THE BATTLE OF HOLY RIVER AND THE PILGRIMAGE TO ROME
1026-1027
One of the notable results of the expedition to the South Baltic in 1022
was that a reconciliation was effected with Thurkil the Tall. "And he
gave Denmark into the keeping of Thurkil and his son; and the King
brought Thurkil's son with him to England."[303] The son who was thus
made regent was probably Sweyn; it was scarcely Harthacanute, as this
Prince was present at the translation of Saint Alphege from London to
Canterbury that same year (1023); of Canute's other son, Harold
Harefoot, we hear nothing until after the King's death. The hostage that
Canute took with him to England may have been Harold who played an
important part in Northern history two decades later. Thurkil cannot
have lived long after his promotion to the vice-royalty, for three years
later (1026), we find Harthacanute representing royal authority in
Denmark with Earl Ulf as guardian and actual wielder of power. This
change in the regency we may, perhaps, ascribe to the activities of
Queen Emma, one of whose chief purposes in life was to disinherit her
husband's illegitimate offspring.
The next few months seem to have witnessed a revolution in Denmark: Earl
Ulf appears to have summoned a national assembly at Viborg, an old
sanctuary in the north central part of Jutland, where he announced that
it was Canute's desire to have his young eight-year-old son chosen and
proclaimed King of Denmark. With evident success he argued that the
ancient kingdom, which always had had a ruler within its borders, was
poorly served by the present arrangement of subjection to an
absentee-king. He also called attention to the threatened invasion from
the allied kingdoms of Norway and Sweden. The sagas assert that Queen
Emma had plotted with Earl Ulf to secure the royal name for her son and
that she had even forged a document to support the move. The assembly
assented and Harthacanute was proclaimed King.[304]
There are suggestions that Ulf at this time was in communication with
the allied monarchs and that he had even encouraged them to invade the
Danish territories. Evidence is wanting, but it is clear that Ulf's
activities in 1026 were not of the proper sort.[305] The Earl was an
ambitious and turbulent man, closely connected with both the Danish and
the Swedish dynasties. He was a man of the type that finds service
difficult; it is clear that Canute suspected him of treason.
After Canute's departure for England the Northern kings had their
conference at Kingscrag where a closer alliance was formed and offensive
operations were probably determined upon. Soon afterwards King Olaf was
on his way to his northern capital to raise the host for a grand effort.
It seems that the chiefs quite generally obeyed the summons; of the
leaders in the northern shires Einar Thongshaker alone remained at home
on his estates. A considerable fleet gathered at the rendezvous at the
mouth of Throndhjem Firth; as it sailed southward there were constant
additions, till it finally counted 480 ships. The royal flagship was the
_Bison_, a longship that had been built the winter before, the prow of
which bore the head of a bison adorned with gold.
On the journey southward, King Olaf learned that Canute was still in
England, but that he was making preparations for a grand attack. He also
learned that Erling Skjalgsson was now with his sons in the enemy's
service. But no one knew when the English host might be expected; time
passed and the Norsemen began to tire of inaction. Accordingly King Olaf
dismissed the least effective part of his forces and with the remainder,
sixty large and well-manned ships, sailed for the coast of Zealand,
expecting later to join the Swedish armament that had gathered on the
Scanian coast.[306]
Meanwhile, Canute had hastened his preparations. One of his Scanian
subjects, Hakon of Stangeby, had, when the plans of the enemy had become
evident, hastened to England to warn his King. It is said that Canute
rewarded him with an estate in Scania for his loyalty and
promptness.[307] It was a mighty fleet that sailed from southern England
that summer; Canute led the expedition in person with Earl Hakon
apparently as second in command. Snorre reports that Canute's ship had
one hundred and twenty oars, while that of the Earl had eighty. Both
ships were provided with golden figureheads; but their sails were
counted particularly splendid with their stripes of blue and red and
green.
Earl Ulf had by this time come to realise that Denmark could not afford
to ignore the Lord of England. There was evidently much dissatisfaction
with the Earl's régime, for we find that the Danes in large numbers
accepted the invaders. Ulf and Harthacanute soon retreated to Jutland,
and left the islands and Scania to the enemy.
The situation that Canute found when he sailed into the Lime Firth was
perhaps not wholly a surprise; he must have known something about what
his deputy had been plotting and doing. That he was angry is evident;
that his wrath was feared is also clear. Harthacanute was advised to
submit; he knelt before his father and obtained forgiveness, as the King
realised that no responsibility could lodge with a witless boy. Ulf also
tried to make terms with the offended monarch, but was merely told to
collect his forces and join in the defence of the kingdom; later he
might propose terms.
Such is Snorre's account[308]; it may be inaccurate in details, but the
main fact that Earl Ulf was faithless to his trust seems to be correctly
stated. Elsewhere, too, Ulf is accused of opposition to his King: Saxo
charges him with treason[309]; and an entry in the _Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle_ tells us that Canute went east to fight Ulf and Eglaf.[310]
There has been some dispute as to the identity of these chiefs, but
unless evidence to the contrary is forthcoming, we shall have to
conclude that they were the two brothers who were earls in England in
the early days of Canute as English king. Shortly before this (1024),
Eglaf's name disappears from the English sources. The Chronicler was
evidently not informed as to the situation in the North; but he knew
that the two brothers were among the opponents of the King and recorded
what he knew.
Meanwhile, Olaf was on the shores of Zealand with his longships. Saxo
relates that one day while he was addressing the Danes at a public
assembly with a view to winning them to his own allegiance, spies rushed
up and reported that they had seen several ships approaching. An aged
Dane assured the King that the ships were merchantmen only; but when
sails in growing numbers began to cross the horizon, he added that they
were merchantmen who had come to buy Denmark with iron.[311]
From the Lime Firth, Canute must have sailed his fleet southeastward to
the upper entrance of the Sound; at any rate, King Olaf soon discovered
that the homeward route had been effectually blocked. There was now
nothing to do but to continue the journey eastward and to form a
junction with King Anund's fleet which was harrying the Scanian coast.
Canute must have followed in hot pursuit, for before the enemies could
form a junction he seems to have found and defeated a part of the
Swedish fleet at Stangeberg.[312] A little later, he came up with the
combined strength of the allied Kings near the mouth of Holy River.
Holy River is a short stream in the eastern part of Scania that serves
as the outlet of a group of lakes not far inland. Between these lakes
and the sea the forest was heavy enough to conceal any activities
inland. When the Kings learned that the Danish fleet was approaching,
they took counsel and decided to draw up their ships in battle order
east of the river mouth, but to act on the defensive. King Anund was to
remain in charge of the fleet while King Olaf, who is reputed to have
been something of a military engineer, went inland to prepare a trap for
the enemy. Where the river left the lakes he is said to have built a
temporary dam of trees and turf, and he also improved the outlets of
some of the smaller lakes, so as to increase the water masses behind the
dam. Many days the work continued under Olaf's direction. Then came the
message that Canute had arrived and the Norsemen hastened to their
ships.
It was late in the afternoon when Anund's spies finally caught sight of
the great armament approaching from the west. Swift-footed couriers at
once left for the lakes to inform Olaf, who immediately prepared to
break the dam, at the same time filling the course with large trees.
Canute saw the enemy drawn up in line and ready for the fight; but it
was then too late to proceed to the attack; moreover, the enemy had the
advantage of a carefully chosen position. The Dane therefore refused
battle that day. Finding the harbour at the river mouth empty, he sailed
into it with as many ships as could be accommodated; the remainder were
left just outside.
At dawn the next morning, a large part of Canute's forces was found
to have landed; some were conversing, others seeking amusement.
Then without the least warning the waters came down in torrents,
dashing the floating trees against the ships. The ships were
injured and the waters overflowed the river banks, drowning the men
who had gone on land and also many who were still on the ships.
Those who were able to do so cut the ropes and allowed their ships
to drift, each in its own direction. The great dragon that Canute
himself commanded was among these; it was not easily managed by the
oars alone and drifted out toward the hostile fleet. But when the
allies recognised the ship, they immediately surrounded it; but it
was not easily attacked, for the ship was high like a castle and
had a number of men on board, who were carefully chosen, thoroughly
armed, and very reliable. It was not long before Earl Ulf came up
alongside with his ships and men and the battle was now joined in
earnest. Canute's forces now came up from all sides. Then the Kings
Olaf and Anund realised that they had now won as much as fate had
allowed them for this time; so they ordered a retreat, withdrew
from Canute's fleet, and separated from the fight.[313]
In its disorganised condition Canute's host could make no effective
pursuit. The Danes and English had suffered heavy losses, while those of
the Swedes and Norsemen were slight; still their combined forces were
yet inferior to those of Canute. It was, therefore, agreed to avoid
further battle. Eastward the course continued, the intention being to
stop for the night in the harbour of Barwick on the coast of Bleking.
However, a large part of the Swedish fleet did not enter the harbour,
but continued the journey eastward and northward; nor were the sails
lowered before the chiefs had reached their respective homes.
Early the following morning, King Anund ordered the signal to be sounded
for a council of the remaining chiefs. The entire army landed and the
assembly proceeded to discuss the situation. King Anund announced that
of 420 ships that had joined him in the preceding summer only 120 were
now in the harbour. These with the sixty Norwegian ships did not make a
force sufficient for successful operations against Canute. The Swedish
King therefore proposed to Olaf that he should spend the winter in
Sweden, and in the spring, perhaps, they might be able to renew
hostilities. Olaf demurred: the former viking could not surrender his
purposes so readily; it would still be possible, he argued, to defeat
Canute as his large fleet would soon be compelled to scatter in search
of provisions, his eastern coasts having been too recently harried to
afford much in the way of supplies. But the outcome was that Olaf left
his ships in Sweden and returned to Norway overland.
Canute kept informed as to the situation in the enemies' fleet and army
but did not attempt pursuit. It would seem that a great opportunity was
thus permitted to slip past; but the King probably did not so regard it.
To fight the Swedes was not a part of his present plan; his hope was to
detach King Anund from his more vigorous ally. When he learned that the
hostile fleet was about to dissolve, he returned to Zealand and blocked
the Sound, hoping, no doubt, to intercept the Norwegian King on his
return northward. As we have seen, however, Olaf appreciated the danger
and refused to risk an ambush. That same season saw him on the march
through south-western Sweden to his manors on the shores of the great
Firth. On his arrival in his own land, he dismissed the larger part of
his host; only a small body of trusted men including several prominent
magnates remained with him at Sarpsborg, where he prepared to spend the
winter.[314]
Of this campaign we have, broadly speaking, but one detailed
account,--the one given in the sagas. As these are far from
contemporary, doubts have been cast upon the story, but in the main it
seems reliable. That there was a battle at Holy River we know from the
_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, which states that Canute was defeated at that
place by Ulf and Eglaf supported by a large force of Swedes. As to the
strategic device of King Olaf, we cannot be so sure; but the account in
the sagas reveals a topographical knowledge so specific as to argue
strongly for the belief that the authors must have had access to
reliable sources. There is also a question as to the date of the battle:
Snorre seems to place it in 1027; the _Old English Chronicle_ has it in
1025. The battle seems to have been fought some time in September, 1026.
It evidently occurred before Canute made his pilgrimage to Rome, where
we find him at Easter, 1027.
Though Canute suffered a defeat at Holy River, the outcome gave no
advantage to his enemies. The Swedes were discouraged and tired of a
conflict which, after all, did not seem to concern them. King Olaf was
discredited: a King who had abandoned his ships was not in position to
claim a victory. From that day he found disloyalty everywhere. The
pretender had only to appear on the Norwegian coasts with ships and men
to secure the enthusiastic allegiance of the rebellious Norsemen.
Canute was not prepared, however, to move against Olaf at this time.
Autumn was coming on, a season that was far too short for naval
operations. And soon a tragedy was enacted at the Danish court, the
consequences of which probably caused a complete rearrangement of
Canute's immediate plans. The day before Michaelmas the King proceeded
to Roeskild, where Earl Ulf had prepared an elaborate entertainment for
him and his train. According to the sagas Ulf was aggressive, vigorous,
and brave; but he was also tactless and careless in speech, and
possessed a temper that was not easily controlled. The festivities did
not seem to please the King--he was moody and silent. In the evening Ulf
suggested a game of chess, hoping, no doubt, that the play would help
to restore the royal good humour.
But as they were playing at chess, King Canute and Earl Ulf, the
King made a wrong move and the Earl took one of his knights. The
King moved his opponent's chessman back and told him to make
another play; this angered the Earl; he overturned the chessboard,
rose, and left the table. Then said the King, "Are you running away
now, timid Wolf!" The Earl turned in the doorway and replied,
"Farther you would have run at Holy River, if you had been able.
You did not then call Ulf timid, when I rushed up to help you, when
the Swedes were threshing you and your men like dogs." With that
the Earl left the room and went to sleep.[315]
It is not likely, however, that the Earl's rest was wholly undisturbed
that night, for in the morning he was found to have sought sanctuary in
Holy Trinity Church. Nor did sleep appease the King's anger; while he
was dressing the next morning, he ordered his shoe-swain to go at once
and slay Ulf. But the servant dared not strike him within the sacred
precincts. Then the King called Ivar White, one of his guardsmen, a
Norseman who is said to have been Earl Eric's nephew,[316] and sent him
with similar orders. Ivar soon returned to the King with a bloody sword
as evidence that his sister's husband was no more.
[Illustration: Lines from the oldest fragment of Snorre's History
(written about 1260). The fragment tells the story of the battle of Holy
River and the murder of Ulf.]
[Illustration: A LONGSHIP--Model of the Gokstad ship on the waves.]
Tales of chess games that have resulted seriously for at least one of
the players appear elsewhere in mediæval literature; hence it would not
be safe to accept this account without question. Still, there is nothing
improbable about the tale; the insult that Ulf offered was evidently
seized upon by the King as a pretext for ridding himself of a man whom
he believed to be a traitor. An independent English tradition credits
Canute with a passion for the game: the historian of Ramsey tells us
that Bishop Ethelric once found him "relieving the wearisomeness of the
long night with games of dice and chess."[317] Nor is there any reason
to doubt that Ulf was actually assassinated at the time; his name
disappears from the sources.
A life had been taken in God's own house; blood had been shed before the
very altar; even though the King had ordered it, the Church could not
overlook the crime. The priests immediately closed the church; but on
the King's command, it was again opened and mass was said as before. It
is recorded that large possessions were added to the church when
services were resumed. To his sister the widowed Estrid, the King also
owed satisfaction; we are told that she, too, received large landed
estates. But her young son Sweyn, who was at this time scarcely more
than eight years old, she prudently seems to have removed from her
brother's kingdom; for twelve years the future King of Denmark was a
guest at the Swedish court.[318]
It seems that the scene of his recent guilt had small attraction for
Canute after that fateful Michaelmas season. He is said to have left the
city and to have taken up his abode on his longship. But not many months
later we find him on a pilgrimage to the capital of Christendom. The
journey must have been planned during the autumn of 1026; it was
actually undertaken during the early months of the following year;
apparently the pilgrims arrived in Rome toward the end of March.
We cannot be sure what induced King Canute to make this journey at this
particular time. In his message to the English people he says that he
went to seek forgiveness for his sins; but this pious phrase is almost a
rhetorical necessity in mediæval documents and must not be regarded too
seriously. Nor can we trust the statement that the King had earlier
vowed to make such a pilgrimage, but had hitherto been prevented by
business of state; for the year 1027 had surely but little to offer in
the way of leisure and peace. The motive must be sought in the political
situation that had developed in the North in the year of the Holy River
campaign, and in the strained relations that must have arisen between
the King and the Church.
No doubt the eyes of the Christian world looked approvingly on the
persistent efforts that Olaf of Norway, who was canonised four years
later, was making to extirpate heathendom in the North. Especially must
the English priesthood have looked with pride and pleasure on the
vigorous growth of the Norse daughter Church. But here comes the
Christian King of England with hostile forces to interfere in behalf of
King Olaf's enemies. Canute probably protested that he would carry on
the work; but it is clear that an absent monarch with wide imperial
interests could scarcely hope to carry out successfully a policy that
implied revolution both socially and religiously. His hand had also been
raised against the Christian ruler of Sweden, which was yet a heathen
land, against a prince in whom the Church doubtless reposed confidence
and hope. Perhaps worst of all, Canute's hand was red with the blood of
his sister's husband, his support at Holy River, whose life had been
taken in violation of the right of sanctuary and sacred peace. The
mediæval Church was a sensitive organism and offences of this sort were
not easily atoned for. It was time to pray at Saint Peter's tomb. It is
also likely that Canute hoped to gain certain political advantages from
the journey: in a strife with the Northern powers it would be well to
have the Emperor a passive if not an active ally; and this was the year
of the imperial coronation.
Norse tradition remembers Canute's pilgrimage as that of a penitent: "he
took staff and scrip, as did all the men who travelled with him, and
journeyed southward to Rome; and the Emperor himself came out to meet
him and he accompanied him all the way to the Roman city."[319] Sighvat
the Scald, who was both Canute's and Olaf's friend, also mentions the
pilgrim's staff in his reference to the royal pilgrimage.[320] Still, it
is not to be thought that gold was overlooked in preparing for the
journey: the saga adds that "King Canute had many horses with him laden
with gold and silver," and that alms were distributed with a free hand.
The Encomiast, who saw the King in the monastery of Saint Bertin in the
Flemish city of Saint-Omer, also gives us a picture, though one that is
clearly exaggerated, of a penitent who is seeking forgiveness and
reconciliation. With humble mien the royal pilgrim entered the holy
precincts; his eyes cast down and streaming with tears, he implored the
suffrages of the saints; beating his breast and heaving sighs, he passed
from altar to altar, kissed the sacred stones, and left large gifts upon
each, even upon the smallest. In addition alms were distributed among
the needy.[321]
The route followed was the old one from Denmark south-westward along the
German coast to Flanders, whence the journey went southward through
Lorraine and the Rhone country. It seems to have been Canute's
intention to visit King Rudolf of Burgundy on the way; but he was found
to have departed on a similar journey to the Eternal City. The progress
was one that was doubtless long remembered in the monasteries along the
route. Important institutions at some distance from the chosen route
seem also to have been remembered in a substantial way; it may have been
on this occasion that a gift was sent to the monastic foundation at
Chartres, of which we have grateful acknowledgment in the Epistles of
Bishop Fulbert[322]; and another to the church at Cologne, a costly
psalter and sacramentary which some time later found their way back to
England.[323]
On Easter Day (March 26), King Canute assisted at the imperial
coronation ceremony; on that day King Conrad and Queen Gisela received
the imperial crowns in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[324] The
assembly was large and splendid and the visiting sovereigns held places
of conspicuous honour. When the Emperor at the close of the ceremony
left the Church, Canute and Rudolf walked beside him. It was a day of
great rejoicing among Conrad's German followers, ending, as was
customary, with a fight between them and their Roman hosts.
On the 6th of April, a great synod met at the Lateran to consider
various weighty matters and to settle certain important controversies.
It may have been at this meeting, though preliminary negotiations must
have prepared the matter to some extent, that King Canute or his
spokesman stated the complaints of the English Church. For one thing he
urged that the price extorted from the English archbishops for the
pallium was too high. The Pope promised to reduce the charges on
condition that Peter's pence be regularly paid. Apparently the curia
urged reform in church dues generally, for a little later Canute sent
his English subjects a sharp reminder on this point. The Pope also
agreed to exempt the English school at Rome from the customary tribute.
On the whole it seems, however, that the more substantial results of the
negotiations remained with the Roman curia.
The English King had another set of grievances which seem to have been
discussed in the same synod, but which particularly interested the ruler
of Burgundy. English and Danish pilgrims, he asserted, were not given
fair and considerate treatment on their journeys to Rome: they were
afflicted with unjust tolls and with overcharges at the inns; evidently
Canute also felt that the highways should be made safer and justice
more accessible to those who travelled on holy errands. In the matter
of undue charges, the Burgundians appear to have been especially guilty.
The reasonableness of Canute's request was apparent to the synod, and it
was decreed that the treatment of pilgrims should be liberal and just:
and all the princes have engaged by their edict, that my men,
whether merchants or other travellers for objects of devotion,
should go and return in security and peace, without any constraint
of barriers or tolls.[325]
From Rome, Canute hurried back to Denmark, following the same route, it
seems, as on the journey south. Soon after his return he sent a message
to the English clergy and people, advising them as to his absence and
doings in Italy.[326] From the use of the phrase, "here in the East" in
speaking of the Scandinavian difficulties, it seems likely that the
message was composed in Denmark or somewhere on the route not far from
that kingdom. It was carried to England by Bishop Lifing of Crediton. In
this document Canute also recounts the honours bestowed upon him in
Italy; especially does he recall the presents of Emperor Conrad: "divers
costly gifts, as well in golden and silver vessels as in mantles and
vestments exceedingly precious."
The document also asks that the lawful church-dues be regularly
paid,--Peter's pence, plough alms, church scot, and tithes of the
increase of animals and of farm products. This admonition was later
enacted into law. At the same time he forbids his sheriffs and other
officials to do injustice to any one, rich or poor, either in the hope
of winning the royal favour or to gain wealth for the King. He has no
need of wealth that has been unjustly acquired. But this lofty assertion
of principle looks somewhat strange in the light of the fact that the
King was in those very days engaged in bribing a nation.
There can be no doubt that the visit to the Eternal City was of
considerable importance for the future career of the Anglo-Danish King.
Doubtless Rome began to realise what a power was this young monarch who
up to this time had probably been regarded as little better than a
barbarian, one of those dreaded pirates who had so long and so often
terrorised the Italian shores. Here he was next to the Emperor the most
redoubtable Christian ruler in Europe. Probably Canute returned to the
North with the Pope's approval of his plans for empire in
Scandinavia,--tacit if not expressed. John XIX. was a Pope whose ideal
of a church was one that was efficiently administered and he may have
seen in Canute a ruler of his own spirit.
FOOTNOTES:
[303] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 1023.
[304] Snorre, _Saga of Saint Olaf_, c. 148.
[305] Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, iii., 349.
[306] Snorre, _Saga of Saint Olaf_, c. 144.
[307] Saxo, _Gesta Danorum_, 347-348. There seems to be no reason to
doubt that Saxo here reports a reliable tradition.
[308] _Saga of Saint Olaf_, c. 148.
[309] _Gesta Danorum_, 347 ff.
[310] Entry for the year 1025; this should be corrected to 1026.
[311] _Gesta Danorum_, 348.
[312] _Ibid._
[313] Snorre, _Saga of Saint Olaf_, c. 150.
[314] Snorre, _Saga of Saint Olaf_, cc. 154-159.
[315] Snorre, _Saga of Saint Olaf_, c. 153.
[316] Munch, _Det Norske Folks Historie_, I., ii., 737.
[317] _Historia Rameseiensis_, 137.
[318] Adamus, _Gesta_, ii., c. 71.
[319] _Fagrskinna_, c. 33.
[320] _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, ii., 136. The statement in _Fagrskinna_
is probably based on Sighvat's verses.
[321] _Encomium Emmæ_, ii., c. 20.
[322] Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, cxli, col. 231. As to its date the
letter furnishes no clue. Bishop Fulbert died, according to Migne's
calculations, in April, 1029, two years after Canute's journey.
[323] Wharton, _Anglia Sacra_, ii., 249; William of Malmesbury's _Vita
Wulstani_. The manuscripts were illuminated by Erven, scholasticus of
Peterborough.
[324] Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, ii., 241-243.
For a collection of the relevant texts, see Bresslau's _Jahrbücher des
deutschen Reichs unter Konrad II._, i., 139.
[325] See Appendix ii.: Canute's Charter of 1027.
[326] The Anglo-Saxon original of Canute's Charter has been lost. Our
oldest version is a Latin translation inserted into the Chronicle of
Florence of Worcester (see Liebermann, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_, i.,
276, 277). Most of our information as to Canute's pilgrimage comes from
this document.