated reduction was not delayed. The condition of the Treasury
was good, "there being money enough to meet any deficiency, even if it
were as large as the maximum ($8,550,000)," estimated on the basis of
the number of letters then passing by post without allowance for any
increase.[172] The actual loss of revenue consequent on the reduction
was only $1,660,000. A large stimulus was given to general
correspondence, and, as anticipated, to the use of the sealed letter in
place of postcards or unsealed circulars, whereby the department reaped
considerable profit. In 1885 the allowance for weight was raised, and
the rate became 2 cents for each ounce or fraction of an ounce.
Since that date the rate has not been changed, although from time to
time proposals have been made for a reduction to 1 cent. The public and
the department realize that the 2-cent rate is immensely profitable. It
not only sustains the service for letters: it enables the department to
carry the heavy burden of both the second-class matter and the expensive
rural delivery service, both of which involve heavy deficits, and still
to show only a comparatively small, though fluctuating, deficit.[173] As
early as 1890 the question of 1 cent letter postage had attained
considerable prominence. Many newspapers were advocating the reduction,
and numerous associations and conventions had declared for it. The
Postmaster-General, Mr. Wanamaker, himself declared that great numbers
of the people believed in 1 cent postage and wanted it, and that the
existing rate yielded a large profit which would permit of a reduction
of letter postage if it could be devoted to that purpose.[174] In 1891
Mr. Wanamaker expressed the view that in time not only would 1 cent
postage be successfully demanded, but that the time was not far off;
although he himself thought that many other improvements and extensions
ought to be provided before such reduction was made, and that it would
not be just and fair to the service, upon which much effort had been
spent in order to make it self-supporting, to heap upon it a burden of
millions from which it could not recover for years.[175]
The question was by no means lost sight of.[176] With the department
showing a deficit in most years, pressure could not be brought to bear
for a reduction of postage which could only result in throwing a heavy
charge on the public Treasury. Should, however, the department succeed
in its efforts to obtain a higher rate of charge on second-class matter,
and such higher charge results as satisfactorily to the revenue as the
department anticipates, there can be little doubt that reduction of
letter postage would soon follow.[177]
* * * * *
LETTER POST IN FRANCE
The Roman posts in France disappeared in the confusion which followed
the incursions of the barbarians. Charlemagne repaired the roads to
Germany, to Italy, and to Spain, in the early part of the ninth century,
and established on them a system of relays; but with the passing of the
Carlovingian Empire these arrangements fell into decay. The feudal
system which arose after the break-up of the Empire was little adapted
for the encouragement of posts. Its tendencies were rather towards
disintegration and isolation. Although some of the services survived,
there was for centuries no general system of posts in France.[178]
During this period the chief means of communication were provided by the
monasteries, which maintained regular intercourse between their various
establishments scattered throughout France, Spain, Germany, and other
countries; by travelling merchants, and by journeymen.